1. 1
Joshua Neale Phillips
715797
Department of the Built Environment
MSc Water, Energy and The Environment, Liverpool John Moores University
Community perceptions of renewable energy technologies in rural
Pembrokeshire: Examining to what degree community perceptions are
affected by nearby Solar and wind energy projects, looking at how they
impact the environment, landscape and local development.
2016

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This dissertation was completed as part of the MSc Water Energy and The
Environment at Liverpool John Moores University. This is my own unaided
work. Where the work of others has been used or drawn on then it has been
fully attributed to the relevant source
Signed: Joshua N Phillips Date: 26.09.16

3. 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Olga Korostynska for the help with
formulating my research question, as well as Dr Duncan Casey for advising
me on how to approach the questions within my questionnaire. I would also
like to thank the many people throughout Pembrokeshire who took the time to
take part in my survey and provide me data to make this investigation
worthwhile.
I would also like to thank my partner and parents for encouragement whilst
working on the project.

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Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………… 6
Chapter 1
1.1Introduction…………………………………………………………………...7-14
Chapter 2 – From Fossil Fuels to Renewables
2.1 Abstract……………………………………………………………………..15-16
2.2 Energy Demand Problem.………………………………………………...16
2.3 The Depletion Fossil Fuel Based Resources.…………………………..16-17
2.4 Fossil Fuels and there Environmental Impacts..……….………………17-18
2.5 A Sustainable Approach…………………………………………………..18-19
2.6 Renewables Revolution…………………………………………………...19-20
2.7 The Economics of Renewable Energy…………………………………..20-21
2.8 Solar Power………………………………………………………………...21-22
2.9 Wind Power………………………………………………………………...22-23
2.10 Rural Energy……………………………………………………………...23-24
2.11 A Welsh Dimension………………………………………………………24-26
Chapter 3 – The Challenge of Public Opposition
3.1 Environmental Impacts of Renewable Technologies………………….27-28
3.2 Public Acceptance of Solar and Wind Energy Projects……………….29-30
3.3 Community Participation in Renewable Energy Developments……...30-31
Chapter 4
4.1 Methodology……………………………………………………………….32-35
4.2 Results……………………………………………………………………...36-44
4.3 Discussion……………………………………………………………….....45
4.3.1 Effects on Wildlife………………………………………………….46-47
4.3.2 Visual Impact……………………………………………………….47-48
4.3.3 Noise Pollution……………………………………………………..49-50
4.3.4 Cost Effectiveness………………………………………………....50-51
4.3.5 Community Involvement…………………………………………..51-52
4.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….53-55
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………….56-66
Appendices……………………………………………………………………..67-70

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Table of Figures
Figure 1……………………………………………………………………………..37
Figure 2……………………………………………………………………………..38
Figure 2a……………………………………………………………………….......38
Figure 3……………………………………………………………………………..39
Figure 4……………………………………………………………………………..40
Figure 5……………………………………………………………………………..41
Figure 5a……………………………………………………………………………41
Figure 5b……………………………………………………………………………42
Figure 6……………………………………………………………………………..42
Figure 7……………………………………………………………………………..43
Figure 8……………………………………………………………………………..44

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Abstract
With energy demand continuing to rise, and a decline in the quantities of
conventional energy, renewable energy technologies are now being
considered as viable energy generation methods. The social acceptance of
these technologies is something that has been addressed in a lot of social
science literature on renewable energy; however there is very little research
about how public perceptions are affected when renewable energy projects
are constructed in close proximity to local communities. The aim of this
research was to provide a better understanding of the factors that influence
public perceptions towards such renewable energy projects. This was
achieved through quantitative research with questionnaires as the primary
source of data collection; a number of different case studies were utilised for
this study so that the perceptions of communities near both solar and wind
farms can be examined. It looked at specific dimensions, for example their
impact on the environment, landscape and how it influences local
development. Surveys were conducted in a number of towns in rural
Pembrokeshire that have nearby renewable energy developments, for
example the Castle Pill Wind Farm located in Steynton on the periphery of the
town Milford Haven and the Jordanston Solar farm which is on the outskirts of
the Town of Tenby, both of which are sizeable renewable energy projects,
other towns were also sampled including Narberth, Whitland and
Haverfordwest. The overall perception of solar and wind farms was relatively
positive; however there was a great deal of negativity surrounding wind
energy technologies with solar energy being the preferred type of
development due to many considering it to have less of an impact with
regards to its visual impact and effects on local wildlife. This research will aid
in the development of further renewable energy projects, as it will be provide
greater awareness on public acceptance in local communities.

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Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
The transference away from the use of fossil fuels is something that is
becoming of increasing significance; fossil fuels are finite resources and will
inevitably run out. For example peak oil; this describes the point in time when
the rate at which oil is extracted reaches a plateau, (Abas, Kalair and Khan,
2015). Despite the production oil having been peaked 1995, due to improved
exploration and subsequent oil discoveries, oil reserves are steadily
increasing, with gas and coal reserves experiencing similar increases.
However, at present fossil fuels are the main source of energy production
within the global energy market, this coupled with the continued increase in
consumption and there finite nature, (Brutschin and Fleig, 2016), will
eventually result in a decline in the total deposits. This would in turn have a
detrimental effect on the global energy market. In order to ensure long-term
energy security new methods of energy production will need to be adopted
through the innovation of the energy sector. The deployment of renewable
power generation technologies could be one such solution as this would not
only mitigate the environmental concerns associated with the use of fossil
fuels but it would also aid in strengthening energy security, (Pfenninger and
Keirstead, 2015).
The adaptation of the energy sector can be considered to be of paramount
importance, as in order to sustain the current energy requirements imposed
by societal demands; renewable energy sources will need to be developed as
we transfer away from fossil fuel based methods of energy production. The
advancement of energy technologies will ensure the reinforcement of global
energy security, which if not managed in a correct manner would have dire
consequences on a multitude of stakeholders including policy makers,
businesses and the wider community which is reliant on a continuous energy
supply in order to preserve a certain quality of life, (Ang, Choong and Ng,
2015). The UK in particular has a solid foundation, to which it can harness its

8. 8
renewable energy potential; it can achieve this through a combination of
renewable technologies with the most viable options being wind energy, solar
and biomass, which would in turn increase the UK’s capacity for renewable
energy, (Brennand, 2004).
Renewable energy investment has risen to the forefront of government energy
policy in recent times; for example the European Union has increased
investment resulting in the expansion of renewable energy technologies, this
follows the European growth strategy 2020, with the reduction of greenhouse
gases being one of its main objectives, (Gatzert and Vogl, 2016). The
investment from private and institutional bodies is heavily encouraged through
legislative action; an example of this is the use of incentives with the
government providing financial support through the use of subsidies, grants
and the feed in tariff scheme (FIT), (White et al, 2013). The UK in particular
when compared to other European countries has a great wealth of renewable
energy sources, with a number of regions through out the British isles having
optimal conditions; for example It has the some of the best wind resources
when compared to other European nations, most notably in Scotland,
(Connor, 2003). Renewable energy has been a mainstay within much of UK
energy policy for many years. With the groundwork for renewable energy
policy being laid out in energy paper 55, entitled Renewable Energy in the UK:
The Way Forward, which outlined a number of targets these included:
 Assist the UK in national & international targets for the reduction of
emissions.
 Help in providing a diverse, sustainable & competitive energy supply;
 Aid in making the Renewable energy industry in the UK competitive in
both home and export markets, whilst also providing employment, and
contributing to rural development.
These targets were expanded upon in the subsequent energy papers and in
2000 the UK government adopted the renewable obligation (RO), which now
forms the basis for current policy, (Connor, 2003). One of the main objectives

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of the renewable obligation was to ensure that renewables made up 10% of
all UK energy generation by 2010, however since then this has been be
amended with the new target being 20% by 2020. It is the primary support
mechanism for the deployment of renewable energy projects, its intention to
increase the share of electricity generated by renewable sources, as
generators are obligated to do so, (Gurkan and Langestraat, 2014). Another
important policy instrument that has been used to drive the deployment of
renewable technologies is Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO), albeit originally
intended to support the nuclear power industry, it now solely benefits
renewable energy sources, (Dow and Wood, 2010).
Wind is one such renewable energy source, and can be considered to be a
viable and clean alternative for energy production and can aid in the
transference away from the over reliance on more conventional fuel sources
such as oil, coal and gas, (Kumar et al, 2016). In the UK in particular there is
extensive availability for both on-shore and offshore wind sources, (Boyle,
2012). The cost of this technology is dependent on a number of factors which
include transportation of parts, foundations and connecting to the grid, these
capital costs tend to make up the majority of the total project cost, with
variable costs such as the operation and maintenance of the turbine making
up the rest. However, the cost of wind energy technologies has been subject
to a dramatic reduction in recent times as a result of an improvement in
turbine technology and increased efficiency, and wind energy has expanded
as a direct consequence of this, (Kumar et al, 2016). The UKs largest
indigenous resource can be considered to be offshore wind power, (Rajgor,
2010). This particular form of energy has benefitted a great deal from policy
support, as it has allowed for an increase in investment in the technology,
resulting in its rapid deployment, (Kern et al, 2014).
Solar is another renewable energy source that has experienced a significant
increase in usage, as it is not only used to generate electricity but also to
provide heat energy, (Burnett, Barbour and Harrison, 2014) Whether it be
small scale solar or utility scale solar developments. It is something that is
likely to continue because similarly to wind power, solar technologies are

