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1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
(An Essay)
By Deborah Sitorus
One of the ways to gain knowledge is by carrying out some research. As what Zacharia (2012)
stated that in daily life most people conduct research to gain knowledge. A research can be
carried out qualitatively or quantitatively depends on the research purposes and needs and the
type of information the researcher is seeking.
My concern in this essay is to briefly share my understandings about basic concepts of
qualitative research that I gained from my readings on some books on qualitative research
methods as well as from the class discussion with lecturer and colleagues on qualitative
research course at the university. The basic concepts of qualitative research that will be
discussed here cover the definition of qualitative research based on some authors,
the characteristics of qualitative research contrasted to quantitative research, the strengths and
weakness of qualitative research, and it follow the discussion of the importance of qualitative
research in English language teaching.
A. DEFINITION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The qualitative research methods are often employed to answer the whys and hows of human
behavior, opinion, and experience-information that is difficult to obtain through more
quantitatively-oriented methods of data collection. Researchers and practitioners in fields as
diverse as anthropology, education, nursing, psychology, sociology, and marketing regularly
use qualitative methods to address questions about people’s ways of organizing, relating to,
and interacting with the world.
There are about as many definitions of qualitative research as there are books on the subject.
Some authors highlight the research purpose and focus:
Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed,
that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.
(Merriam, 2009, p. 13)
Another definitions focus on the process and context of data collection:
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a
set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform
the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes,
interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level,
qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means
that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of,
or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. (Denzin & Lincoln,
2005, p. 3)
From those definitions, it is obvious that a qualitative research has the aim in providing an in-
depth and interpreted understanding of the social world of research participants by learning
about their social and material circumstances, their experiences, perspectives and histories.

2. (Snape and Spencer, 2003). The study also uses rigorous procedures and multiple methods
for data collection which make the data real, rich and deep (Cohen, 2007).
B. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PARADIGMS
The design of a research study begins with the selection of a topic and a paradigm. A
paradigm is essentially a worldview, a whole framework of beliefs, values and methods
within which research takes place. It is this world views within which been conducted from a
large number of various paradigms that influence conceptual and meta-theoretical concerns
of legitimacy, control, data analysis, ontology, and epistemology among others. Research
conducted in the last 10 years has been characterized by a distinct turn toward more
interpretive, post-modern, and critical practices (Joubish et al, 2011). Guba and Lincoln
(2005) identify five main paradigms of contemporary qualitative research: Positivism, Post-
positivism, critical theories, constructivism, and parcipatory/cooperative paradigm. But
among those paradigms, according to McMillan, et al (2001), most qualitative researches
employ an interpretive/subjectivist style as what Connole, et al (1993) also state that
qualitative research is central to most interpretive approaches. Though there are various
definitions of interpretivism, for brevity I like Walsham’s (1993) description, which posits
that
Interpretive methods of research start from the position that our knowledge of reality,
including the domain of human action, is a social construction by human actors and that this
applies equally to researchers. Thus there is no objective reality which can be discovered by
researchers and replicated by others, in contrast to the assumptions of positivist science. (p. 5)
In line with this, Geertz (1973) also states
To look at the symbolic dimensions of social action—art, religion, ideology, science, law,
morality, common sense—is not to turn away from the existential dilemmas of life for some
empyrean realm of deemotionalized forms; it is to plunge into the midst of them. The
essential vocation of interpretive anthropology is not to answer our deepest questions, but to
make available to us answers that others, guarding other sheep in other valleys, have given,
and thus to include them in the consultable record of what man has said. (p. 29)
As such, an interpretive perspective is based on the idea that qualitative research efforts
should be concerned with revealing multiple realities as opposed to searching for one
objective reality. In Denzin’s words, “Objective reality will never be captured. In depth
understanding, the use of multiple validities, not a single validity, a commitment to dialogue
is sought in any interpretive study” (Denzin, 2010, p. 271)
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CONTRASTED TO
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Viewed from this research paradigm, quantitative research is in contrast with qualitative
research that usually based on some form of logical positivism which assumes there are stable,
social facts with single reality, separated from the feelings and beliefs of individuals.

