Functional Grammar

1. Material process
 A process of doing, physical action.
 There are two types of material process:
happening and doing. Happening material
process is characterized by the absence of goal,
while doing material process is characterized
with the presence of goal.
 Participants in material process involves: actor
(the doer), goal (affected participant),
beneficiary (client and recipient), and range.

2. Material process (continued)
‘doing’ ‘happening’
(transitive) (intransitive)
John is cooking pizza John is cooking
actor process goal actor process
 doing: actor – process – goal
- creative (making goal): create, make, build, develop, etc.
- dispositive (affecting goal): send, throw, strew, pour, disolve, etc.
 happening: actor – process
- move, fall, rise, come, go, soften, harden, melt, etc.

3. Material process (continued)
1. Material process in passive
The pizza is being cooked by John
goal process actor
Agentless passive
The pizza is being cooked
goal process
2. Material process with dispositive –recipient
- give, hand, throw, deliver, send, etc.
John sent Mac a table
actor process recipient goal
John sent a table to Mac
actor process goal recipient

4. Material process (continued)
3. Material process with dispositive – client
- buy, make, get, do, cook, bake, etc.
John baked Mac pizza
actor process client goal
John baked pizza for Mac
actor process goal client
4. Material process with range:
- range can be an extension of process and a scope of process
- range is not an entity.
John play guitar
sang a song
actor process range (extension of
process
John climbed the hill
actor process range (scope of
process

5. CONTENT of COMMUNICATION 1
TYPES PARTICIP-
ANT
PROCESS PARTICIP
-ANT
PARTICI
PANT
ATTRI
-BUTE
CIRCUM
STAN
1.Agent/
Actor
DOING (intransV) (leave)
2.Agent/
Creator
DOING (transV) (hit, kick
Make, build, write,…
play, sing,…
Affected/
Goal/
Range
Locative/
Goal
3.Force DOING (intrans) (destroy, Affected
4.Affected HAPPENING (intranV)
(slip, collapse)
Locative
5.Agent
initiator
CAUSING (transV) (open,
boil, ring, …)
Affected/
medium
MATERIAL 6.Affected/
Medium
ANTI-CAUSING
-The door opened. The bell
rang, The water boiled
7.Affected CAUSING (pseudo-intrans)
(break, read, translate, wash,
Manner
8.Affected CAUSING (passive) (Agent)
9.Affected CAUSING (get-passive)
10.Agent CAUSING (analytical c.)
(make, turn, have…)
Affected Resulting
11.Agent TRANSFERRING (transV)
(give, send, lend,
Recipient/
Beneficiary
Affected

6. Behavioral process
 Process of behaving
 2 types: verbal behavior and mental behavior
 Verbal behavior: talk, chat, converse, speak, call,
discuss, abuse, flatter, etc. The participants:
behaver, receiver, verbiage.
 Mental behavior: look at, watch, listen to,
experience, survey, smile, laugh, cry, memorize,
concentrate, mediate, etc. The participants
include behaver, and phenomenon.

7. For example:
John
They
Talked
chatted
to her
each other
about the test
about the game
behaver process receiver verbiage
He looked at
studied
the carving
the opera
behaver process phenomenon

8. Mental Process
 A process of sensing: perception, cognition, and
affection.
 Perception: perceive, see, notice, obserbe, feel,
smell, taste, hear, etc.
 Cognition: assume, believe, conclude, consider,
discover, doubt, etc.
 Affection: enjoy, relish, regret, like, fear, dread. Favor,
love, prefer, etc.
 Participants: senser and phenomenon
 Three types of phenomena: micro (thing), macro
(thing with embedded process), meta (an idea)

9. Mental process (continued)
John likes
saw
wondered
pizza (micro)
him selecting a shirt (macro)
why he was chosen (meta)
senser process phenomenon
To test:
1. at the moment of speaking: simple
- No one sees him.
- * No one is seeing him
2. bi-directional:
- I fear that man / that man frightens me
- I like it / It pleases me
- I don’t understand it / It puzzles me
- grieve / sadden, belive / convince, forget / escape, recall / remind
3. Mental process does not work with a question: ‘What di he do?’
-* What did he do? He liked the man.

10. CONTENT of COMMUNICATION 2-3
TYPES PARTICIPANT PROCESS PARTICIP
-ANT
ATTRI
-BUTE
CIRCUMS
TAN
BEHAVIORAL 12.Experiencer/
Senser
(Volitional)
BEHAVIORAL
(watch…)
Phenomenon
13.Experiencer
(non-volitional)
PERCEPTION
(see, hear,…)
Phenomenon
14.Experiencer/
Senser
COGNITION
(know, doubt,..)
Phenomenon
MENTAL 15.Experiencer
(Recipient)
AFFECTIVITY
(be pleased)
Phenomenon
16.Phenomenon AFFECTIVITY
(please, love, hate)
Experiencer
(Recipient)
Degree
17.Experiencer DESIDERATION
(wish, want,.)
Phenomenon
(Unreal)

11. Verbal process
 A process of saying
 Participants: sayer, verbiage, receiver
John asked
told
said
him
them
a question
a story
he’s sick
sayer process receiver verbiage

12. Existential process
 A process of projecting that something exists
 Participant: existent
 For example:
There is a book onthe table
process existent circumstance
Ebola existed in Ethiopia
existent process circumstance

13. CONTENT of COMMUNICATION 5-6
TYPES PARTICIP-
ANT
PROCESS PARTICIP
-ANT
PARTICIP-
ANT
ATTRI
-BUTE
CIRCUM
STAN
VERBAL 22.Sayer VERBAL
(say, repeat, tell,
report)
Said
23.Sayer VERBAL
(say, tell, repeat,
report)
Recipient Said
(clause)
EXISTENTIAL 24.THERE EXISTENTIAL
(be)
(stand, lie, stretch,
hang, remain)
(occur, follow, appear,
emerge, loom)
Existent Locative
-----------------------
METEREOLOGICAL
25.THERE
---------------
IT
EXISTENTIAL
(be)
(stand, lie, stretch,
hang, remain)
(occur, follow, appear,
emerge, loom)
-----------------------------
Rains, is cloudy…
Existent Current
Att.

14. Relational process
 Two types: attributive and identifying
 Attributive relational process:
- a process of giving attribute to a thing
- participants: carrier and attribute
- types of attributives:
- appearance: be, seem, appear, sound,
look, taste, smell, feel, etc.
- phase: become, remain, turn, grow, run,
come, keep, stay, etc.
- measure: weight, cost, measure, number

15. For example:
He
She
They
It
is
becomes
grew
costs
at home
an engineer
wild
Rp 5.000,-
carrier process attribute
With ‘have’
He Has a piano
carrier process attribute

16. For example (continued)
To test:
Ben is a farmer
* A farmer is Ben
Attributive with conflated procees and attribute:
- matter, suffice, differ, dominate, smell, pong
It
It
They
matters
suffices
dominate
carrier process/attribute

17. Identifying relational process
 A process of giving a value to athing
 Participants: token and value
 Types:
- Be: is, am, are, was, were, been
- Equality: equal, add up to, make, come out
as/at, amount to, translate, render,
paraphrase, reformulate, transliterate
- Signification: signify, expound, code, encode,
express, realize, spell, write, transcribe, read, mean,
denote, connote, define, call, name

18. Identifying relational process
(continued)
- Representation: symbolize, represent,
stand for, refer to, imply, index, express,
reflect, personify
- Indication: indicate, suggest, betoken,
connote, smack of, evoke, reveal
- Role: play/act as, function, portray,
typify, personify
For example:

19. Identifying relational process
(continued)
Ben
This
is
reflects
the farmer
the crisis
token process value
To test:
1. reversable
2. Token takes subject in active
3. Token is more concrete than value
The farmer
The crisis
is
is reflected
Ben
by this
value process token

20. Circumstance
 There are 8 types of circumstances: angle, extent,
location, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter, and
role.
 Angle: - verbal source
- who says?
- for example:
AccordingtoXian cookingiseasy
Cir:angle

21. Circumstances (continued)
2. Extent:- nominal group with quantifier + unit of measure (yards, laps, rounds,
years …) + preposition
- How far/ long/many rounds/times…
Xian cooked the rice for 15 minutes
Cir: extent
3. Location: - prepositional phrase, adveribial group
- place and time
- where and when
- place: space –place or direction (source, passage, destination)
Xian cooked the rice in the microwave
Cir: location: place
Xian cooked the rice in the morning
Cir: location: time

22. Circumstances (continued)
4. Manner: - means, quality, comparison
a. means: how, what with?
Xian cooked the rice with microwave
Cir: manner: means
b. Quality: adverbial group (in…way/manner)
How?
Xian cooked the rice quickly/ in the following way
Cir: manner: quality
c. comparison: like, unlike (+adverbials: like, likewise, similarly differently )
What … like?
Xian cooked the rice Like Nan
Cir: manner: comparison

23. Circumstances (continued)
Cause: reason, purpose, condition, concession, behalf
a. Reason: through, because of, as a result of, due to, thanks to
Why, how
Xian cooked the pizza thanks to the microwave
Cir: cause: reason
b. purpose: for, in the hope of, for the purpose of
what for?
Xian prepared the table for his lecture
Cir: cause: purpose
c. condition: in the case of, in case
What if?
In the case of token we apply subject in the active
Cir: cause: condition