10. 10
improving, becoming more efficient and have increased availability. Along with
wind energy, policy support has played an integral role in its deployment, for
example legislation such as the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) and the
Feed in Tariff Scheme (FiTs). Solar Photovoltaic is used to generate electricity
and is the most widely recognised form solar energy. Its market has in recent
times been subject to significant growth, and has expanded 50% per year
worldwide, this is as a result of a reduction in production costs, despite the
improvement in the efficiency of solar cells such as, crystalline-silicon (c-Si)
PV modules, (Huang et al, 2016). In terms of solar electricity production,
utility-scale produces a great deal of energy, however when compared to wind
electricity production it pales in comparison, (Carlisle et al, 2016), despite this
it is still a viable energy production alternative and this along with domestic
solar PV can aid in alleviating the over reliance on fossil fuel based energy
sources.
Despite renewable energy being an integral part of the evolution of the energy
market, there is however a number of environmental impacts that is
associated with the various renewable technologies; this in turn may affect
their acceptability, (Sokka et al, 2016). Some of the impacts include:
 Visual and Aesthetic Impacts
 Health Impacts
 Noise
 Shading & Shadow Flicker
 Recreational Usage Impacts
 Land use
 Wildlife Impacts
There are a number of positives to using wind energy, however it is also
useful to look at the negatives that are associated with wind energy, (Saidur et
al., 2011). The most notable impacts related to wind energy are as follows:
 Wildlife Impacts

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 Visual Impact; and
 Noise Pollution
In terms of acceptability noise pollution is probably the most decisive, wind
turbines emit both mechanical and aerodynamic noise. The effects of noise
pollution are likely to have an impact on residences in close proximity to a
wind turbine, for example they can decrease property values. The noise
emitted by wind turbines can also have a detrimental effect on bat population,
this is because bats tend to orientate themselves to nearby audible sound and
could be attracted by the noise from the rotating turbines, (Wang and Wang,
2015). There are various ways that both the mechanical and aerodynamic
noise can be minimised, for example during the planning phase for wind
turbine developments it is recommended by local authorities that there is a
minimum separation distance between wind turbines and neighbouring
residences, (Saidur et al, 2011).
The impact wind turbines have on wildlife is another factor that adds to the
negative perceptions surrounding wind energy. It can be split into two
categories direct and indirect impacts, for example a direct impact can be
increased mortality rates in local avian and bat populations from collisions
whilst indirect impacts may be from wildlife displacement and habitat
disruption. (Saidur et al, 2011). However, research is being conducted in
order to determine way in which these impacts can be reduced; despite them
already being relatively minimal when compared to other renewable sources.
Wind turbines also have a negative visual impact on the landscape, the most
notable being shadow flicker, this is caused as a result of the turbines moving
through the sunshine, (Dai et al. 2015). The visual impact of a wind turbine is
dependent on a number of different variables including:
 Distance away from habitations
 Size
 Weather

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 Local topographies
 Scenic backgrounds
 Operating hours; and
 Interactions with sunlight
However, the visual impact of wind turbines can be considered to be
subjective, peoples positive or negative attitude towards wind turbines may
depend on a person’s view on the wind energy industry. For example people
may realise that wind turbines are fundamental to the expansion of the energy
market so that current energy demands can be met, whilst others may view
them as unnecessary and an unwanted burden on the natural landscape, (Dai
et al. 2015).
Solar energy also has a number of potential environmental impacts that
include:
 Land use
 Habitat Loss
Land use and habitat loss are the most prominent environmental impacts
associated with solar energy developments. Utility- scale solar developments
need extensive areas of land typically between three and ten acres, however
this varies depending on a number of factors such as topography of the site
and intensity of the solar resources, (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2016).
The land lost to solar developments could impede on more conventional land
uses; whether it is for agricultural or recreational purposes,
(Greenmatch.co.uk, 2016). Dissimilar to wind energy developments there is
little opportunity solar developments to occupy agricultural land as it is single
purpose, whereas agricultural uses can still take place on land occupied by
wind developments. However there are ways that this can be minimised,
through alternative siting on areas land such as brownfields. This only applies
to Utility-scale developments as small scale solar PV can be built on both
residential and commercial buildings.

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Public opposition to renewable energy developments is something that is
experienced in municipalities throughout the UK. Such disapproval is in
response to them wanting to defend their amenity, with many people living in
the locality to these developments placing great value on the landscape; this
can have a negative effect on house prices in rural areas. It also is considered
to be as direct consequences to the number of environmental impacts that are
associated with solar and wind energy developments, as previously
mentioned. Wind turbines in particular have been said to have of a damaging
affect on the countryside not only environmentally but visually as well,
(Brennand, 2004). Solar energy much like wind energy also has to overcome
public opposition; in particular utility- scale solar developments face
considerable public resistance because of the large areas of land needed to
facilitate them. Public opposition is perhaps the greatest obstacle for the
renewable energy technologies because in order for renewable technologies
to be successfully integrated into the energy system, a positive attitude
towards them is necessary so that there widespread deployment can be
achieved and energy policy targets met, (Karlstrøm and Ryghaug, 2014).
As part of the transition towards a more sustainable energy system,
governments are paying particular attention to the roles that different
stakeholders can play at various levels, for example, individuals, households,
communities and businesses, (Goedkoop and Devine-Wright, 2016).
Community energy is an initiative where renewable energy developments are
community owned; typically solar panels, wind turbines and small scale
hydroelectric developments are community owned. Community owned
renewable energy projects tend to generate a great deal of public support,
and would negate the negative public perceptions that are generally
associated with renewable technologies such as solar and wind. In the UK a
community energy strategy was published in 2014. As part of this strategy
shared ownership between commercial developers and community
stakeholders was heavily encouraged. This policy was originally envisioned to
contribute to the rapid deployment of renewable energy, (Goedkoop and
Devine-Wright, 2016) and It was intended to be done by engaging with people

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in the developments whilst simultaneously improving peoples understanding
of renewable energy technologies.
The objective of the investigation is to determine the reasons as to why there
is public opposition towards both wind and solar energy developments in rural
Pembrokeshire. There has been very little research in this area, (Knopper et
al, 2011), and this study would be beneficial in determining what the reasons
are behind peoples negative perceptions towards wind and solar energy
developments. It will also look at how community involvement can be
improved, so that individuals as a collective have more of an influence during
the planning and construction phases of the developments, whether that be
by determining the sites of the developments or through the involvement at
each stage of the development process. In addition to this the investigation
will look at what people’s attitudes are towards the shared ownership of
renewable energy developments, whereby communities will not only be
involved in renewable energy developments but they would also benefit from
them. This research would benefit a number of project stakeholders in
Pembrokeshire, as they would not only be able to attempt to mitigate some of
the reasons behind peoples negative viewpoints towards wind and solar
developments, but also they could endeavour to increase communities
involvement in projects and this could in turn affect public attitudes towards
them.

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Chapter 2 – From Fossil Fuels to Renewables
2.1 Abstract
As a result of societal demands there has been a significant increase in global
energy demand; however as the demand for energy has increased more
natural resources such as fossil fuels are being consumed in large quantities.
Fossil fuels have formed the basis of global energy production systems for
many years, and play an important role in the world energy market; these
fuels include oil, natural gas and coal. Fossil fuels are finite resources, the
reserves tend to be used in combustion processes, and as a result they are
susceptible to depletion. This is likely to present a number of challenges for
global energy systems in the future. There are also a number of
environmental challenges associated with the use of fossil fuels, for example
when subject to the combustion processes carbon dioxide is released. Carbon
dioxide emissions account for the majority of green house gas emissions, with
green house gases being a major contributor to climate change, for example it
can induce a radiative imbalance in the atmosphere thus increasing global
surface temperatures. There are also various other problems associated with
the combustion of fossil fuels for example a decline in air quality, and in
urbanised areas smog events can occur. As a direct response to these
problems a more sustainable approach to energy production methods is
required. Sustainability is a relatively new concept that has risen to
prominence in recent times, and has become commonplace within modern
discourse. As a result, governing bodies around the world have been
encouraged to conserve depleting fuel resources and to stimulate the
development and use of renewable energy sources. The utilization of
renewable energy sources are considered to be a viable alternative to fossil
fuels, and could aid in the transference towards more sustainable energy
systems, whilst also improving efficiency of energy production and alleviating
energy security concerns. Wind energy and solar represent the largest share
of renewable energy within the energy market. However there are a number
of environmental concerns associated with them, they can be categorised into
ecological, human and climate impacts. There are however a number of ways