3. Qualitative research is based more on “constructionism” which assumes multiple realities are
socially constructed through individual and collective perceptions or views of the same
situation (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001). Quantitative and qualitative research do represent
very different ways of thinking about the world. Holliday (2002) shared the distinction
between qualitative and quantitative research that the belief in quantitative research that
reality can be mastered by the right research instruments is normative. It maintains that there
is a normality that we can fathom and understand, and master by statistics and experiment.
The universe is organized in such a a way that can become clear to scientist. It therefore
maintains that with the correct use of technique it is possible to reveal objectives facts. In
contrast, the qualitative belief that the realities of the research setting ad the people in it are
mysterious and can only be superficially touched by research which tries to make sense is
interpretive. It maintains that we can explore, catch glimpses, illuminate and then try to
interpret bits of reality. Interpretation is as far as we can go. In analyzing the data, both
qualitative and quantitative research are also different. In quantitative research, the researcher
relies on statistical analysis (mathematical analysis) of the data, which is typically in numeric
form. In qualitative research, statistics are not used to analyze the data; instead, the inquirer
analyzes words (e.g., transcriptions from interviews) or images (e.g., photographs). Rather
than relying on statistical procedures, the qualitative researcher analyzes the words to group
them into larger meanings of understanding, such as codes, categories, or themes (Creswell,
2012). In addition, both qualitative and quantitative researchers are concerned with the
individuals’ point of view. However, qualitative researchers think they can get closer to the
actor’s perspective through detailed-interviewing and observation. They argue that
quantitative researchers are seldom able to capture their subjects perspective because they
have to rely on more remote, inferential empirical methods and materials (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2000).
Despite all these differences, one of the strengths of qualitative research design is that it often
allows for far greater (theoretically informed) flexibility than in most quantitative research
designs (Silverman, 2005). The allure of qualitative research also enables the researcher to
conduct in-depth studies about a broad array of topics, including the favorites, in plain and
everyday terms (Yin, 2011). Furthermore, qualitative research designs tend to work with a
relatively small number of cases.
Qualitative researchers typically study a relatively small number of individuals or situations
and preserve the individuality of each of these in their analyses, rather than collecting data
from large samples and aggregating the data across individuals or situations. (Maxwell, 1996,
p. 17)
Thus, qualitative researcher are able to understand how events, actions, and meanings are
shaped by the unique circumstances.
D. TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a systematic, subjective approach used to describe life experiences and
give them meaning. There are five major types or design under this qualitative research:
phenomenology, ethnography, case study research, grounded theory, and historical research.

4. Each approach, however, has some distinct characteristics and tends to have its own roots and
following.
Yin (2011) shares some characteristics and the examples of those five major types of
qualitative research:
Phenomenology studies human events as they are immediately experienced in real-world
settings, resisting prior categories and concepts that might distort the experiential basis for
understanding the events. It is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts
to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example, you
might interview 20 widows and ask them to describe their experiences of the deaths of their
husbands.
Ethnography is the form of qualitative research that focuses on describing the culture of a
group of people. Note that a culture is the shared attitudes, values, norms, practices, language,
and material things of a group of people. For an example of an ethnography, you might
decide to go and live in a Mohawk communities and study the culture and their educational
practices.
Case study research studies a phenomenon (the “case”) in its real-world context. For an
example, you might study a classroom that was given a new curriculum for technology use.
Grounded theory is a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory form data
that the researcher collects. For an example, you might collect data from parents who have
pulled their children out of public schools and develop a theory to explain how and why this
phenomenon occurs, ultimately developing a theory of school pull-out.
Historical research studies about events that occurred in the past. An example, you might
study the use of corporeal punishment in schools in the 19th
century.
The choice of those kinds of qualitative research of course depends on the type of
information the researcher is seeking.
E. DATA COLLECTIONS AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
According to Marshall and Rossman (2006), qualitative researchers typically use four major
methods for gathering information or collecting the data: (a) participating in the setting, (b)
observing directly, (c) interviewing in-depth, and (d) analyzing documents and material
culture.
Observation is a fundamental and highly important method in all qualitative inquiry
(Marshall and Rossman, 2006). In seeking to explore the natural scene, the qualitative
researcher aims to be as unobtrusive as possible, so that neither research presence nor
methods disturb the situation. This is why participant observation is one of the favored
approaches. Here, the researcher adopts a recognized role within the institution or group.