24. Circumstances (continued)
d. concession: inspite of, despite
Inspite of his cold Xian prepared his lecture
Cir: cause: concession
e. behalf: for, for the sake of, on behalf of
who for?
Xian spoke on behalf of his students
Cir: cause: behalf
6. Accompaniment: with, without, beside, instead of
Xian cooked pizza instead of rice
Cir: accompaniment

25. Circumstances (continued)
7.Matter:about,concerning,withreferenceto,etc.
Xiansawhissupervisors inrelationtohisstudy
Cir:matter
8.Role:as,bywayof,intherole/shape/guise/form/of
Xiancame asavampire
Cir:role

26. CONTENT of COMMUNICATION 4
TYPES PARTICIPANT PROCESS PARTICIP
-ANT
ATTRI
-BUTE
CIRCUMS
TAN
18.Carrier
-Carrier/
Experiencer (feel)
-Neutral carrier
(It is hot, cold…)
RELATIONAL
(-be),
(be, keep,
remain, look,
feel, sound)
(fall, become,
get, grow)
-Attribute
-Current
Attribute
-Resulting
Attribute
RELATIONAL 19.Carrier/
Identifier
-Token/Identified
-Value/Identified
IDENTIFYING
(BE)
-Identified
-Value/
Identifier
-Token/
Identifier
20.Carrier RELATIONAL
(BE)
Circum-
stantial
21.Carrier/Possessed
-Carrier/Possessor
POSSESSION
(BE,
have,…)
-Possessor/
Attribute
-Possessed
Attribute

27. 3.What are 3 ways of interpreting clause structure?
3 strands of MEANING encoded in the CLAUSE (or
SIMPLE SENTENCE) that forms the basis of a
FUNCTIONAL interpretation of GRAMMAR are
1.REPRESENTATIONAL Meaning/Function/Structure:
Clause as REPRESENTATION: TRANSITIVITY structures
2.INTERPERSONAL Meaning/Function/Structure
Clause as EXCHANGE: MOOD structures
3.TEXTUAL Meaning/Function/Structure
Clause as MESSAGE: THEMATIC structures, Information
structures (New-Given)
27

28. 3.THREE WAYS OF INTERPRETING CLAUSE
STRUCTURE
The basic unit for the expression of REPRESENTATIONAL
MEANING and INTERPERSONAL MEANING is the CLAUSE =
SIMPLE SENTENCE.
The CLAUSE is also the unit whose elements can be reordered
in certain ways to facilitate the creation of TEXTUAL MEANING.
Each type of meaning is expressed by its own structure; the
three types of structure combining to produce one single
realization in words.

29. Three kinds of meaning and structure derive from the
consideration of a clause as:
3.1.The linguistic representation of our experience of the world
(We use language to talk about our experience of the world,
including the worlds in our own minds, to describe events and
states and the entities involved in them)
The clause as REPRESENTATION through
TRANSITIVITY STRUCTURES (Cấu trúc Chuyển tác)
Ex: Agent + DOING -Birds fly.
Agent + DOING + Affected -John hit Helen.
 The REPRESENTATIONAL/EXPERIENTIAL MEANING

30. 3.2.A communicative exchange between persons (We also use
language to interact with other people, to establish and maintain
relations with them, to influence their behavior, to express our
own viewpoint on things in the world, and to elicit or change
theirs)
The clause as EXCHANGE through MOOD STRUCTURES (Cấu
trúc Thức)
The INTERPERSONAL MEANING

31. 3.2.The INTERPERSONAL MEANING 
The clause as EXCHANGE (Cú như là sự Trao đổi): MOOD
STRUCTURES
When a speaker interacts with others to exchange information or
to influence their behavior and get things done, he adopts for
himself a certain role (“questioner”,...) and, in doing so, assigns a
complementary role (“informant”,...), to his addressee.
The clause is the major grammatical unit used by the speakers to
ask questions, make statements and issue directives.
The Clause structure
= MOOD element (Phần Thức) + RESIDUE (Phần dư)
(carries the syntactic burden of the exchange) (the unchanged part of
the
structure)

32. MOOD ELEMENT
The exchange of information is typically carried out by the
INDICATIVE MOOD or CLAUSE TYPE.
+Within the indicative mood, making a statement is associated
with the DECLARATIVE MOOD,
+asking a question with the INTERROGATIVE MOOD
The issuing of directives is carried out by the IMPERATIVE
MOOD
The Mood structures are characterized by the presence or
absence of a SUBJECT element and by the relative positions of
the SUBJECT and the FINITE relating the content of the clause
to the speech event and specifying TENSE (time reference),
MODALITY (attitude of the speaker), PERSON, NUMBER
(finiteness)

33. Ex:
Declarative
Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.
Subject + Finite Predicator Oi Od Adjunct
Mood element + Residue
Interrogative
Will Janice give Chris the address tomorrow ?
Finite + Subject Predicator Oi Od Adjunct
Mood element + Residue

34. Hệ thống THỨC
MOOD system
MOOD System
declarative
Subject ^ Finite
Indicative polar
+ Subject
Major + Finite interrogative
Predicator Finite ^ Subject
CLAUSE imperative Wh
+ pred ^ (com/adj)
Minor
no predicator
CÚ
– CÚ CHÍNH (có Vị ngữ) có:
+ Thức Chỉ định (gồm Chủ ngữ + Hữu thức/Hữu định) loại:
 Thức Chỉ định Tuyên bố (Chủ ngữ + Hữu thức) hoặc
Thức Chỉ định Nghi vấn (Hữu thức + Chủ ngữ): Nghi vấn Có/Không Phân cực
Khẳng định/Phủ định hoặc không phân cực có từ kèm Wh-
+ Thức Cầu khiến (gồm Vị ngữ);
- CÚ PHỤ (không có Vị ngữ)

35. Một số ví dụ về các loại Cấu trúc THỨC TIẾNG ANH
Examples of MOOD structure
S=Subject, F=Finite, P=Predicator, C=Complement, Adj=Adjunct
Mood structure in indicative declarative
We sang a song
S F / P C
Mood Residue
Indicative:declarative; proposition
We will sing this song for you
S F P C Adj.
Mood Residue
Indicative:declarative; proposal

36. Mood structure in Wh interrogative
How long must we sing this song?
Wh/Adj. F S P C
Re- Mood -sidue
Indicative: wh interrogative; proposition
What will we Sing?
Wh/C F S P
Re- Mood -sidue
Indicative: wh interrogative; proposition

37. Mood structure in polar interrogative
Is this the bear?
F S C
Mood Residue
Indicative: polar interrogative; proposition
Mood structure in imperative
Be patient!
P C
Residue
Imperative; proposal

38. Mood structure in embedded clause and projection
They belived that they had won the
match
S F / P C
Mood Residue
Indicative:declarative; proposition
Mood structure in tag question
You don’t understand do you?
S F P F S
Mood Residue Mood tag
Indicative:declarative; proposition

39. 3.3.An organized message or text (In using language, we
organize our messages in ways which indicate how they fit in
with the other messages around them and with the wider context
in which we are talking or writing)
The clause as MESSAGE through THEMATIC STRUCTURES
(Cấu
trúc Đề -Thuyết)
 The TEXTUAL MEANING

40. 3.3.The TEXTUAL MEANING 
The clause as MESSAGE (Cú như là Thông điệp): THEMATIC
STRUCTURES
The speaker organizes the informational content of the clause to
establish whatever point of departure is desired for the message
(THEME = the initial element of the clause, It may coincide with
Agent or set the scene by coinciding with an initial expression of
time, place,…)
The Clause structure
= THEME + RHEME
Ex:
 Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.
 Theme + Rheme

41. 3.3.1.Classification of Theme (1)
Theme is divided into three parts in agreement with Halliday’s view, and
multiple Theme includes textual Theme and interpersonal Theme as well as
experiential Theme.
1) Simple Theme: Simple Theme refers to the Theme only consisting of one
structural element, such as a word, a phrase, or a group and it cannot be
divided in the internal structure.
Ex:
2) Clause Theme: a clause serves as Theme here, either main clause or
subordinate clause. In addition, the internal structure of the clause Theme
can be divided into another Theme and Rheme.
Ex:
The duke has given my aunt that teapot.
Theme Rheme
What I’m going to do now is to whisk these all together.
Clause Theme Rheme

42. 3.3.2. Multiple Theme: a clause serves as Theme here, either main clause
or subordinate clause. In addition, the internal structure of the clause Theme
can be divided into another Theme and Rheme.
-If Theme includes two or more structural elements, it is called multiple
Theme, including textual Theme, interpersonal Theme and experiential
Theme (topical Theme) in order. Furthermore, every clause must have one,
and only one, “experiential” element to act as the Theme (Eggins: 1994:277).
Ex:
Textual Interpersonal Experiential/Topical
-Well,
-But,
-And,
-certainly,
-my God, Harriet,
-surely,
-oddly,
-sanity
-we
-the course
-he
-is a precarious state.
-ve’ been dealt a bad hand!
-doesn’t start till next week.
-was right.
THEME RHEME