16. 16
in that they can be mitigated, this is necessary in order to avoid local
challenges such as public perception which can be considered to be the
greatest barrier for the renewable energy industry to overcome. One way in
particular that this can be remedied is community energy whereby
communities and renewable energy developers collaborate through
investment and increased participation. This is because people will no longer
be consumers but they will have a direct influence on what methods are used
to produce the energy and the scale and location to which they are built.
2.2 The Energy Demand Problem
At present natural resources are consumed in large quantities in order to
maintain global energy systems, with the vast majority of them being finite
resources for example fossil fuels. Speirs et al (2015) looks at how the
dependency on fossil fuels as a primary energy source is likely to create
problems in the future. Hammond (2000) also stated that ‘Energy systems
pervade industrial societies and weave a complex web of interactions that
affect the daily lives of citizens’, this suggests that the methods which are
utilized in order to generate energy is influenced by societal demands; for
example fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal are utilized in the industrial,
transportation, utility and residential sectors in both developed and developing
countries, (Dinçer et al, 2014). These fuel sources have formed the basis of
global energy production systems for many years; they also play an important
role in the world’s energy market that is currently worth around 1.5 trillion
dollars. The current inefficient use of resources such as fossil fuels, that are
expected to account for 84% of the world’s energy demand in 2030; this could
create a number of problems, because of the uncertain supply of fossil fuels in
the future, (Shafiee and Topal, 2009).
2.3 The Depletion Fossil Fuel Based Resources
Capellán-Pérez et al (2014) talks about how the finite reserves of fossil fuels
tend to be used in combustion processes, and as a result of this they are
susceptible to depletion. For example since 2010 world oil production has

17. 17
remained at 85 million barrels per day (mb/d) or 3900 millions tonnes of oil
equivalents (mtoe) annually, with natural gas and coal at 3700 to 2900 mtoe
per year, (Höök and Tang, 2013). The exhaustible nature of fossil fuels means
that there are limited reserves, Hammond (1997) talks about how the different
types of fuel have varying lifetimes, for instance oil has around 20-40 years of
life, Natural Gas has 40-70 years of life and Coal has the longest lifetime
based on current consumption rates with 80-240 years of life. These figures
highlight the need for our energy systems to evolve, this is something that is
discussed in both Capellán-Pérez et al (2014) and Höök and Tangs (2013)
research, looking specifically at the high production rates of oil, coal and
natural gas and how increased consumption has caused a steady decline in
fossil fuel reserves. Reviewing this information is necessary in order to
increase awareness of the challenges that global energy systems will face in
the future, whilst also prompting a multinational response.
2.4 Fossil Fuels and there Environmental Impacts
Hoel and Kverndokk (1996) address the environmental challenges that are
associated with the continued use of fossil fuels. The carbon within these
fuels, is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) during the
combustion process, (Dincer et al, 2014). Lotfalipour et al (2010) looks at the
direct correlation between fossil fuel consumption and carbon dioxide
emissions, despite primarily looking at the emissions in Iran it can be applied
on a global scale. A study into carbon dioxide emissions is important as they
play a critical role in the current debate on sustainability and the preservation
of the environment. Lotfalipour et al (2010) in a recent study have found that
carbon dioxide accounts for around 58.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG). Greenhouses are a major contributor to climate change, aside from
carbon dioxide other gases include nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4),
however, carbon dioxide accounts for most of the green house gas emissions.
A study conducted by Adam and Apaydin, (2016) despite talking about ways
in which to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it also discusses the disparity
in the production of greenhouse gases between countries, as this is
dependent on a number of different factors such as population, economic

18. 18
activity and land use. Both this study and the one undertaken by lotfalipour et
al (2010), support the idea that carbon dioxide emissions from the combustion
of fossil fuels are the leading cause for increased concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Nicoletti et al (2015) discusses how
increased emission levels are proportionate to the continued development of
industrial progress, reinforcing the idea that the dependency on fossil fuels is
becoming an increasing environmental concern. The increases in the levels of
greenhouse gas emissions have contributed to adverse impacts on the
environment, an example of this is that it can induce a radiative imbalance in
the earth’s atmosphere thus increasing global surface temperatures, (Masnadi
et al, .2015.). Masnadi et al (2015) suggests as a result of the issues
associated with increased greenhouse gas emissions, it will initiate a
response and the subsequent transference towards more sustainable energy
production methods, this is something that is universally recognised in various
studies. There are also various other problems that are associated with
combustion of fossil fuels; examples include smog that is usually as a result of
vehicular emissions coupled with industrials emissions. Shi et al (2016) looks
extensively at this, looking specifically at China where smog events are
commonplace as a result of the intensive industrial practices throughout the
country, however air quality issues are present in other countries that are
experiencing rapid rates of industrialization, (Shi et al, 2016).
2.5 A Sustainable Approach
Sustainability is a concept that was identified as a means of reducing the gap
between development and the environment. The term sustainable
development received a great deal of impetus and rose to prominence
following the report in 1987 from the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED), this report that is often referred to as the Brundtland
report. Sustainable development is defined as being development that is of
satisfactory levels for present needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet there own needs, (Strantzali and Aravossis, 2016).
Further awareness on the issue of sustainability was raised in 1992 at the
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (the UN Conference on Environment and

19. 19
Development) this compounded what was established in the Brundtland
report and built on these foundations. It recognised that the concept of
sustainable development needed to be embedded within new strategies and
that a balance between economic and social development along with
environmental protection was essential to this, (Rogers et al, 2008). As a
result, governing bodies around the world have been encouraged to conserve
depleting fuel resources and to stimulate the development and use of
renewable energy sources, Hammond, (1997), looks at how a more
sustainable approach could be incorporated into governmental strategy.
If sustainable principles are applied to the way that energy is generated, it will
aid in the conservation of finite resources that currently act as the primary
method of energy generation, these include coal, oil and gas. The use of
alternative energy sources, for example renewables energy technologies such
as wind energy, solar power and tidal power can all play a major role in
reshaping the way that global energy demands are met, (Srivastava, 1999).
2.6 Renewable Revolution
With energy demand continuing to rise, and a decline in the quantities of
conventional energy sources, Pacesila et al, (2016) considers a number of
different renewable energy alternatives, in order to improve the security of
energy supply. Renewables energy sources can be said to be influential in
transforming and diversifying the current energy market and facilitating a
transference away from the over dependence on fossil fuels. Bhattacharya et
al (2016) further adds to this idea of a move towards a sustainable energy
sector, as it would aid in improving energy efficiency and security. It is this
sort of research that has become commonplace in modern discourse, as the
prospect of a decline in energy security, is becoming an ever more prevalent
issue, because of finite nature of fossil fuel resources. Renewable energy is
energy that is derived from natural resources such sunlight, wind, rain,
biomass, tides and geothermal heat, (Strantzali and Aravossis, 2016).
However there are a number of barriers that renewable energy technologies

20. 20
must overcome, these include socio-economic, environmental, institutional
and technical.
There has however been significant growth in the use of renewables in recent
times, this is as a result of government incentives such as subsidies and tax
credits, (Bhattacharya et al, 2016). Battacharya et al (2016) and Strantzali et
al (2016) both discuss the increased investment in renewables, with global
investment in renewables rising from $36 billion to $139 billion (USD) in
developed countries, whilst developing countries show growth from $9 billions
to $131 billion, with a total global increase from $45 billion to $270 billion
between 2004 and 2014, both acknowledge that the increase is as a result of
the universal push towards a more sustainable energy system. There are a
number of different types of renewable technologies that include:
 Wind Power
 Solar Power
 Hydro Power
 Biomass
 Geothermal Energy
However in 2014 both Wind power and solar power accounted for the majority
of global investment in renewables of 92%, (Strantzali, et al, 2016), both solar
and wind power are considered to be exceptional methods of power
generation.
This is something Bhattacharjee et al (2016) looks at in great detail, seeing
whether they are viable alternative energy option in terms of power yield; this
type of research into renewable energy sources is fundamental when
considering whether there utilization will be able to provide sufficient power
yields as we begin to transfer away from fossil fuel use.
2.7 The Economics of Renewable Energy
In terms of low-carbon electricity generation renewables are at the forefront of
the market, the economic dimensions of their implementation has been widely

21. 21
discussed; Suna and Resch (2016) consider renewable energy’s ability to
meet current energy demands and also reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and
whether the cost implications associated with them will hinder there
deployment. Cerdá and del Río (2015) discusses the definition of the cost
effectiveness of renewable energy technologies for example it can be
considered to be a reduction in the cost of renewable energy generation
however it can also be seen as the minimisation of consumer costs. With
regards to consumer costs it is something that has decreased significantly in
recent times, this is as a result of reduced production costs as well as
improvements in the efficiency of the manufacturing process, (Carlisle et al,
2016). Research done by Khatib and Difiglio (2016) looks into the returns on
renewable energy investments and their viability; there are various factors that
can affect this, including the variability of the cost profile in particularly with
wind and solar energy developments, the great deal of uncertainty in terms of
there performance this is dependant on whether they are located in areas that
provide ideal conditions for energy generation, for example if they are
exposed to optimum weather conditions and also high transmission costs
because generally renewable energy developments are located away from
load centres, (Khatib and Difiglio, 2016). Winkler et al (2016) examines the
support mechanisms that are available in order to ensure the expansion of
renewable technologies share within the energy market. One such support
mechanism is the feed-in tariff (FIT), where a tariff is paid to operators for
each unit of electricity produced, this is usually fixed and remains the same
regardless of whether there is a decline in demand, (Winkler et al, 2016).
Ritzenhofen, Birge and Spinlerv (2016) further discusses the feed-in tariff as a
support scheme, with it being the most effective and widely used scheme,
looking specifically at how it aids in achieving three objectives including
affordability, reliability, and sustainability, these dimensions are fundamental
to renewable energy policy, (Ritzenhofen, Birge and Spinlerv, 2016).
2.8 Solar Power
There is an abundance of energy from the sun, and solar energy is present
across the earth surface, (Khan et al, 2016). Solar energy can be converted