5. Researchers have become, amongst other things, teachers, gang-members, pupils, nudists,
hippies, bread salesmen, and medical students. Some have therefore preferred non-participant
observation, which today is the more common mode. Here, the researcher has only the role of
researcher and observes situations of interest in that capacity. A lesson might be observed
from the back of a classroom, or a playground from behind the sidelines. The researcher
adopts 'fly on the wall' techniques to observe things as undisturbed by his or her presence as
possible.
A great deal of qualitative material comes from talking with people whether it be through
formal interviews or casual conversations. If interviews are going to tap into the depths of
reality of the situation and discover subjects' meanings and understandings, it is essential for
the researcher: to develop empathy with interviewees and win their confidence; to be
unobtrusive, in order not to impose one's own influence on the interviewee (Woods, 2006).
The best technique for this is the unstructured interview. Here, the researcher has some
general ideas about the topics of the interview, and may have an aide memoire of points that
might arise in discussion for use as prompts, if necessary. But the hope is that those points
will come up in the natural course of the discussion as the interviewee talks.
Besides observation, and interview, documents are also a useful source of data in qualitative
research, but they have to be treated with care. According to McMillan and Schumacher
(2001), the most widely used are official documents (newsletter, program brochures, school
board reports, public statements, and news releases), personal documents (personal letter, diaries,
and anecdotal records), and questionnaires.
The collection of the data in qualitative research is ongoing. The researcher is continually
observing people, events, and occurrences often supplementing his or her observation with
in-depth interviews of selected participants and the examination of various documents and
records relevant to the phenomenon of interest. (Frankel et al, 2012)
Validity, in qualitative research, refers to whether the findings of a study are true and
certain—“true” in the sense that research findings accurately reflect the situation, and
“certain” in the sense that research findings are supported by the evidence. Therefore, to gain
a better assessment of the validity and generality of the explanations that a researcher
develops, triangulation is needed (Maxwell, 1996). Triangulation is a method used by
qualitative researchers to check and establish validity in their studies by analyzing a research
question from multiple perspectives. Patton (2002) cautions that it is a common
misconception that the goal of triangulation is to arrive at consistency across data sources or
approaches; in fact, such inconsistencies may be likely given the relative strengths of
different approaches. In Patton’s view, these inconsistencies should not be seen as weakening
the evidence, but should be viewed as an opportunity to uncover deeper meaning in the data.

6. F. THE IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Although research becomes valuable for teachers when it is applicable to their work with
students in their classrooms, the relationship between teaching and research is often assumed
and just as often ignored. Research should and does influence teaching (and vice versa), but
the gulf between the two can at times seem large. Teachers are told to use “research-based
strategies” and yet such strategies may be presented to them stripped of the very sensitivity to
context, analytic rigor, and thoughtful skepticism that are the hallmarks of quality research.
Nonetheless, the popularity of qualitative research has increased in the higher education field.
Qualitative research has made a significant contribution to our understanding of different
aspects of the language learning experience. Major studies and collections have explored L2
and multilingual contexts, focusing on learners of different ages and backgrounds in different
contexts (e.g. Miller 2003; Block 2007), and there is every indication that this interest will
continue to grow. Observation and interviews, sometimes combined with discourse analysis,
have also been used to study the process of classroom socialization in a variety of settings.
Qualitative approaches have also opened windows onto aspects of the classroom community
(e.g. Creese 2002; Duff 2002) and contributed to an improved understanding of pedagogic
practice (e.g. Pinter 2007)
Multiple methods have also been used to explore aspects of classroom interaction. Ohta &
Nakaone (2004), for example, use recordings of over 30 hours of classroom talk, observation
and documentary evidence to open up student questioning, while Tan (2007) revealed
problems with teachers’ questioning behavior through lesson observation, semistructured
interviews and focus group discussions. This seems to be an area with considerable scope for
further exploration, but even more exciting is the recent growth of developmental studies.
Qualitative research has opened dimensions of insight into the processes of language teaching
and learning, and developments in the new millennium promise even richer understandings in
the future.
G. CONCLUSION
From the description above, it is clear that there are a lot of methods to do qualitative
research. The method that we use will depend on the issue that we want to investigate,
whether it is the phenomenology, ethnography, case study research, grounded theory, or
historical research, and so with the data collections and analysis that we must consider the
strengths and weaknesses.
To summarize, although the phenomena being studied by qualitative researchers are often
long and episodic and evolving and often takes a long time to come to understand what is
going on, how it all works and the researcher is labor intensive and the costs are high (Stake,
2010), working with qualitative data is a rich and enlightening experience. The more it is
practiced, the easier and more rewarding it will become.

7. Due to the fact that educational research has a broad scope, covering different techniques and
methodologies as well as various aspects of the educative process (both formal and informal),
one way to strengthen the qualitative research design is via triangulation. Triangulation can
be used to deepen the researchers’ understanding of the issues and maximize their confidence
in the findings of qualitative studies. This again highlighted the complementary relationship
between qualitative and quantitative research within a critical paradigm.

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