43. (1) INTERPERSONAL THEMES (ĐỀ NGỮ LIÊN NHÂN)
INTERPERSONAL (i) modal/comment Adjunct [‘modal Theme’]:These express
the speaker/writer’s judgment on or attitude to the content
of the message (see Table below).
(ii) vocative:This is any item, typically (but not necessarily) a
personal name, being used to address.
(iii) finite verbal operator [in yes/no interrogative]:
-These are the small set of finite auxiliary verbs construing
primary tense or modality;
+ (primary tense) am, is, are, was, were, do, does, did, have,
has, had, shall, will, …
+ (modality) can, could, may, might, shall, should, will,
would, must, ought, need, dare,…
— including their negatives aren’t, can’t, etc.
-They are the unmarked Theme of yes/ no interrogatives
(See Table below)

44. Type Meaning Examples
I probability how likely? probably, possibly, certainly, perhaps, maybe
usuality how often? usually, sometimes, always, (n)ever, often, seldom
typicality how typical? occasionally, generally, regularly, for the most part
obviousness how obvious? of course, surely, obviously, clearly
II opinion I think in my opinion, personally, to my mind
admission I admit frankly, to be honest, to tell you the truth
persuasion I assure you honestly, really, believe me, seriously
entreaty I request you please, kindly
presumption I presume evidently, apparently, no doubt, presumably
desirability how desirable? (un)fortunately, to my delight/distress, regrettably,
hopefully
reservation how reliable? at first, tentatively, provisionally, looking back on it
validation how valid? broadly speaking, in general, on the whole, strictly
speaking, in principle
evaluation how sensible? (un)wisely, understandably, mistakenly, foolishly
prediction how expected? to my surprise, surprisingly, as expected, by chance
(1) MODAL ADJUNCTS (PHỤ NGỮ TÌNH THÁI)

45. (2) TEXTUAL THEMES (ĐỀ NGỮ LIÊN KẾT NGÔN BẢN)
TEXTUAL (i) continuative: A continuative is one of a small set of words
that signal a move in the discourse: a response, in dialogue, or
a new move to the next point if the same speaker is continuing.
The usual continuatives are yes, no, well, oh, now.
(ii) conjunction [‘structural Theme’]: A conjunction is a word
or group that either links (paratactic) or binds (hypotactic) the
clause in which it occurs structurally to another clause.
Semantically, it sets up a relationship of expansion or projection.
Among the commonest are:(paratactic) and, or, nor, either,
neither, but, yet, so, then, for (hypotactic) when, while,
before, after, until, because, if, although, unless, since,
that, whether, to, by, with, despite, as, even if, in case,
supposing (that), assuming (that), given that, provided
(that), so that, to, as to, in order to, in the event that, in
spite of, the fact that,..
(iii) conjunctive Adjunct (‘discourse Adjunct’). These are
adverbial groups or prepositional phrases that relate the
clause to the preceding text (see Table below): they cover
roughly the same semantic space as conjunctions.

46. Type Meaning Examples
I Appositive (đồng vị) ‘i.e., e.g.’ that is, in other words, for instance
Corrective (chỉnh sửa) ‘rather’ or rather, at least, to be precise
Dismissive (bác bỏ) ‘in any
case’
in any case, anyway, leaving that aside
Summative (tóm tắt) ‘in short’ briefly, to sum up, in conclusion
Verificative (khẳng định) ‘actually’ actually, in fact, as a matter of fact
II Additive (bổ sung thuận) ‘and’ also, moreover, in addition, besides
Adversative ( bs nghịch) ‘but’ on the other hand, however, conversely
Variative (đa dạng) ‘instead’ instead, alternatively
III Temporal (thời gian) ‘then’ meanwhile, before that, later on, next, soon,
finally
Comparative (so sánh) ‘likewise’ likewise, in the same way
Causal (nguyên nhân) ‘so’ therefore, for this reason, as a result, with
this in mind
Conditional (điều kiện) ‘(if ...)
then’
in that case, under the circumstances,
otherwise
(2) CONJUNCTIVE ADJUNCTS (ĐỀ NGỮ LIÊN KẾT NGÔN BẢN)

47. 3.3.3.ĐỀ NGỮ TRONG CÚ PHỨC
a/.As soon as she had pressed the doorbell – it let out a musical
jingle – Philippa sensed that the house was empty.
b/.Resisting the temptation to peer through the letter-box, she
decided to try next door.
c/.At least they would know whether Ducton still lived at 41 or
where he had gone.
When
Khi
Philippa
Philippa
Reached
lái đến
number 41
số 41
She
cô ta
Stopped.
dừng lại.
Theme Rheme
Structural Topical Theme Rheme
Theme Rheme

48. Example of combination analysis of
mood and theme of English clauses
We sang a song
S F / P C
Mood Residue
Theme: Top
Unmarked
Rheme
How long must we sing this song?
Wh/Adj. F S P C
Re- Mood -sidue
Theme:
Int/Top
Marked
Rheme

49. Example of combination analysis of
mood and theme of English clauses
What will we Sing?
Wh/C F S P
Re- Mood -sidue
Theme:
Int/Top
Marked
Rheme
Be patient!
P C
Residue
Top Marked Theme
Well Darling I will take a rest for a
while
Con Voc S F P C Adj
Re- Mood -sidue
Theme
Text Int Top
Unm
Rheme

50. Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.
Experiential Agent Process Recipient Affected Circumstance
Interpersonal Subject Finite+
Predicator
Indirect
Object
Direct Object Adjunct
Textual Theme
Given
Rheme 
New New New New
50

51. 4.What are linguistic units and their classes?
*Sentence/Clause  Group/Phrase  Word  Morpheme
Ex: The effects of the accident are very serious.
Unit Boundary
marker
Example
A.Clause: the effects of the accidents are very serious
B.Group: the effects //of the accidents / are //very serious
C.Word: a space /the /effects/ of/ the/ accidents/ are/ very/ serious/
D.Morpheme
:
+ {EFFECT}+{PLURAL}, realized by the morphs EFFECT and –
S
51

52. A.Classes of Clause:
1.Finite clause, Non-finite clause, Verbless clause.
2.Finite clause: Independent clause, Dependent clause
3.Finite dependent clause:
3.1.Circumstantial clause
3.2.Relative clause
3.3.Nominal embedded clause
3.3.1.THAT-clause
3.3.2.Nominal relative clause + dependent wh-interrogative
3.3.3.Dependent wh-interrogative
3.3.4.Dependent exclamative clause
3.4.Comparative clause
3.5.Supplementive units
3.6.Verbless clause/Minor clause/Moodless clause
3.7.Abbreviated clause
52

53. A.1.CLASSES OF CLAUSES (CÚ):
A.Finite Clauses (Tensed forms):
- I had a farm in Africa, at the foot of the Ngong hills
 vs Non-finite Clauses (Infinitive, ING-, ED-) (Non-tensed forms):
- I , advised by your mother, warn you to go home quickly and not
to run destroying anything along the path.
B.Independent Clauses:
-They locked up the house
different clause types: declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamative.
vs Dependent Clauses:
- before they went on holiday.

54. C.Finite dependent clauses consist of 7 kinds and 3 important sub-
types of Nominal clause.
C1.Circumstantial clauses:
-As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the TV.
C2.Relative clauses:
-Paul took one of the red apples that his wife had bought this morning.
C3.Nominal clauses function as S, O, C in clause structure, are
Embedded as constituents of the Superodinate clauses or Matrix
clauses:Superordinate (without embedded constituent): He saw
 vs Embedded Clauses: that the bottles were empty.
C3.1.He saw that the bottles were empty. (THAT-clause)
C3.2.What I don’t understand is why you have come here. (Nominal relative
clause + dependent wh-interrogative)
C3.3.I’ll ask where the nearest Underground station is. (dependent wh-
interrogative)
C3.4.She said how comfortable it was. (dependent exclamative clause)

55. C4.Comparative clauses: The results are much better than we expected.
C5.Supplementive units are not integrated into the main clause, as
embedded units are, but add supplementary information. They are
subordinate but not embedded. They are set off from the main
clause by commas, or by a dash, and have their own intonation
contour:
-Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house exhibits many of the
significant contributions that Wright made to contemporary architecture.
-The large size doesn’t seem to be available. Which is a pity.
C6.Verbless clauses or Minor / Moodless Clauses (without
Subject+Finite):
-Take traveller’s cheques abroad, whenever possible (=whenever it
is possible).
-How about a nice glass of beer? -Hands off.
-Into the shelter, everybody! -Out of sight, out of mind.
C7.Abbreviated Clauses (with Subject+Finite operator alone and the
rest of the clause ellipted because it is known):
-I won’t, -can you, -must you?