22. 22
by various application methods, for example from passive solar to heat
buildings and into concentrated form that can then be used to generate
electricity, (Guney, 2016). Guney (2016) discusses the various application
methods of solar energy, with the most notable conversion process being
helioelectrical; this is done by utilizing solar cells to generate electricity
(Photovoltaics). Solar and photovoltaic (PV) cells can transform both direct
and indirect solar radiation into electricity. Khan et al (2016) discusses the
benefits of utilizing this technology, as it aids in the transference to a more
sustainable energy system, in terms of its environmental friendliness, cost
effectiveness and its universal social acceptance, thus making it a viable
energy alternative. The environmental impacts of this technology are also at
the forefront of discussion as any alternative to fossil fuels must be of little
environmental concern, there tends to be very little environmental concerns,
these only arise during the assembly and decommissioning phases. Khan et
al (2016) and Xu et al (2016) outline some of the issues that are associated
with the use of solar technology; these include a reduction in efficiency when
there is an increase in ambient temperature and also energy output can be
dependent on the weather and time of day, despite there being research into
the negatives associated with solar power, the positives tend to outweigh the
negatives. Despite some of drawbacks associated with the use of solar power
Guney (2016) further highlights the important role that solar power can play in
reducing the energy deficits, providing better outlook on current environmental
problems such as climate change and how it can aid in the movement
towards a future where sustainable principles form the basis of how energy
demands are met.
2.9 Wind Energy
Along with solar power, wind power is one of the most commonly used
renewable technologies for energy generation, and its importance is
continuing to increase. Wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy in
the wind into mechanical energy and then into electricity, (Tummala et al,
2016). The various different types of wind turbines are discussed by
Tummala et al (2016); wind turbines are classified by the axis of rotation and

23. 23
the diameter of the rotor. There are both vertical and horizontal axis turbines
and these range in size from small scale (ranging between 3-10 metres) to
large scale wind turbines (ranging between 50-100 metres). Some benefits of
using wind power is that a turbine is able to generate more power than they
consume between 17 and 39 time when compared to coals plants which are
around 11 times, they also provide clean and sustainable energy efficiently
and at a relatively low cost, thus making them and attractive alternative to
more conventional energy production methods, (Siddique et al, 2016). Mahela
et al (2016) discusses the potential for wind energy going forward, with a
current capacity exceeding 280 gigawatts (GW) it is expected to rise to 1900
GW by 2020. This is as a result of the continued growth of the global energy
demand that has provided impetus for a number of countries to invest heavily
in the installation of large scale wind farms both onshore and offshore in order
to meet this demand. For example in 2014 China had an installed capacity of
wind energy of around 114,609 megawatts (MW), followed by the United
States with 65,879 MW and Germany 39,165 MW, with China accounting for
the majority of the total global wind power (31%), (Mahela, 2016). However
there is great deal of opposition to wind turbines, these can be said to be due
to a number of reasons, examples include noise, animal and habitat impacts
and the impact on the landscape, (Oerlemans et al, 2007); this is discussed
by both Broekel et al (2015) and Baxter et al (2013) looking specifically at the
varying degrees of opposition towards wind turbines, this type of study is
necessary in order to determine whether these perceptions are valid. Despite
the negatives perception associated with wind energy, it is still at the forefront
of the diversification of the energy market, and will play a key role in the future
as sustainable methods of energy production will begin to displace the current
fossil fuel orientated energy generation practices.
2.10 Rural Energy
Rural areas account for large amount of the land area in the UK; Renewable
energy investments are something that is becoming commonplace within rural
communities, (Bergmann, Colombo and Hanley, 2008). Renewables can be
considered to be best suited to rural areas, because depending on the type of

24. 24
technology and the scale of the development; considerable areas land may be
needed for installations. The spatial implications that are associated with
renewable energy technologies are a concern particularly in rural areas,
(Zerriffi and Wilson, 2010); these impacts are well documented in renewable
energy discourse. , Bergmann, Colombo and Hanley (2008), consider the
benefits of diversifying rural economies and placing more emphasis on
renewable energy schemes, however this cannot be achieved without
difficulty, with their at present being an increasing emphasis on public
attitudes towards these developments; this is as a result of the various
environmental and social impacts associated with renewable energy
technologies. In terms of the benefits associated renewable energy schemes
Simas and Pacca (2014) discuss the possibility of the creation of new jobs
whether they be direct jobs that include the construction, operation and
management, or indirect jobs in the supply of materials used to construct the
various renewable energy technologies; this can also be beneficial in
promoting local development in rural communities, especially since the
decline of agriculture as a source of income and employment, (Bergmann,
Colombo and Hanley, 2008). However, in contrast to this renewable energy
infrastructures can also significantly impact local developments in terms of
tourist demand especially in rural territories. Broekel and Alfken (2015) adress
their impact on the landscape attractiveness, and how by siting these
developments in areas of high aesthetic quality can have a negative effect,
and diminish the tourist appeal of an area.
2.11 A Welsh Dimension
The transference to a more sustainable energy system is of paramount
importance to governmental bodies, in Wales the Welsh Government is
attempting to facilitate a shift towards renewable energy technologies. There
energy policy ‘Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition’ provides a template
for how this will be achieved. At present energy share in wales in comprised
of predominantly solar and wind energy sources, this policy looks further
increase share whilst also stimulating growth in other renewable energy
technologies, (Welsh Government, 2013).

25. 25
Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition is suggestive of the direction that the
Welsh Government in order to establish an energy market comprised of
mainly renewable energy sources. Outlining a course of action in terms of its
ability to achieve its objective of becoming an influential figure in terms low
carbon energy production. This policy takes a holistic approach recognising
the importance of energy with it providing a basis to which the economic,
social and environmental wellbeing of people can be sustained over the long
term, not only Wales but worldwide, (Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition,
2012). Cowell (2010) discusses how the Welsh Government has used various
instruments in order to facilitate the expansion of wind energy technologies
across Wales, whether they are onshore or offshore; whereby utilising rural
spaces that have optimal conditions for operation. However it also highlights
the difficulties associated with the deployment of these technologies within
rural space for example public opposition from nearby communities, and how
the welsh government are attempting to mitigate and promote social
acceptance, (Cowell, 2010). At present Wales supplies 9% of the total energy
generation in the UK, this is can be considered to be a relatively low figure,
with a large part of the energy generation coming mainly from gas, whereas in
the past I was sourced from coal. The policy is intended to provide a
framework for the present whilst at the same time creating an energy system
that is sustainable for the future. This is evidenced in the growth of renewable
energy electricity generation in recent times, with an increase from 2.9% to
5.1% between 2004 and 2010, this is likely to continue as a result of further
investment from the Welsh Government. Further to this there are various
other policy mechanisms that have been designed in order to encourage
electricity generation from renewable energy sources, this was discussed by
Mitchell and Connor (2004), an example is the Renewable Obligation, it was
introduced in 2002 and has been adopted in both England and Wales, and
can be considered to be the central mechanism in terms of stimulating
electricity generation from low carbon energy sources, (Connor, 2003).
Woodman and Mitchell (2011) however, discusses some of the failings of the
Renewable Obligation, as it has been heavily criticised for its lack of
effectiveness in terms of its ability as an instrument to encourage the

26. 26
implementation of renewable energy. Despite its failings it is still used as a
mechanism in aiding with renewable energy expansion in England and Wales.