56. B.Classes of Group/Phrase:
1.Endocentric group: Nominal G, Verbal G,
Adjectival G, Adverbial G.
2.Exocentric group: Prepositional Phrase
C.Classes of Word:
1.Noun 2.Verb 3.Adjective 4.Adverb
5.Article 6.Pronoun 7.Auxiliary 8.Modal
8.Preposition 9.Conjunction
D.Classes of Morpheme:
1.Free/Bound
2.Root/Affixes
3.Derivational/Inflectional Morpheme
56

57. 5.What are syntactic elements of groups?
Nominal Group, Adjectival Group, Adverbial Group, Prepositional P:
3 primary functions:
- Determiner (d)
- Modifier (m): Pre-modifier
- Head (h)
- Post-modifier (m), Qualifier (q)
- Complement (c) of Adj, N: good at maths, across the road.
Verbal Group:
3 primary functions:
- Verb (v)
- Auxiliary (x)
- Operator (o)
57

58. THE SKELETON OF THE
MESSAGE:
Introduction to clause structure
CHAPTER 2
58

59. Chapter 2
1.What are syntactic elements of the clause?
1.Subject 2.Predicator 3.Object 4.Complement 5.Adjunct
2.What are their semantic, cognitive and syntactic
features? What are their realizations?
1.Subject 2.Predicator 3.Object 4.Complement 5.Adjunct
3.What are basic clause patterns/structures?
59

60. 5.What are the syntactic elements in linguistic structure?
STRUCTURE refers to the relationship that exist between the small units
that make up a larger unit.
Linguistic structures are described in terms of the SEMANTIC
FUNCTIONS of their various elements and the SYNTACTIC FORMS and
RELATIONSHIPS which express them.
(1) S - Subject
(2) P - Predicator
(3.1) Od - Direct Object/ C - Complement
(3.2) Oi - Indirect Object/ C – Complement
(3.3) Oprep - Object of Preposition
(3.4) Cs - Subject Complement
(3.5) Co - Object Complement
(3.6) Cloc - Locative/Goal Complement
(4) A/Adj - Adjunct : Circumstantial Adjunct, Stance Adjunct
(Disjunct), Connective Adjunct
60

61. 5.Syntactic elements of clauses
1.Subject (S) -Jupiter is the largest planet. SPCs
2.Predicator (P) -The election campaign has ended. SP
3.1.Direct Object (Od) -Ted has bought a new motorbike.
SPOd
3.2.Indirect Object (Oi) -They sent their friends postcards.
SPOiOd
3.3.Prepositional Object (Op)-You must allow for price increases.
SPOp
3.4.Subject Complement (Cs) -He is powerless to make any changes.
SPCs
3.5.Object Complement (Co) -We consider the situation alarming.
SPOdCo
3.6.Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc) -We flew to Moscow.
SPCloc
4.1.Circumstantial Adjunct (A) -The news reached us on Tuesday.
SPOdA
4.2.Stance Adjunct (A) -Unfortunately, we could not reach York in61

62. 1.Subject: 1 primary element of the clause
1.1.Semantic features
a) Agent/actor (material process: action): Helen hit him.
b) Force (material process: happening): A sudden storm blew up.
c) Affected (mat.pro: causing): The man was attacked by the tiger.
d) Recipient (mat.pro:transferring): Helen received a letter from her friend.
e) Beneficiary (material process: transferring): Mary was given a car.
f) Senser/experiencer (mental process): Peter loved her.
g) Sayer (verbal process): They told the truth.
h) Receiver (verbal process): The girl was reported to be kidnapped.
i) Verbiage/Said (v.process): The truth was told clearly by many people.
j) Identifier (relational process): The man is the teacher of the school.
k) Carrier (rel.process): Students were very worried about the exam.
l) Possessor (relational process): My friend had many cars.
m) Existant (existential process): There are many animals in the forest.
62

63. 1.2.Syntactic features (Position):
a) Before Predicator (finite verb) in declarative clause and Wh-question
(Wh-=Subj.): -Who hit him? -Helen hit him..
b) After finite operator (Aux) in Yes/No questions and Wh-questions:
-Are you pleased with the result? -Did everyone leave early?
-When did Sylvia get back?
c) End of Tag questions (after finite operator):
-Helen was happy, wasn’t she?
d) Pseudo-Subject (THERE) stands at the initial position before finite
verb, Notional (True) Subject lies after finite verb (BE, STAND…) in
Existential clause: - There was a terrible attack in the city.
63

64. 1.3.Realizations:
a) NP/NG: - That man is crazy.
b) Dummy IT (in expressions of time, weather, distance): - It’s hot.
c) Anticipatory IT + extraposed subject: - It was impossible for
everyone to escape. – It is easy to forget your keys.
d) Unstressed THERE: - There was only one fine day last week, wasn’t
there.
e) PP:- By plane costs more than by train.
f) Adj Head/AdjG: -The handicapped are given special facilities in public
places.
g) Embedded clauses: - What he said shocked me.-That he failed his
driving test surprised everybody.
h) Non-finite clauses: - To take such a risk was rather foolish. – For
everyone to escape was impossible. – Him/his having to go back for
the tickets was a nuisance.
64

65. 2.Predicator: 2nd primary element of the clause
2.1.Semantic features
a) Material process: motion: - Helen went away.
b) Material process: happening: - A sudden storm blew up.
c) Material process : causing: - The man was attacked by the tiger.
d) Material process: transferring: - Helen sent a letter to her friend.
e) Behavioral process: - Students laughed loudly.
f) Mental process: - Peter loved her. - She knew that issue.
g) Verbal process: - They told the truth.
h) Relational process: - My friend had many cars.
-The man is the teacher of the school. - Students felt unsure of their future.
i) Existential process: - There are many animals in the forest.
65

66. 2.2.Syntactic features (Position):
a) After Subject in declarative clause and Wh-question (Wh-
=Subj.): -Who hit him? -Helen hit him..
b) After finite operator (Aux) and Subject in Yes/No questions
and Wh-questions:
-Did everyone leave early?
-When did Sylvia get back?
c) After Modal verbs, Auxiliary verbs (Operators)
66

67. 2.3.Realizations:
a) VG/VP (finite): - I want you to go home early.
b) VG/VP (non-finite): - I want you to go home early.
c) V + tense, voice, aspect, mood, number, person
d) Intransitive V (+A): - She left (silently).
e) Intransitive V + Cloc: - They came home.
f) Intransitive V (Copular V) + Cs: - I am a teacher. – I felt happy.
g) Transitive V + Od: - I opened the door.
h) Ergative V: - The door opened.
i) Transitive V (prepositional V) + Op:-They allowed for salary increases.
j) Transitive V + Range: - He lived a happy life.
k) Transitive V + Od/i + Oi/d: - I sent her a book.
l) Transitive V + Od + Cloc: - They brought her home.
m) Transitive V + Od + Co: - They made me happy.
– She voted him monitor of the class.
67

68. 3.1.Object/Complement:
3.1.Semantic features
a) Affected (Material process: causing): - He headed the ball into the net.
b) Affected Locative (Material process:motion): -He swam the Channel.
c) Instrument (Material process: happening): -The burglars used an acetylene
lamp to break open the safe.
d) Range (MP:happening): - He gave the door a push.
e) Phenomenon (Mental process): - I felt a sudden pain in my arm.
f) Recipient (MP:transferring): -The clerk handed him the envelope, -I’m giving
reading magazines less importance lately. - I gave Helen a blow.
g) Beneficiary (MP: transferring): -Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the
show.- I gave Mary a house.
h) Goal/Target (MP: transferring): - I sent Helen a book.
i) Receiver (Verbal process): -They told the truth to their family.
j) Verbiage/Said (V.process): -They told the truth to their family.
k) Possessed (Relational process): -My friend had many cars.
68

69. 3.2.Syntactic features (Position):
a) After Predicator (finite verb) in declarative clause and Wh-question (Wh-
=Subj.): -Who hit him? -Helen hit him.
b) Direct Obj stands after Predicator, Indirect Object after Direct Object in
normal position
c) Object of preposition stands after Predicator (Prepositional Verbs)
d) In initial position of the clause in inverted clause.
 Direct Object
 Untypical D.O. : -They have two cars. -It cost 10 pounds.
-She lacks confidence.
 Range: -She had a rest. -He gave a kick. -Helen did a dance.
 Indirect Object
 Affected Locative D.O.: -He swam the Channel. -He climbed Everest.
-He rode a horse.
(Adjunct: -He swam across the Channel. -He climbed up Everest.
-He rode on a horse.)
69

70. 3.3.Realizations:
a) NP/NG: - We hired a caravan. – She sang a beautiful song.
b) Anticipatory IT : - I find it strange that she left.- I find it difficult to hate you.
c) PP: -The boss prefers before 10 for the meeting - By plane costs more than by train. I
would prefer before noon for a meeting.
d) Finite clauses: – You know (that) I’m right - I understood what he said
e) Non-finite clauses: -They enjoyed travelling by train.- I want to be respected. -He hated
telling lies.
f) NG: -The clerk handed him the envelope. (Recip./NG), -Phil has booked all his friends
tickets for the show. (Ben/NG)
g) Nominal relative Clause: -You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it.
(Recip./nom. relative cl.)
h) –ING Clause: -I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (Recip./-ing cl)
i) PP: -Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (Recip./PP)
j) PP in Prepositional Verbs: Jo looked after my cat. You can rely on Jane in an
emergency. The other kids all laughed at Amy…
k) Adj Head/AdjG: - Special facilities in public places are given to the handicapped
70

71. 3.2.Complement:
3.2.1.Semantic features
a) Identified (Relational process): -I am a student.
b) Current Attribute (Relational process):
-She is sad.
c) Resulting Attribute (Relational process):
-She became sad. -She turned pale.
d) Resulting Attribute (Material process):
-They made me sad. -They voted him president.
e) Circumstantial Attribute (Material process):
-They stayed home. -Helen went home.
-They put it on the table.
71