27. 27
Chapter 3 - The Challenge of Public Opposition
3.1 Environmental Impacts of Renewable Technologies
Despite the ever-expanding role of renewable energy within the energy
market, there are facets of this method of energy productions that can have a
detrimental effect on the environment, (H Rashid, 2016). Research conducted
by McCombie and Jefferson (2016) aims to determine the various
environmental impacts of different renewable energy technologies including:
 Solar PV (Photovoltaic)
 Biomass
 Wind
 Solar CSP (Concentrated Solar Power)
 Hydro
They look at to what degree each technology affects the environment looking
specifically at their materials, energy requirements, and emissions during
operation, health effects and waste streams, (McCombie and Jefferson,
2016). Looking in particularly at solar and wind energy there are a number of
implications associated with these technologies these can be grouped into
ecological, human and climate related concerns. Rashid (2016) highlights a
number of factors associated with solar power, either during the
manufacturing or operation stages. For example there are various chemicals
used during the manufacturing of solar panels, including the use of cadmium
(Cd) that is an extremely harmful substance. The use of such toxic materials
means that at the end of a solar panels life cycle it is increasingly difficult to
dispose of; this can be effectively remedied by correct planning procedures
whereby designated landfill sites are provided or by utilizing a recycling
management system, (H Rashid, 2016). Solar Power developments, in
particularly utility scale solar power can be considered to have significant
impacts on the land uses; this is because of the large areas of land needed
for installations, (Gunderson et al, 2015). These impacts are as a direct

28. 28
consequence of land clearing needed in order to increase sites suitability; this
can adversely affect local wildlife and reduce vegetation. Dai et al (2015)
reviews the various environmental issues that are associated with wind
energy; much like solar energy there are impacts that only occur through the
use of specific technologies, some do however overlap. For example, both
solar and wind power both have some ecological and human effects, such as
effects on wildlife and visual impacts on the landscape. In terms of how wind
energy can impact wildlife it can differ depending on whether onshore or
offshore is being utilized. It can affect local avian and bat populations inducing
mortality and disturbance risks to both; it can occur as a result of collisions
with the turbines rotating propellers or with other structures within a wind farm,
(Dai et al, 2015). Another primary environmental drawback is noise, Dai et al
(2015) talks about how noise creates a great deal of opposition towards wind
energy developments, as residents become more antagonised by turbine
noise compared to traffic noise. The noise created by wind turbines can be
categorised into aerodynamic and mechanical noise; there are ways however
that the noise from wind turbines can be reduced; this can be done during the
design phase by altering the shape of the blades. It can also be mitigated by
implementing longer standoff distances for developments, or by constructing
turbines in areas where there are greater levels of noise, for example areas
that experience higher levels of traffic, (H Rashid, 2016). Wind energy’s
impact on the landscape is another issue that is explored by Minelli et al
(2014), looking at how the location of the wind developments can affect how
people view there aesthetic impact on the landscape. There is also the
concern of shadow flicker this occurs when the sunlight is distorted by the
movement of the blades and is considered a human impact especially when
developments are built in close proximity to residences, (Dai et al, 2015).
Similarly to noise impacts this can be minimised by carefully locating
developments, especially in areas near to habitations.

29. 29
3.2 Public Acceptance of Solar and Wind Energy Projects
The rapid expansion of the renewable technologies within the energy market
has resulted in a decrease in the use of fossil fuel based energy sources,
despite this it has however created local challenges in terms of public
acceptance, (Bertsch et al, 2016). Bertsch et al refers to the impacts that are
associated with renewable energy technologies in particularly looking at how
renewable energy technologies modify the landscape and also how the
distances between both renewable energy developments and residences are
the main drivers behind the lack of acceptance to the technologies. The lack
of support towards renewable is more common in rural areas, Woods (2003)
discusses the idea of reactive ruralism, whereby rural populations will mobilise
in the event that the local landscape has something imposed upon it, and in
this instance it is renewable technologies and more commonly solar and wind
energy developments. In terms of acceptance, attitudes will need to change in
order to facilitate the widespread implementation of renewable systems and
so that energy targets are met. Research done by Karlstrøm and Ryghaug
(2014) suggests that there is generally widespread support towards
renewable energy in not only the UK but across Europe. There work also
makes reference to how the level of education can influence people’s
perceptions towards renewables sources; this can also be attributed to
people’s age, generational effects can also be seen in people’s attitudes
towards renewables, with older generations tending to have a more negative
attitude towards renewables. Attitudes towards these technologies whether
they are positive or negative can be considered to be subjective. Dai et al
(2015) talks about how people’s attitudes depend on their view towards the
renewable energy industry; for example people may understand that wind
turbines are fundamental to the expansion of the energy market so that
current energy demands can be met, whilst others may view them as an
unnecessary burden on the natural landscape, (Dai et al, 2015) this draws
connections to Karlstrøm and Ryghaug (2014) research on how peoples
education can effect their views. The factors effecting public acceptance are
varied, and there is not a sole reason behind people’s reluctance to invest in

30. 30
renewable technologies, this is something that is suggested in Sardianou et
al, (2013) research.
3.3 Community Participation in Renewable Developments
The concept of community energy is something that has become increasingly
more prevalent within renewable energy discourse; it is when communities
collaborate with renewable energy project developers through investment and
increased involvement, (Holstenkamp and Kahla, 2016). Examples of
community energy projects include:
 Solar PV (Photovoltaic) Panels
 Wind Turbines
 Heat Pumps; and
 Biomass Boilers
Such bottoms up initiatives are becoming ever more important in terms of
renewable energy developments, with policy makers recognising its
importance to encouraging public engagement within the renewable energy
market. Mey, Diesendorf and MacGill, (2016) discuss how communities can
help in supporting the expansion and deployment of renewable energy
technologies, by influencing energy policy. Bauwens (2016) further reiterates
the importance of community based renewable energy initiatives. His work
considers the various motivations behind people’s participation in the
initiatives, suggesting that it differs between individuals and this can be as a
result of a number of different factors. The factors that influence the
heterogeneity behind people’s motivations include, material incentives,
following of social norms and spatial patterns, this can have an have a
significant effect on policy decision makers as they can adapt to policy to
correspond to community needs, (Bauwens, 2016). In terms of community
renewable energy there is a direct relationship between this and public
acceptance. Kalkbrenner and Roosen (2016) discuss how people’s ability to
actually engage in local energy systems will in fact encourage a more positive

31. 31
attitude towards renewable technologies because they would no longer just
be consumers but have a direct influence on what methods are used to
produce the energy and the scale to which they are built.
This is idea further discussed by Colvin, Witt and Lacey (2016) whereby social
conflict and localised opposition can be significantly reduced through the
introduction of community energy; people’s perceptions towards renewable
energy sources can be directly influenced through increased involvement.
However the degree to which people engage in these projects can vary, and
this can have an effect on how people view energy developments within there
locality it can also depend on local context.

32. 32
Chapter 4
4.1 Methodology
As part of the investigation surveys were conducted in the towns of Tenby,
Narberth, Whitland, Haverfordwest and Milford Haven all of which are located
in rural Pembrokeshire, the areas can be seen on the map below.
Questionnaires were the primary source of data collection, as this is a widely
accepted research instrument. However in order to yield a high return rate of
valid data that can be used in the investigation, the questionnaire was
carefully planned and designed. There are a number of positives to using a
questionnaire as a research instrument, as it allows for the target audience to
be clearly identified, also because it is quantitative data it is relatively
straightforward to analyse. Questionnaires tend to consist of primarily closed
questions and in some instances they implement a scale to indicate the
degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement, this provides
assurances that it is made clear what is being asked of the respondent,
(Marshall, 2005). There are however a number of disadvantages to using
questionnaires, this is dependent on the respondent and whether they have
adequate literacy skills and general knowledge of the topic to understand
what is being asked of them, a visual impairment or if they are non-English
speakers all of these variables can determine the success of a questionnaire.
The questionnaire used in this study consisted of 5 questions with some
containing multiple aspects in table like answers. It consisted of mainly closed
questions and a Likert response scale allowed a range that was used with
questions 3 and 5. A number of basic questions were also included to get an
idea of the respondent’s knowledge of solar and wind farms by asking
whether they were located near a sustainable farm, even though all
respondents selected lived in proximity to a solar or wind farm location. The
use of closed questions allows easy categorising of peoples responses
whether they Agree or disagree, (Marshall, 2005). A participant information
sheet was also provided so that the participants know the purpose of the
study, and so that they were aware that the information they have given would
remained anonymous and would be used only for the purpose of this study.

33. 33
The survey would outline a number of different issues that have been raised
in a number of studies as to why people may oppose to both solar and wind
developments and it would allow for people to state their opinion, these
include:
 Noise Pollution
 Disruption of Wildlife
 Visual Amenity Impact
 Cost Effectiveness
 Purchase and Installation cost.
Please refer to the questionnaire in the appendices.
A scale was utilized in this instance on a scale of 0-4; it is widely used
research method that involves measuring people’s opinions and attitudes. For
example No Opinion (0), Agree (1), Strongly Agree (2) Disagree (3) and
Strongly Disagree (4), (Hartley, 2014). However, question 3 differed from the
other questions and instead measured no opinion (0) No Concern (1) Least
Concern (2) Some Concern (3) Most Concern (4), the use of this scale was to
analyse how people view the potential impacts outlined in the questionnaire.
This method is preferred for this study because it allowed for a good variation
in data. The Likert scale will be used for questions 3 and 5; the intent of
question 3 was to gauge people’s opinions towards wind and solar
developments and identify the reasons behind these, and question 5 was
designed to determine what people’s opinions are on the ways in which the
level of community involvement could be improved for wind and solar
developments, these include:
 Siting
 Community Involvement from the outset
 Shared Ownership