72. 3.3.2.Syntactic features (Position):
a) After Predicator (finite verb: BE, BECOME) in declarative
clause (Complement of Subject: Cs):
-Helen is a teacher. -She is happy. -It became darker.
b) After Predicator (finite verb: GO, STAY…) in declarative
clause (Locative Complement of the verb: Cloc):
- Helen went home.
c) After Object of causative verbs (Complement of the Object):
- They made me sad. -They voted me president.
72

73. 3.3.3.Realizations:
a) NP/NG: - My father is a doctor.
b) AdjG: - He is happy. -The room is full of water.
c) VG/Non-finite VG: - To love is to sacrifice.
d) PP: -They flew to London. -She came back home.
e) Finite/Non-finite clauses: - I am what you want.
73

74. 4.Adjunct:
4.1.Semantic features
a) Attendant Circumstance of PLACE: location (AT),
source (FROM), path (THROUGH), direction
(TOWARDS), goal (TO), extent (FOR), extent+goal
(AS FAR AS), relative (HERE, THERE), distributive
(AT INTERVALS, HERE AND THERE),…
b) TIME: in the morning, after many years,…
c) MANNER: manner, means, comparison,
instrumentality,…
d) INSTRUMENT: - He elbowed his way through the
crowd.
e) CONTINGENCY: cause, purpose, reason,
concession, behalf, condition,
f) ACCOMPANIMENT: (positive/negative)74

75. g) MODALITY: possibility, probability, certainty
h) DEGREE: emphasis (completely) , attenuation (hardly)
i) ROLE: capacity
j) MATTER: with reference to, …
k) EVIDENCE: according to,…
l) RANGE is a participant: the nominal concept that is implied by
the process as its scope or RANGE: song in sing a song, games
in play games, have an argument (a chat, a drink, a fight,…), give
a push (a kick, a smile,…), take, do, ask, make…
4.2.Syntactic features (Position):
a) In final position of the clause (Circumstantial Adjunct):They
ran in a hurry.
b) In initial position of the inverted clause (Circumstantial
Adjunct): In a hurry, they left home.
c) In initial position of the clause (Stance Adjunct): Evidently,
they left home. Surely, she had proofs.
d) In initial position of the clause (Connective Adjunct):
However, she did not understand why I hated her.
75

76. 4.3.Realizations:
a) NP/NG: - I will meet you tomorrow/ this evening.
b) AdvG: - She left calmly. -Probably, she did not believe in
me.
c) VG/Non-finite VG: - She left saying no words.
d) PP: -They built many factories in Vietnam.
-I live because of you.
e) Dependent finite/non-finite/ Verbless clauses:
-She came after I had gone.
-Afraid to leave the house, she called me.
76

77. THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE MESSAGE
Complementation of the verb
CHAPTER 3
77

78. Module 9: Intransitive and copular patterns
Module 10: Transitive patterns
Module 11: Complementation by finite clauses
Module 12: Complementation by non-finite clauses
78

79. Chapter 3
1.What are basic structures/patterns of the clause?
1.SP
2.SPCloc
3.SPA
4.SPCs
5.SPOd
6.SPOp
7.SPOiOd
8.SPOdOp
9.SPOdOc
10.SPOdCloc
2.What are intransitive and copular patterns?
3.What are transitive patterns?
4.What are verb complementation patterns?
79

80. 1.What are basic structures of the clause/sentence?
1.SP: - She left.
2.SPCloc: - They flew to London.
3.SPA: - I am working because of you.
4.SPCs: - Helen is a student. She felt sad.
5.SPOd: - Children should drink milk.
6.SPOp: - They allowed for salary increases.
7.SPOiOd: - They sent her a letter.
8.SPOdOp: - I explained that point to her.
9.SPOdOc - They made her sad.
- She voted me monitor.
10.SPOdCloc: - I put the cup on the table.
80

81. MODULE 9:
INTRANSITIVE AND COPULAR PATTERNS
1. S + P (Intransitive Verb –Vi- One-place Verb)
 P=V of behavior: laugh, smile, cry, blink, blush, cough,
sneeze, sigh, tremble, yawn, wait, stay, die, collapse, faint,
fall,..Ex: One soldier fainted.
 P=V of weather: rain, snow, rise,..Ex: It rained. The sun rose.
 P=V of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive,
depart, vanish, fade, happen,…Ex: Has everyone arrived?
 P=Idiomatic Intransitive phrasal verbs: crop up, …Ex: A
problem has cropped up.
81

82. 2. S + P (Vi) + Locative/Goal/Direction/Temporal Complement
(Cloc)
 P=V: be, stand, live, lie, remain,…+Location in place or time
 P=V: walk, run, stroll, crawl, fly +Movement + Manner of
movement
Ex: Do you want to leave or would you rather stay? (without Cloc)
but We went home (with Cloc because the Location is not
inferrable)
82

83. 3. S + P (Vi) + A (Adjunt)
 P=V: work, arrive, retire, stop + Circumstantial Adjunct
S+P+A S+P
1a.Tom works in London. 1b.Does his sister Priscilla work?
2a.We arrived late. 2b.The guests are arriving.
3a.He retired last year. 3b.He has retired.
4a.We stopped at the Equator. 4b.The clock has stopped.
83

84. 4. S + P (Copular Verbs) + Complement of the Subject (Cs)
 P=Verbs of being (stative & introducing current or existing
attributes): keep, remain, be (careful), seem (annoyed), look
(cheerful), sound (familiar), smell (spicy). Ex: The reason is
simple. Will you keep still. We have to remain optimistic about
the future.
 P=Verbs of becoming (dynamic & introducing resulting
attributes): become (dangerous), get (stressed), turn (nasty),
prove (unsatisfactory), go (wild): grow (+ gradual change), go
(+ drastic changes). Ex: Her latest novel has become a best-
seller. His face went white.
 P=Verbs normally used with a Complement fall, come, run can
function as copulas with specific adjectives as Cs: Ex: The child
fell flat on its face. The label has come unstuck.
84

85. MODULE 10:
TRANSITIVE PATTERNS
5.1. S + P + Od
 P=V (Monotransitive Verbs): carry (the luggage), know (the answer),
feel (the heat of the flames), enjoy (the film), want (a copy) + Direct
Object. Ex: She was wearing one of her father’s extra-large T-shirts.
85

86. 5.1.S+P+O (clause)
4 main types of dependent complement clause:
1.THAT-clauses
2.Wh-clauses
3.TO-infinitive clauses
4.ING-clauses
They complement monotransitive verbs
86

87. 1.Meanings and Patterns of THAT-clause complements
1.1.V+THAT-clause: Ex: I think it’s beautiful.
 Facts, beliefs, doubts, perceptions:
*Verbs of cognition: think, know, believe, imagine, see, doubt, don’t
know…Ex: I believe you are right.
*Verbs of expectation: expect, hope, suppose, wish…Ex: I suppose (that) he
must have lost his way.
 Reports: Ex: Jo says she is ill.
*Verbs of communicating: say, announce, answer, explain, mean, mention,
report, admit, confess…
 Proposals: Ex: The party suggests he call/ should call an election.
*Verbs of propose, suggest, recommend, demand +subjunctive mood
87

88. 1.2.Dropping or retaining the complementiser THAT
1.3.V+NG+THAT-clause: Ex: I told you I’d be late.
*Verbs of communicating: tell, inform
*Verbs of causing someone to think or believe: teach,
persuade, convince, remind,…
*Verbs of promise, warn…
88

89. 1.4.SAY and TELL
Note that SAY and TELL have different complementation
patterns:
• Say is mono-transitive, controlling a direct object (Say that
number again; He said he was sorry), while tell is
ditransitive, with two objects (Tell me your name, tell me
you love me).
• Say can take an added oblique object (What did you say to
him?), but not an indirect object (*What did you say him?).
• Quoted speech may realise the object of say, but not that
of tell (Jill said ‘Hello’, but not *Jill told me ‘Hello’).
89

90. 2.Meanings and Patterns of WH-clause complements
2.1.Indirect Interrogatives:
V+WH-clause. Ex: Ask where the station is
2.2.Nominal Relatives:
V+NG+WH-clauses. Ex: Give them what they want.
2.3.Non-finite variants:
V+NG+Wh-+TO-Infinitive Clause. Ex: Ask (him) how to do
it.
2.4.Indirect Exclamatives:
V+(NG)+What+NG or How+AdjG. Ex: I said how nice it
was.
90

91. 5.S+P+O (Non-finite clause)
1.CATENATIVE COMPLEMENTS:
a Catenative (chaining) Verb controls a non-finite
complement and reflects how the verb can link recursively
with other catenatives to form a chain: decide, try,
persuade, help,
Ex: We decided to try to rent a house near the sea.
Here there is a chain of three verbs: decide, try and rent,
with to try to rent a house near the sea functioning as
the catenative complement of decide, and to rent a
house near the sea functioning as the catenative
complement of try. We can add further catenative verbs to
produce an even longer chain of four catenatives, two of
which, persuade and help, have a NG object. The final
verb rent is not a catenative:
91

92. i decide to try to persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the
sea.
ii try to persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea.
iii persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea.
iv help us rent a house near the sea.
Further catenatives appear in the following section. A special
type of catenative construction – as in He failed to appear
Not all catenatives behave in the same way. Only the
complements of a few catenatives such as want, like and
prefer can be analysed as (untypical) objects.
92