34. 34
This question is intended to test people’s knowledge on the subject of
community energy, because it could be considered to be a great way to
encourage more positive attitudes towards renewable energy projects,
potentially achieved through increased levels of involvement.
It would be distributed in all of the aforementioned towns and peripheral
areas, as there are a number of renewable energy projects situated in close
proximity, please refer to the map below. These include:
 Caeremlyn Farm Solar Park - located to the north of Whitland town,
covering a large area of land approximately 28 hectares, with 60,000
solar panels with a capacity of 6 megawatts (MW).
 Jordanston Solar Farm – Located In St Florence just outside of the
town of Tenby covering 10.6 hectares, with a total of 20,680 solar
panels with a capacity 4.96 megawatts (MW).
 Castle Pill Wind Farm – Located in Steynton on outskirts of the town
Milford Haven, there are 4 900-kilowatt (kW) Wind turbines at the site
with a capacity of 3.2 megawatts (MW).
 Princes Gate Wind Farm – Located on the outskirts of Narberth town,
where there are 2 86.5 metre Wind turbines with a capacity of 1.6
megawatts (MW).
 Wear Point Wind Farm – Located outside of Milford Haven, where
there are 4 Wind Turbines on the site with a capacity of 10 megawatts
(MW).
 Parc Cynog Solar and Wind Farm – it is a co-location development
located near Pendine, it has 11 wind turbines with a capacity of 8.4
megawatts (MW) and also a solar park with a capacity of 5 megawatts
(MW).
A total number of 91 participants were asked, and these consisted of random
respondent house owners, pedestrians and business owners, of a varying age
and gender. A systematic survey procedure was adopted from the outset,
beginning with door-to-door interview surveys; this can sometimes fail and is

35. 35
common in rural areas as people are sometimes reluctant to talk to strangers
in their homes, (Delicado, Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). With the door-to-door
method being not as successful as hoped, public places were then used
instead for example outside local businesses such as shops and restaurants
as well as parks, villages and town centre. Pembrokeshire being a very
touristy area and the survey being conducted over the summer holiday, it was
essential to differentiate between locals and tourists, as this would affect the
data collected.
A map of Pembrokeshire Coast National Park in order to show the areas that
were sampled in the survey including Haverfordwest, Milford Haven, Narberth,
Tenby and Whitland. (Pembrokeshirecoast.org.uk, 2016)

36. 36
4. 2 Results
This research looks into the perceptions of local stakeholders and residents
towards renewable energy projects, looking in particularly at wind and solar
developments that are in close proximity to their locality. This can be
considered to be fundamental in understanding the degree of public
acceptance towards renewable energy developments and the conflicts that
have arisen as a result of this. The survey was conducted in a number of
towns throughout Pembrokeshire these include:
 Narberth
 Milford Haven
 Whitland
 Tenby
 Haverfordwest
This study has looked specifically at medium to large scale solar and wind
developments. During the survey participants were asked whether there are
any medium to large-scale projects in their area, (Fig. 1). It was expected that
all participants would answer yes, as everyone tested was local to a
renewable energy projects. As can be seen in Figure 1 nearly all the
respondents answered with yes. However there were a number of
respondents who answered no, the possible reasons for this could be due to
some of the respondents not being aware of the developments, or they did not
know what they were.

37. 37
To get some more background on the general perception of renewable energy
developments, people were asked whether or not they agree with the
development of solar and wind energy projects. A combined graph was used
to display the opinions of people towards both solar and wind energy
developments, illustrated in figure 2. Most of the respondents tended to either
strongly agree or agree with them, with some disagreeing and very little
people strongly disagreeing. However comparatively it is clear there is some
preference towards solar power over wind power projects with approximately
70% of respondents strongly agreeing with solar farms compared to 55% for
wind farms. Taking a closer look at the results, seen in Figure 2a, we can see
the proportion between answers more clearly. This means that out of 91
participants of which 88 had an opinion, 15% disagree or strongly disagree
with Solar and Wind energy project (fig. 2a).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Solar Wind
No.ofRespondents
Project Type
Are there any medium to large scale Solar or
Wind energy projects in your area?
No
Yes
Figure 1 – Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August
2016: Are there any medium to large-scale Solar or Wind energy projects
in your area? – This looks at whether there are any wind or solar energy
projects in proximity to the locations that were surveyed.

38. 38
One of the main objectives of the survey was to establish people’s opinions
towards wind and solar farms and then identify the reasons behind these;
various impacts were outlined and can be categorised into human and
environmental impacts, these include:
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 1 2 3 4
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
Do you agree with the development of both Solar
and Wind Energy projects?
Solar
Wind
85%
15%
A Look at the overall proportion of respondents
who agreed or disagreed with both Solar and
Wind Energy Projects
Agree + Strongly
Agree
Disagree + Strongly
Disagree
Figure 2 – Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August
2016: Do you agree with the development of both Solar and Wind
Energy projects? – A comparison between the number of respondents
who agreed or disagreed with solar and wind energy installations.
Figure 2a – Primary Data Collected between 4th July and the 21st of
August 2016: A look at the overall proportion of respondents who
agreed or disagreed with both solar and wind energy projects.

39. 39
 Noise Pollution
 Visual Impact
 Disruption of Wildlife
 Cost Effectiveness
Noise Pollution
With wind farms tending to generate both mechanical and aerodynamic noise,
the question about noise pollution was asked to determine if this was the
cause for the negative views observed in the Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b towards wind
farms. Fig. 3 compares the answers of wind and solar farms, with there being
a clear distinction between them both. With regards to wind power the
majority of respondents feel that noise pollution is either of some cause for
concern or of most concern. In contrast to this in terms of solar power,
developments noise pollution is viewed by most of the respondents as being
of no concern.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
No
Opinion
No
Concern
Least
Concern
Some
Concern
Most
Concern
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
Noise Pollution
Solar
Wind
Figure 3 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st August: Noise
pollution as a potential cause for people negative perceptions towards
both solar and wind developments - Looking at whether participants
believe noise pollution to be of concern in terms of its environmental
impact.

40. 40
Disruption of Wildlife
With the potential demolishing of habitats, when setting up wind and solar
farms, wildlife disruption has recently become of increasing concern
(Tabassum-Abbasi et al, 2014). Pembrokeshire is very rural and is an
agriculturally focussed region with a multitude of wildlife species; habit
demolition should be a cause for concern. Figure 4 shows that the vast
majority of respondents believe it to be of least concern, this applies to both
wind and solar developments. However, in terms of the type of energy that
causes the most disruption, there is a trend towards wind farm, however there
is still some concern in relation to the development of solar energy
installations.
Visual Impact
Visual Impact can be considered to be one of the primary motives for negative
attitudes towards renewable developments. With wind farms being clearly
visible from a distance and solar farms not so much due to their low vicinity to
the ground, seeing the public perception towards the renewable energy
systems was an intriguing question to ask the public. In terms of wind energy
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
No
Opinion
No
Concern
Least
Concern
Some
Concern
Most
Concern
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
Disruption of Wildlife
Solar
Wind
Figure 4 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st of August: Solar
and Wind Energy developments effects on Wildlife as a potential cause
for peoples negative perceptions towards both solar and wind
developments.

41. 41
projects the majority of respondents felt that visual impact was either of some
or most concern (Fig 5). However, with regards to solar power only some
respondents believed it to be some cause for concern, and the majority
viewing it as either least or of no concern.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
No
Opinion
No
Concern
Least
Concern
Some
Concern
Most
Concern
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
Visual Impact
Solar
Wind
12%
24%
43%
15%
6%
Visual Impact of Solar Energy Installations
No Opinion
No Concern
Least Concern
Some Concern
Most Concern
Figure 5 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st August:
The Visual Impact of Solar and Wind Energy Developments as potential
cause for negative perceptions – To look closer at the comparison
between both solar and wind energy developments and the differences
in how solar and wind energy developments affect visual amenity and
the landscape.
Figure 5a - Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August:
The Visual Impact of Solar Energy Developments as a potential caused
for negative perceptions.

42. 42
Cost Effectiveness
Cost effectiveness was another aspect that was looked at. Stakeholders of
renewable projects were assumed to be fully aware of the profit or loss of
these projects; the general public however may have only some idea of the
implications associated with the cost of these developments. Figure 6 shows
the opinion on the cost effectiveness of wind and solar energy developments.
In all cases there was a negative correlation, suggesting the majority of
respondents have little or no concern for the cost effectiveness of these
projects.
5%
7%
18%
43%
27%
Visual Impact Wind Energy Installations
No Opinion
No Concern
Least Concern
Some Concern
Most Concern
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
No
Opinion
No
Concern
Least
Concern
Some
Concern
Most
Concern
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
Cost Effectivness
Solar
Wind
Figure 6, Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st of August: A
look at the Cost Effectiveness of Solar and wind energy developments
as a potential cause for negative perceptions.
Figure 5b – Primary Data,Collected between the 4th July and the 21st August
2016: The visual impactof Wind Energy developments as a potential causefor
negative perceptions.