93. 1.1.Meanings expressed by TO- Infinitive clausecomplements
1.1.1. Type 1: V+TO-Inf: Ex: I want to go
1.1.2.Type 2: V+NG+TO-Inf Clause with Subject: Ex: He wants
us to go.
1.1.3.Type 3: V+NG+TO-Inf. Ex: We asked the taxi-driver to stop.
93

94. 2.Meanings expressed by Bare Infinitive Clauses.
2.1.Type 4: V+NG+Bare-Inf. Ex: We let them go.
3.Meanings expressed by ING- Clauses.
3.1.Type 5: V+ING-Clause: Ex: I like listening to music.
3.2.Type 6: V+NG+ING-Clause: Ex: I saw them waiting.
3.3. Potential and factual meanings contrasted: TO-Inf and
ING-clauses: Ex: I saw them waiting.
4.PAST PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES
4.1.Type 7: V+NG+EN-Clause. Ex: We will get it mended.
94

95. 5.2.S + P + ((Implied) O)
 P=Verbs used transitively and intransitively
1.V + Implied O (valency reduction): smoke (cigarettes), drive (a
car), park (a car), drink (alcohol), save (money), wave (one’s
hand),…
2.Causatives with intransitive counterpart constituting an ergative
pair. Ex: He opened the door (SPOd). The door opened (SP).
3.Verbs with a reflexive meaning. Ex: He shaved (himself).
4.Verbs with a reciprocal meaning. Ex: Tom and Jo met (each
other) at a concert
95

96. 6. S + P + Prepositional Object
 P=V = Prepositional Verbs: see + to (the plane tickets), deal +
with (an emergency); Phrasal Prepositional Verbs: run out of
(petrol), & multi-word combinations ending with a preposition: get
rid of (old newspapers)+ Prepositional Object. Ex: The Prime
Minister can’t account for the loss of votes.
 account , allow, hope, long, look + for
 bank, call, count, rely + on
 admit, consent, keep, refer, resort + to
 aim, get, hint, look + at
 deal, reason + with
 believe, confide + in
 dispose, think, hear + of
 look, take + after
96

97. 7. S + P + Oi + Od  P=Ditransitive complementation Verb
7.1.P=Verbs of transfer (give, lend) and intended transfer (buy, get). Ex:
I gave her a present. I got her a present.
 give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, send, show, teach,
throw, write…. Ex: He showed the policeman his driving licence. He
showed his driving licence to the policeman.
Ex: I gave a present to her, I bought a present for her (PP = prepositional
object)
 Verbs of intended transfer: get, buy, book, bring, build, cash, cut, fetch,
find, leave, spare, keep, make, pour, save
Ex: They set him a trap. They set a trap for him. Book me a sleeper on the
night train (….a sleeper for me)
97

98. 7.P=Verbs (less prototypical 3-place verbs)
 Type: explain, announce, confess, deliver, mention, return, say +
NG + Presositional Object. Ex: He explained the problem to us.
 Type: wish , allow, cost, refuse, light+ NG + NG: Ex: We wish you
luck.
8. S + P + Od + PrepO
P=Verbs: blame, thank + for;
*prevent, protect + from;
*accuse, convince, deprive, rob + of;
*introduce, help, sentence + to;
*charge, compare, supply + with;
*blame, congratulate, compliment + on,…
Ex: Who does it remind you of? What are you thanking me for?
98

99. 9. S + P + Od + Co
Current and Resulting Attributes. Ex: He got his shoes wet.
1.Verbs + Od + Current Attribute. Ex: He keeps the garden
beautiful.
 hold, keep; believe, consider, think, find, imagine,
presume; want, like, prefer;
2.Verbs + Od + Resulting Attribute. Ex: They presumed her
dead. They elected her Vice-President.
 bake, drive, get, leave, make, paint, turn, wipe; appoint,
elect, call, name, declare, report, certify…
3.Attribute of RESPECT. Ex: Churchill referred to him as an
outstanding leader.
10. S + P + Od + Locative Complement:
Ex: I put the dish in the microwave. Hold your head up!
99

100. 2. What are NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE
STRUCTURES?
2.1.English uses Finite operator to form Negative and Interrogative
clause Structures. Finite operator  5 types:
1.Primary: – Positive: BE, HAVE
– Negative: BE+NOT, HAVE+NOT, BEN’T
2.Modal: – Positive: CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL,
– Negative: CAN’T, WON’T, SHAN’T, MAY NOT,
3.DO operator: – Positive: DO – Negative: DON’T
4.Lexical-auxiliaries:
primary verb functions as a normal operator: BE ABOUT TO,
BE SURE TO, BE GOING TO, / HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO
5.Semi-modals: NEED/ NEEDN’T, DARE/ DAREN’T
100

101. 2.2.Clause Negation:
In clauses, Negation is usually made with the particle NOT, by
negating the Finite operator IS NOT, CANNOT,… or a Non-finite
verb in a dependent clause NOT WISHING to disturb them, DO
operator DON’T be late,
2.3.NO-NEGATION vs NOT-NEGATION+ANY
Another way of negating a clause is by using a non-verbal “nuclear”
negative word: NOBODY, NOTHING, NO, NEVER.
2.4.LOCAL NEGATION:
Groups, words and Non-finite clauses can be negated by NOT,
without the entire finite clause being negated.
- She was admitted into hospital not long ago.
101

102. 3.How are linguistic units expanded?
3.1.COORDINATION
- morphemes in a word: pro- and anti-terrorist
- heads of nominal groups: books, papers and magazines
3.2.SUBORDINATION
- Cs in a clause: He is quite brilliant (though totally unreliable).
- adjuncts in a clause: We arrived (late (though not too late)) for the
wedding.
3.3.EMBEDDING
- Clause at S: [That he left so abruptly] doesn’t surprise me.
- Clause at Od: I don’t know [why he left so abruptly]
- Clause at C in a PP: I’m pleased about [Jane winning a prize]
- Clause at M in NG: Thanks for the card [you sent me]
102

103. CONCEPTUALISING
PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE
Processes, participants, circumstances
CLAUSE AS A GRAMMATICAL MEANS OF
ENCODING PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE
CHAPTER 4
103

104. MODULE 13
CONCEPTUALISING EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED AS
SITUATION TYPES
13.1.PROCESSES, PARTICIPANTS, CIRCUMSTANCES
1.Semantically, a clause represents a pattern of experience,
conceptualized as a SITUATION TYPE.
2.Situation types comprise 3 main types: MATERIAL, MENTAL and
RELATIONAL and also 3 subsidiary types: BEHAVIORAL, VERBAL and
EXISTENTIAL.
3.Each situation type consists of :
- the PROCESS, the central part of the situation, realized by a VERB
(doing, happening, experiencing, being and existing).
- PARTICIPANTS ROLES representing persons, things, and abstract
entities involved in the process (the nature and number of participants
determined by the type of process);
- ATTRIBUTES characterize, identify or locate the participants;
- CIRCUMSTANCES of time, place, manner, condition,…attendant on
the situation.
4.The valency of the verb specifies the number of participants = Vt-Vi
analysis
104

105. 13.1.THE PROCESS (PARTICIPANTS, CIRCUMSTANTIAL ROLES)
 A fundamental property of language is to enable us to
conceptualize and describe our experience, whether of the
- actions and events, people and things of the external world, or
- of the internal world of our thoughts, feelings, and perceptions
through transitivity by the clause as the most significant
grammatical unit.
 The central part of a situation realized by the verb is called
PROCESS by M.A.K.Halliday
THE PROCESS can be analyzed as:
DYNAMIC situation and processes involve something that
occurs or happens; they can be tested by the question “What
happened?”
STATIVE situations and processes are conceived of as durative
over time, and as existing rather than happening.
105

106. 13.2. TYPES of PROCESS
THREE MAIN TYPES of PROCESS
(1) MATERIAL PROCESSES, processes of DOING (kick, run,
paint), or HAPPENING (fall, melt, collapse,...)
(2) MENTAL PROCESSES, processes of SENSING or
EXPERIENCING (see, hear, know, feel, hate...)
(3) RELATIONAL PROCESSES, processes of BEING or
BECOMING in which a participant is characterized, or identified,
or situated circumstantially (be, seem, stand, lie, become...)
THREE SUBSIDIARY PROCESS
(4) BEHAVIORAL PROCESSES
(5) VERBAL PROCESSES
(6) EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES
106

107. 13.3.PARTICIPANTS:
INHERENT participants are ACTUALIZED in Ted kicked the
ball (2 participants), Mary gave the Red Cross a donation (3
participants) however UNACTUALIZED but UNDERSTOOD in
Ted kicked hard (1 participant), Mary gave a donation (2
participants), Mary gave generously (1 participant).
-Monovalent (1) participant process in The ice melted;
-Bivalent (2) participant process in The postman rides a
motorcycle;
-Trivalent (3) participant process in Mary gave the Red Cross
a donation.
The semantic analysis into actualized and unactualized
participants in paralleled by the syntactic analysis of verbs such
as drive, eat,…as being either transitive (V+Obj) or
intransitive (V-Obj).
107

108. Module 14: Material processes of doing and happening
1 The first main category of processes, material processes, includes
several kinds: ‘doing’, ‘happening’, ‘causing’ and ‘transferring’.
Typically, the action of ‘doing’ is carried out by a volitional, controlling
human participant: the Agent. A non-controlling inanimate agent is
called Force, for instance an earthquake.
2 In processes of doing, the action either extends no further than the
Agent itself, as in she resigned, or it extends to another participant, the
Affected (the ball in Pelé kicked the ball). A special type of ‘doing’ is
the process of transfer, in which an Agent transfers an Affected
participant to a Recipient or is intended for a Beneficiary (give
someone a present, make someone a cake, respectively).
3 In involuntary processes of happening, the Affected undergoes the
happening (the roof fell in, the old man collapsed).
4 The order of elements in the semantic structures is iconic, that is, the
linguistic ordering of the event reflects our conceptualization of
the event.
108

109. 14.1.AGENT AND AFFECTED IN VOLUNTARY PROCESS OF
“DOING”
A.AGENTIVE Subject (doer) (tác nhân) of a voluntary process of DOING:
They all left.
B.AFFECTED / PATIENT/ GOAL participant (kẻ chịu đựng) in a voluntary
process of DOING: Ted hit Bill.
C.AFFECTED Subject in a passive clause: Bill was hit by Ted.
D.EFFECTED (=RESULTING OBJECT) participants: Mary made an
omelette. Write what you can, Fiona made a car, Dave wrote a letter.
14.2.Unwitting/ Inanimate Agent or FORCE (sức mạnh tự
nhiên)): Lightning struck the oak tree. Anxiety can ruin your
health.
14.3.Affected Subject of Involuntary processes of HAPPENING in
Jordan slipped on the ice, The children have grown, The roof
collapsed, The vase fell off the shelf.
109

110. Module 15: Causative processes
1 In causative material processes some external Agent or Force
causes something to happen. In the paradigm case, a
responsible, purposeful human Agent directly causes an
Affected to undergo the action named by the verb. The Affected,
not the Agent, is the inherent participant that undergoes the
process, as in I rang the bell.
2 When the Affected object of a transitive-causative clause is
the same as the Affected subject of the corresponding
intransitive clause, we have an ‘ergative pair’: He walked the
dogs in the park. The dogs walked. Someone waved a flag. A
flag waved.
3 A ‘pseudo-intransitive’ expresses the facility of a participant to
undergo a process: Glass breaks easily.
110

111. 15.1. Causative material processess and Ergative pairs
(Transitive-causative structure):
 Some external Agent or Force causes something to happen. The
Affected, not the Agent, is the inherent participant that undergoes
the process as in
- Paul (Initiating Agent) opened (Process) the door (Affected) = It
is the door that opens;
- Pat boiled the water = It is the water that boils;
- I rang the bell = It is the bell that rings.
 When the Affected object of a transitive clause is the same as the
Affected subject of an intransitive clause (the Anti-causative
structure), we have an Ergative (khiến tác) pairs of Affected/
Ergative alternation realized in verbs: burn, break, burst, close,
cook, fade, freeze, melt, run, stretch, tighten
- The water boiled. Pat boiled the water.
- X burned the cakes. The cakes burned.
- Stand the lamp here! The lamp stands here.
111

112.  Intransitive volitional activities WALK, JUMP, MARCH…
- He walked the dogs in the park. The dogs walked.
- He jumped the horse over the fence. The horse jumped
over the fence.
- The sergeant marched the soldiers. The soldiers marched.
 An additional agent and an additional causative verb in the
transitive clauses of ergative pairs:
- The child got his sister to ring the bell.
- Mary made Peter boil the water.
112

113. 15.2.Analytical causatives with a resulting attribute based on
the combinations with verbs such as MAKE, TURN:
- This machine (Agent) will make (Process) your tasks
(Affected) simple (Resulting Attribute).
- The heat (Agent) has turned (Process) the milk (Affected)
sour (Resulting Attribute).
15.3.Pseudo-intransitives: a further type of Affected Subject
occurs with certain processes BREAK, READ, TRANSLATE,
WASH, FASTEN, LOCK,…which are intrinsically transitive, but
in this construction are contrued as intransitive, with an
Affected subject.
- Glass breaks easily.
- This box doesn’t shut/ close/ lock/ fasten properly.
- Colloquial language translates badly.
- Some synthetic fibres won’t wash. Usually they dry-clean.
113

114. Module 16: Processes of transfer
1 There are three participants in the processes of transfer: Agent,
Affected and Recipient or Beneficiary.
2 The Recipient is a central participant in three-participant
processes such as give. It encodes the one who receives the
transferred material.
3 The Beneficiary is the optional, non-central participant in three-
participant processes such as fetch. It represents the one for
whom some service is done.
114

115. 16.RECIPIENT (tiếp thể) and BENEFICIARY (lợi thể) in
processes of TRANSFER:
* The process (Action) expressed by the verbs GIVE, SEND,
LEND, CHARGE, PAY, OFFER, and OWE extends not only to
the Affected but to a third inherent participant, the RECIPIENT,
as in:
- Ed gave the cat a bit of tuna.
- Bill’s father has lent us his car.
- Have you paid the taxi-driver the right amount?
* The RECIPIENT, a central participant in trivalent processes,
usually receives the “goods’, permission or information.
115

116. * The BENEFICIARY, by contrast is the optional, non-central, not
inherent, participant in trivalent processess for whom some
service is done. This often amounts to being the intended
recipient. However, it is not necessarily the same as receiving
the goods.
- Nurse, could you fetch me a glass of water?
- Yes, but soon I’ll bring you your orange juice. I’ll get you
something to read, too.
116

117. * Recipient and Beneficiary are semantically typically animate
and human, syntactically are realized as Oi. Occasionally an
inanimate Recipient and an inanimate Beneficiary is possible but
unlikely.
* Passivisation and Prepositional counterpart can be used to test
them.
* Recipient and Beneficiary can occur together in the same
clause: She gave me a present for my daughter.
* Recipient and Beneficiary may be involved in processes of an
unbeneficial nature: They sent him a letter-bomb (him=recipient);
They set him a trap (him =beneficiary)
117

118. 17.1.MENTAL PROCESSES:
• Mental processes comprise processes of PERCEPTION (SEE, HEAR,
FEEL), of COGNITION (KNOW, UNDERSTAND, BELIEVE) and of
AFFECTION and DESIDERATION (LIKE, FEAR; WANT, WISH);
• There is always a conscious participant, the EXPERIENCER (SENSER),
who perceives, knows, likes, ..There is usually a second participant, the
PHENOMENON- that which is perceived, known, liked or wanted. Ex:
- I (experiencer) don’t understand (process) his motives (phenomenon).
- Most people (experiencer) are horrified (process) by the increase in
violence (phenomenon)
- His motives (phenomenon) elude (process) me (experiencer).
- The increase in violence (phenomenon) horrifies (process) most people
(experiencer).
- We (experiencer) knew (process) that it would be difficult (phenomenon)
118

119. 17.2.COGNITIVE PROCESSES: KNOWING, THINKING and
BELIEVING: Ex:
- I (experiencer) don’t know (cognitive process) anyone of that
name (entity-phenomenon)
- She (experiencer) has forgotten (process) to leave us a key
(situation)
17.3. PERCEPTION PROCESSES: SEEING, HEARING and
FEELING:
*RECIPIENT EXPERIENCER+VOLITION PROCESS+PHENOMENON:
- Tom (RE) saw (non-volition) a snake (P).
- The child (RE) feels (non-volition) hot (P).
119

120. 17.4.AFFECTIVE PROCESSES: LOVING and HATING: LIKE, LOVE,
PLEASE, DELIGHT, DISLIKE, HATE and DETEST:
Ex:
-We both love dancing.
-The ballet performance delighted the public.
-They enjoy walking in the woods.
-They love to walk in the woods.
17.5.DECIDERATIVE PROCESSES: WANTING and WISHING:
WANT, DESIRE, WISH:
Ex:
- Do you want anything else. (thing)
- If you want to stay overnight, just say so. (situation)
- I wish Ted were here with us.(situation)
120

121. Module 18: Relational processes of being and becoming
1 The third main category of processes, relational processes,
expresses the notion of being, in a wide sense. In English there
are two main patterns of ‘being’: the Attributive, as in Tom is a
pilot, and the Identifying, as in Fred is the doorman.
2 The participant in the Attributive structure is the Carrier, the
entity to which is ascribed an Attribute. The relations are of
three kinds: attributive: Tom is keen, Tom is a pilot;
circumstantial: The bus stop is over there; possessive: That
car is mine. In possessive structures the participants are known
as the Possessor and the Possessed.
121

122. 3 The identifying pattern is reversible: it identifies one entity in
terms of another. These are the Identified and the Identifier as
in Fred is the doorman/The doorman is Fred. A different
analysis assigns Value to the more general role (the doorman)
and Token to the one that fills that role (Fred).
4 The process itself is encoded by linking verbs (mainly be and
have) whose function is to carry tense and to relate the Carrier
to its Attribute, the Identified to its Identifier and the
Possessor to the Possessed. Others like lack and feel encode
additional meanings.
122

123. 18.RELATIONAL PROCESSES, processes of
* BEING or
* BECOMING
in which a participant is characterized, or identified, or situated
circumstantially (be, seem, stand, lie, become...).
18.1.TYPES of BEING: Relational processes cover various ways
of being: being something, being in some place/at some
time, or in a relation of possession:
Ex:
- Mont Blanc is a high mountain. (an instance of a type)
- Mont Blanc is popular with climbers. (attribution)
- Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. (Identification)
- Mont Blanc is in the Alps. (circumstance: location)
- Those gloves are yours. (possession)
123