43. 43
Community Participation in Renewable Energy Developments
The final part of this section of questioning was to see what people’s opinions
were towards community involvement in renewable energy projects. Due to
renewable energy projects in Pembrokeshire being privately owned, no
surrounding residents benefit from the wind or solar farms. With this in mind, it
was believed that the potential benefits for residents and the lack of
involvement at all stages of development may have distorted their views
towards renewable energy projects. Figure 7 shows that a large number of
the respondents believe that communities should have a greater say in the
development of renewable energy projects.
A number of potential ways of improving public involvement in renewable
energy projects were outlined in the survey. Participants who wanted more
say in sustainable projects were asked to answer the type of involvement they
would like by agreeing or disagreeing with the following methods of
improvement:
 Siting
19%
81%
Do you think communities should have a greater
say in the development of Solar or wind
projects?
No
Yes
Figure 7 Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August
2016: Do you think communities should have a greater say in the
development of Solar or wind projects?

44. 44
 Community Involvement from the Outset
 Shared Ownership
Figure 8 shows that the vast majority of respondents strongly agreed with all
of the methods of improvement in particularly siting and being able to
participate in all aspects of the development process. However there are
some respondents who have disagreed, and also given no opinion on the
matter, this may be as a result of peoples disregard for any type of
involvement in the development of solar and wind energy projects. Almost half
of the respondents had no opinion on ownership, potentially due to the
uncertainty whether this would entail any cost implications.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
No
opinion
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
No.ofRespondents
Opinion
A look at the ways in which Community
Involvement in Renewable Energy Developments
can be Improved
Siting
Participation
Ownership
Figure 8 Primary Data, Collected Between 4th July and 21st of August
2016: A look at the ways in which Community Involvement in Renewable
Energy Developments can be improved – This was done in order to get
an idea of whether members of the public would like to be more involved
in the development of renewable projects, and by doing this it create a
better feeling towards them.

45. 45
4.3 Discussion
The primary objective of this study is to see if specific impacts that are
associated with renewable energy technologies, in particularly solar and wind
energy, influence people’s attitudes towards them. One drawback of this
investigation is that it is unable to show what people’s perceptions may have
been before the construction of solar and wind farms and how they may have
changed over a period of time, despite this the findings still presents an
extensive understanding of how individuals regard these technologies once
they are in operation. In terms of the way in which people view solar and wind
developments if can differ depending on the individual; for example, Delicado,
Figueiredo and Silva (2016) discuss the indifference between the way
stakeholders and the residents within communities view renewable energies;
this is because as is the case the majority of the time, stakeholders tend to be
the local authorities that are attempting to develop renewable energy projects,
and they can be considered to be the main beneficiaries from them, in terms
of financial gain, this can in turn influence their opinions. Renewable energy
projects can have various impacts on local businesses, associations and
residents whether they be positive or negative; for example with regards to
local business these developments can affect pre-existent enterprises by
reducing the tourist appeal of an area, or alternately they can stimulate further
development and encourage employment within a community, (Delicado,
Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). There has in recent times been a significant
increase in the number of solar and wind energy developments throughout
rural Pembrokeshire as a result of increased impetus from Pembrokeshire
National Park Authority and Pembrokeshire county council, all of which have
been constructed in relatively close proximity to habitations such as Narberth,
Haverfordwest, Milford Haven, Whitland, and Tenby. However, despite this
increase in developments near these areas, the vast majority of people who
took part in the survey still had a positive attitude towards solar and wind
projects. Conversely, there were still some who disagreed with their
development. The reasons behind people’s opinions were further explored in
the survey with a number of potential impacts being outlined.

46. 46
4.3.1 Noise Pollution
In terms of noise pollution this is something that only really applies to wind
energy, as wind turbines emit noise and are presented as being a nuisance by
people who live in the vicinity. It can be considered to be one of the main
issues that influences people’s opinions towards these developments, this is
evidenced within the survey with most of the respondents believing noise
pollution to be of some concern in terms of its human impact. The noise
generated by wind turbines is categorised into either mechanical or
aerodynamic. Mechanical noise arises as a result of the components within
the turbine moving for example the gearbox and bearings. Aerodynamic noise
is a result of airflow through the blades of the turbine; this is more prominent
in areas that experience high wind speeds, (Saidur et al, 2011).
However, despite this it is not clear whether considering noise, as one of the
main impacts is justifiable. This is because modern wind turbines make
considerably less noise when compared to their predecessors, and adhere to
noise emission requirements. In the UK for example noise limits for medium to
large-scale wind turbines are proportionate to any background noise in a
given area, with limits that are changeable for both day (35-40 dB) and night
(43 dB). The noise limit during the day is dependent on a number of factors,
for instance the limit can be determined depending on the number of
dwellings in the area, as well as the duration and level of noise individuals
may be exposed to, (Boyle, 2012). Pedersen et al (2010) examines the
possibility of locating wind developments in areas that experience significant
noise exposure, for example where there is considerable road traffic noise, (H
Rashid, 2016). The investigation concluded that road traffic noise can in fact
reduce the antagonistic nature associated with the noise emitted by wind
turbines; this is because wind turbine noise levels tend to be between 34- 35
decibels (dB) this is considerably lower when compared to the noise levels of
cars that are between 80-89 decibels (dB), (Boyle, 2012). It is also possible to
minimise the aerodynamic and mechanical noise that is produced by wind
turbines, this is primarily done during design phase either by installing
acoustic insulation on the interior of the turbine or by altering the design of the

47. 47
blades, (Oerlemans, Sijtsma and Méndez López, 2007). It could be beneficial
if these methods were implemented during the development of future projects,
as it could significantly reduce the noise levels emitted by the turbines; this
could in turn have a knock of effect on public attitudes because it would be
less impactful. However, Van Renterghem et al (2013) considers the
expansion of wind energy sector, because increased implementation could
create further problems associated with noise emissions as suitable locations
are becoming increasingly more difficult to find, and as a result we could see
more wind energy projects nearer densely populated areas.
4.3.2 Visual Impact on Landscape
Wind and solar energy developments visual impact on the landscape plays a
significant role in influencing attitudes towards these technologies. The survey
looks at its effect on a local scale and how people perceive it as an impact in
rural Pembrokeshire. From the survey it is clear that wind energy technologies
are considered to be more impactful in terms of their effect on visual amenity
and the landscape, when compared to solar energy developments. Maehr et
al (2015) discusses the visual impact of wind turbines in particularly how there
imposition upon rural landscape can generate residential opposition, they also
look at how in some cases visual impact can affect perceptions with regards
to wind turbine noise . However there are ways in which this can minimised;
Jones and Eiser (2009) suggests by correctly siting these developments they
would be more tolerable and have the potential to become accepted within
local discourse. Public opposition to wind turbine developments can be
considered to be subjective in the sense that it is dependent on the individual
and there are a several factors that can influence their views. Whether or not
someone has a positive or negative opinion it may depend on his or her
viewpoint towards the wind energy industry as a whole. Dai et al (2015)
suggests that people who understand the importance of renewable energy
technologies are more inclined to be more accepting whereas others may
simply view them as avoidable imposition on the landscape and may favour
less intrusive methods of energy generation. Drawing on the idea that wind
turbines are often considered to be unnecessary impositions upon the

48. 48
landscape, Torres Sibille et al (2009) talks about how wind turbines are poorly
integrated into the landscape, and particularly in rural areas, where it is
regarded as an alien feature especially in rural areas as it can have a
damaging effect on the natural beauty of an area. Similarly to wind turbines,
solar power technologies are also a cause for concern; this is evidenced in
the results from the survey however with more emphasis being place on wind
energy technologies by respondents. Utility-scale solar energy developments
for example, require significant amounts of land for installations, for example
Jordanston solar farm covers 10.6 hectares and Caeremlyn Farm solar park
covers 28 hectares. This can significantly alter the visual aesthetic of rural
areas, especially if the facilities are located on what were originally intended
for agricultural purposes. Further to this Minelli et al (2014) discuss how the
location of the observer can distort how they perceive the shape and size of
the installations. This is can be caused by the topography of an area, and in
this instance the areas in question are comprised of predominantly agricultural
land, residential and commercial buildings. This could play a role in how
people view the developments throughout Pembrokeshire with each facility
differing in size. The problems associated with the visual impact of wind
turbines and solar panels becoming increasingly more prevalent throughout
rural Pembrokeshire, this can be considered to be as a result of the recent
expansion of renewable energy projects in the area, because of the increased
impetus from local authoritative bodies such as Pembrokeshire National Park
Authority and Pembrokeshire county council. Local Tourism can also be
affected; Broekel and Alfken (2015) look at the negative impacts on
renewable energy installations on the landscape and its visual aesthetic.
Pembrokeshire in particular which is renowned for its tourist appeal with its
coastline and picturesque views and the recent increase in the number of
utility-scale solar farms and wind turbines has put this at risk; it can be
considered to have an affect on the way people perceive wind and solar
energy projects, this is demonstrated in participants responses in the survey.