124. 18.2.THE ATTRIBUTE PATTERN: One-participant. The CARRIER
represents an entity. Ascribed to the CARRIER is an
ATTRIBUTE, characterizing the entity in some way. Ex:
- Their eldest son (carrier) was (process) a musician (attribute).
*The CURRENT ATTRIBUTE: the Attribute exists at the same
time as the process described by the verbs BE, KEEP, REMAIN,
SEEM. Ex:
- We kept quiet.
- He remained captain for years.
*The RESULTING ATTRIBUTE exists as the result of the process
with dynamic verbs of transition such as BECOME, GET, TURN,
RUN. Ex:
- We fell silent.
- He became captain.
124

125. 18.3.CIRCUMSTANTIAL RELATIONAL PROCESSES of BEING in
which circumstantial element is essential to the situation, not
peripheral to it. The Circumstance is encoded as ATTRIBUTE.
Ex:
- The museum is round the corner.
- These flowers are for you.
125

126. 18.4.POSSESSIVE RELATIONAL PROCESSES: BE, HAVE,
OWN, POSSESS
• POSSESSION covers a wide number of subtypes:
- part-whole (in your left foot)
- ownership (in our house)
- kinship relations (in Jane’s sister)
- unowned possession (in the dog’s basket)
- mental quality (in her sense of humor)
- physical quality (in his strength)
- occupancy (in his office)
- association with another person (in my friends and
colleagues)
126

127. • 2 PARTICIPANTS involved are POSSESSOR and the
POSSESSED
• Possession is expressed either by the ATTRIBUTE:
Ex:- These keys (Possessed/Carrier) are (Process) my brother’s
(Possessor/ Attribute)
- This glove (Possessed/Carrier) isn’t (Process) mine
(Possessor/Attribute)
• or by the PROCESS itself:
Ex: - The baby (Possessor/Carrier) has blue eyes.
- His uncle (Possessor/Carrier) owns a yacht.
-
127

128. 18.5.THE IDENTIFYING PATTERN: known as IDENTIFIED and
IDENTIFIER: Ex:
- Mont Blanc (Identified) is the highest mountain in Europe
(Identifier).
-Mont Blanc (Identifier) is the highest mountain in Europe
(Identified).
*A concept complementary to Identifying processes is that of
“REPRESENTATIONAL “ or “ROLES FILLED”. One participant,
the TOKEN, is the entity that ‘represents” or “fills the role of the
other, the VALUE as in: Ex:
- My father-in-law (Token/Identified) is (=fulfils the role of) the
club’s Secretary (Value/Identifier)
-
128

129. Module 19: Processes of saying, behaving and existing
1 Processes of saying and communicating are verbal
processes. The participant who communicates is the Sayer,
and is typically human, while what is communicated is the ‘Said’
and may be a reported statement, a reported question or a
reported directive (order, request, etc.). A Recipient, the
addressee, is required with tell, and a Target may also be
present in some verbal processes.
2 Behavioural processes are half-way between material and
mental processes, in that they have features of each. They
include involuntary processes (cough) and volitional
processes (watch, stare, listen).
3 Existential processes, rather than stating that things simply
exist, tend to specify the quantification and/or the location of
something: There are bits of paper everywhere. The single
participant is the Existent, which may be an entity or an event.
129

130. Module 19: Processes of saying, behaving and existing
19.1.VERBAL PROCESSES/ PROCESSES OF SAYING AND
COMMUNICATING
*The participant who communicates is the SAYER (human), while
what is communicated is the SAID and may be a reported
statement, a reported question, a reported directive (ORDER,
REQUEST,…). A RECIPIENT, the addressee, is required with
TELL, and a TAGET may also be present in some VERBAL
PROCESSES. Ex:
- She (Sayer) had to say (Verbal process) her name twice (Said)
- Jim (Sayer) told (Verbal process) him (Recipient) what she knew
(Said).
130

131. 19.2.BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES: COUGH, SNEEZE, LAUGH,
SIGH..
• One-participant process
• Involuntary
• Very slight agency
• Mental processes SEE, HEAR have Behavioural counterparts
WATCH, LISTEN, which are dynamic and volitional, and have
Agentive Subjects…
Ex: - What are you thinking about?
- I am enjoying the play enormously.
131

132. 19.3.EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES OF EXISTING OR
HAPPENING: BE, STAND,LIE, HANG, STRETCH, REMAIN,
OCCUR, FOLLOW, APPEAR, EMERGE, …
* The single participant is the EXISTENT, referring to a countable
entity, an uncountable entity, or an event:
Ex: - There’s a good film on at the Scala.
- There’s roast lamb for lunch.
- There was an explosion.
132

133. Module 20: Expressing attendant circumstances
20.ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES:
20.1.PLACE, TIME AND OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES
20.1.1.PLACE: location (AT), source (FROM), path (THROUGH),
direction (TOWARDS), goal (TO), extent (FOR), extent+goal (AS
FAR AS), relative (HERE, THERE), distributive (AT INTERVALS,
HERE AND THERE),…
20.1.2.TIME: location (AT), source (FROM), path (THROUGH),
direction (TOWARDS), goal (TO), extent (FOR), extent+goal (AS
FAR AS), relative (HERE, THERE), distributive (AT INTERVALS,
HERE AND THERE),…
20.1.3.MANNER: manner, means, comparison, instrumentality,…
20.1.4.INSTRUMENT: - He elbowed his way through the crowd.
20.1.5.CONTINGENCY: cause, purpose, reason, concession,
behalf, condition,
133

134. 20.1.6.ACCOMPANIMENT: (positive/negative) togetherness
(with/without), (positive/negative) additionality (as well as,
instead of)
20.1.7.MODALITY: possibility, probability, certainty
20.1.8.DEGREE: emphasis (completely) , attenuation (hardly)
20.1.9.ROLE: capacity
20.1.10.MATTER: with reference to, …
20.1.11.EVIDENCE: according to,…
20.2.RANGE is a participant: the nominal concept that is implied
by the process as its scope or RANGE: song in sing a song,
games in play games, have an argument (a chat, a drink, a
fight,…), give a push (a kick, a smile,…), take, do, ask, make…
134

135. Module 21: Conceptualising experiences from a different
angle: Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor
1 The semantic structures described so far reflect the basic
semantic-syntactic correspondences we use when encoding
situations. They reflect the typical way of saying things. Agents
carry out actions that affect other participants, Experiencers
perceive Phenomena.
Furthermore, processes have been realised by verbs, entities
by nouns, and Attributes by (for instance) adjectives and
possessives. These are the basic realisations which are found
in the language of children and in much everyday spoken
English.
But any state of affairs can be conceptualised and expressed
in more than one way. A more nominalised version encodes
actions and states as nouns, which involves a complete
restructuring of the clause. This has been called ‘grammatical
metaphor’. Its most obvious characteristic is nominalisation.
135

136. Module 21: Conceptualising experiences from a different
angle: Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor
2 Thus, a process can be realised as an entity: government
spending is one example. Similar transferred functions occur
with attributes and circumstances. These alternative
realisations of the semantic roles involve further adjustments in
the correspondences between semantic roles and syntactic
functions in the clause.
3 Grammatical metaphor is a feature of much written English and
of spoken English in professional registers.
4 The ‘transitivity hypothesis’ offers an alternative view, in which
transitivity is a matter of gradation from high to low.
136

137. 1.In the semantic structures described so far as CONGRUENT
REALIZATIONS:
PROCESSES realised by Verbs
ENTITIES realised by Nouns
ATTRIBUTES realised by Adjectives
2.METAPHORICAL REALIZATIONS/ GRAMMATICAL METAPHORS
PROCESS realised as THING: Take a deep breath.
ATTRIBUTE realised as THING: Bigness is paid for by fewness.
CIRCUMSTANCE realised as THING: August 12 found them in Rome.
PROCESS and CIRCUMSTANCE as part of the THING:
Dependent SITUATION as THING
3.Grammatical metaphor is a feature of much written English and of
spoken English in professional registers.
137

138. 21.1.BASIC REALIZATIONS AND METAPHORICAL REALIZATIONS:
138

139. 21.2.NOMINALIZATION AS A FEATURE OF
GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR:
21.2.1.PROCESS REALIZED AS ENTITY
21.2.2.ATTRIBUTE REALIZED AS ENTITY
21.2.3.CIRCUMSTANCE REALIZED AS ENTITY
21.2.4.DEPENDENT SITUATION AS ENTITY
139

140. 21.3.HIGH AND LOW TRANSITIVITY:
140

141. INTERACTION BETWEEN
SPEAKER AND HEARER
Linking speech acts and grammar
CHAPTER 5
141

142. Module 22: Speech acts and clause types
Module 23: The declarative and interrogative
clause types
Module 24: The exclamative and imperative
clause types
Module 25: Indirect speech acts, clause types
and
discourse functions
Module 26: Questions, clause types and
discourse functions
Module 27: Directives: getting people to carry
out actions
142

143. Module 22
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clause types, giving
reasons for your analysis. Now suggest what type of speech acts are being
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143

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144