49. 49
4.3.3 Disruption of Wildlife
The survey suggests that disruption of wildlife is not considered by
respondents to be of concern in terms of its environmental impact.
Conversely, various studies indicate otherwise, in that wind and solar
development do in fact have a significant effect on a number of different
species of wildlife. With wind energy developments in particularly having a
significant impact on various wildlife species. This is discussed in research
conducted by Tabassum-Abbasi et al (2014) where turbine induced mortality
of bats and avian species is affected by several variables that include weather
conditions, topography, location and the size of the turbine; for example
adverse weather conditions are likely cause an increase in the number of
collisions with wind turbines. Bellebaum et al (2013) for example looks
specifically at the effect it has on the red kite, a member of the raptor species.
This particular species is a high risk in terms of their vulnerability because of
their displacement from the habitats and the number of fatalities as a result of
collisions with wind turbines. There has been a steady decline in red kite
populations, whilst this cannot be as a direct consequence of the increased
implementation of wind energy projects there could be a correlation, and it
could be considered to be partly responsible. Furthermore Schaub (2012)
found from research that he conducted that population growth rates of red
kites experienced a continued declined as a direct result of an increase in the
number of wind turbines in a given area. However, despite wind turbines
potentially having some effect on the decline of red kite populations there are
various other human induced reasons for increased mortality rates. In addition
to this solar energy installations can also have negative impacts on local
ecosystems this is because they tend to be site specific and is dependent on
the scale of the development for example large-scale developments tend to
have a greater impact. Because of this it can alter current land uses for
example a loss agricultural land for animal grazing and it can also cause the
displacement of habitats, (Phillips, 2013). There is also the potential for solar
panels to discharge toxic chemicals into the environment, as chemicals such
as cadmium are used during the manufacturing of solar panels; this could
have devastating environmental effects especially in rural areas that are

50. 50
primarily agriculturally focussed, and have nearby watercourses as is the case
throughout much of Pembrokeshire. Nevertheless, there are various ways in
that the impacts on local wildlife can be minimised, some of which are outline
in the work carried out by Phillips (2013) whereby through correct design,
implementation and management some if not all of the issues associated with
these technologies can be mitigated. Further to this with regards to avian
species developers must assess the suitability and must take into account
bird sensitive areas before designating a site for future wind turbines
proposals, (Tsoutsos, Frantzeskaki and Gekas, 2005).
.
4.3.4 Cost Effectiveness
The cost effectiveness of solar and wind energy developments was another
potential cause for negative perceptions examined by this study. There
various factors that must be considered when looking at the economics of
these installations they include annual energy production, cost of installation,
maintenance costs, as well as financial incentives. In recent times there has
been a significant decrease in the consumer cost of renewable technologies,
this is as a result of both a reduction in production cost and improvements in
the efficiency of the manufacturing process, (Carlisle et al, 2016). Further to
this, Khatib and Difiglio (2016) look specifically at the returns of renewable
energy investments and to see whether they are a viable energy generation
alternative in terms of cost; there are a number of factors that can affect this,
these include:
 Cost profiles for both wind and solar developments tend to fluctuate,
however in recent times it has remained relatively low,
 Unpredictability of performance, this being dependent on the suitability
of where the development is located, as it must be somewhere that
possesses optimum conditions for energy production.
 Transmission costs, with majority of renewable energy developments
being located considerable distances away from load centres.

51. 51
There is also the opportunity to utilise support mechanisms these have been
put in place in order to facilitate the expansion of the renewable energy
technologies share within the energy market; an example of this is feed-in-
tariff (FIT) scheme. Connor (2003) discusses how wind and solar technologies
are becoming an attractive alternative energy, and since the introduction of
the renewable energy obligation in 2002 by the UK government there has
been increased impetus towards them; and despite the various cost
implication associated with solar and wind energy technologies, when
compared to other renewable energy resources such as hydro and tidal power
they tend to be considerably less capital intensive. There is little evidence
from the survey to suggest that members of the public deem these
technologies to not be cost effective. However this may be because the
majority of developments in the areas that were surveyed are privately owned;
and the participants have no knowledge or firsthand experience of the cost
implications associated with solar and wind developments.
4.3.5 Community Involvement
Community participation is looked at in the second part of the survey, this is
something can be considered to be beneficial in terms of altering people’s
perceptions towards renewable energy developments. Holstenkamp and
Kahla, (2016) discuss how increased collaboration between renewable energy
developers and communities can positively affect public engagement within
the energy market; for example by influencing energy policy whereby policy
makers adapt in order adhere to communities needs. The areas that were
surveyed that had various renewable energy installations in close proximity
were mostly privately owned and participants had little or no involvement in
their development. As demonstrated by the outcome of the results of the
survey all participants wanted a greater level of involvement at all levels of the
development process. Kalkbrenner and Roosen consider the relationship
between community energy and the public acceptance of renewable
technologies. If members of the public are able to engage with local energy
developments it can encourage a more positive outlook towards renewable
technologies, this is because they would no longer be consumers, but would

52. 52
also be able to control what method is used to produce energy, as well as the
scale to which they are built. Further to this Calvin, Witt and Lacey (2016)
discuss the benefits of community energy and how it can significantly reduced
social conflict and localised opposition. The benefits of community-based
energy projects are clear; with regards to the negative perceptions that were
evidenced in the survey and the apparent need amongst the communities to
have a greater level of participation in the solar and wind energy projects, this
could be remedied through the implementation of community energy and
could in turn alleviate some of the negativity in terms people’s attitudes
throughout Pembrokeshire.

53. 53
4.4 Conclusion
This study was intended to assist in determining what influences public
attitudes towards solar and wind energy developments. This research can be
considered to beneficial in terms of its ability to demonstrate an insight into
the various factors that affect social acceptance or opposition towards
renewable energy infrastructures.
The results differ from the expected outcome with the majority of participants
agreeing with solar and wind energy developments; however it did suggest
some ambivalence in community member’s opinions. It was clear from the
results that there was a distinction between attitudes towards both solar and
wind energy developments with residents favouring solar energy over wind
energy developments; this can be considered to be as a result of human and
environmental impacts that are associated with wind energy technologies.
This is evidenced within the survey with regards to the impacts that were
outlined including noise pollution, visual impact and the disruption of wildlife; it
is clear that people believe the impacts such as these that are associated to
wind energy to be of greater concern when compared to solar energy
developments. This is in line with other literature where the environmental and
human impacts associated with wind energy are well documented, (Delicado,
Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). However, in terms of people’s opinions towards
the human and environmental impacts of solar energy infrastructures, there
was very little evidence to suggest that people believe them to be a concern.
This may be as a consequence of people associating these impacts with
smaller scale renewable energy technologies; such as roof mounted solar
photovoltaic panels, and not the utility scale developments that survey was
intended to make reference to. The cost effectiveness of solar and wind
installations was also explored, whilst not necessarily an impact, it does
however act as a means for people to criticize these technologies. Despite the
negativity that sometimes surrounds the cost implications that are associated
with these technologies, the vast majority of respondents felt that it was not a
concern.

54. 54
The second part of the survey was intended to look at what people’s opinions
were towards the possibility of increased engagement in renewable energy
projects. This is something that has been widely discussed within literature,
whereby increased participation can positively influence people’s attitudes
and perceptions towards renewable energy infrastructures, Bauwens (2016).
It is something that was demonstrated in the results with nearly all of the
residents who lived in close to proximity to solar or wind energy developments
having little or no influence during the development process; in addition to this
nearly all respondents would prefer some form of involvement, this is
something that could potentially alter the way people view renewable energy
technologies, Kalkbrenner and Roosen (2016), because people would be able
to have more of a say on what technologies are utilised and where they are to
be located.
This research could be influential for the development of further renewable
energy projects near local communities in rural Pembrokeshire, with it
primarily benefitting the local governing body Pembrokeshire county council.
This is due to there being very little research at present that addresses how
public perceptions are affected when renewable energy projects are
constructed in close proximity to local communities. Rural Pembrokeshire has
experienced a significant increase in the amount of renewable energy
projects; and this research aims to provide a better understanding of the
factors affecting people’s perceptions that live in close proximity to solar and
wind farms. Whether the perceptions are affected in either a positive or
negative way it could provide local stakeholders in renewable projects with
information to better inform them during the decision making process, for
example when determining what technology is used and also when choosing
a suitable site for development. It will also serve as a means of educating
local people about the renewable energy projects within the locality,
something at present can be considered to an issue, as many people do not
fully understand the benefits of these projects. This research is fundamental
to furthering social science literature on renewable energy, as at present there
is very little on this particular subject, and especially for an area like rural

55. 55
Pembrokeshire, where there has been a significant increase in investment for
renewable energy projects.
There were however several limitations to this study; firstly it was conducted
on a relatively small scale confined to the areas that had renewable
developments in the vicinity. Secondly because much of the study was based
in rural areas, there were some issues with people’s willingness to participate
especially in remote areas on the periphery of the towns; and the thirdly there
is no data on resident’s attitudes and perceptions of solar and wind farms
before they were constructed and it would have been beneficial to see how
they may have changed over time. With number of limitations to the study as
previously It could therefore be suggested that in future studies it would be
beneficial if the study was conducted on a larger scale across various regions.
It would also be interesting to compare people’s attitudes depending on
whether they live in an urban or rural setting. In addition to this comparing the
attitudes of people, who do not live near energy infrastructures compared to
those who do, may be an intriguing research topic, and would provide a more
in depth understanding of the degree to which the impacts associated with
these technologies influence people’s perceptions.
In summary I believe that this study shows that there is still a great deal of
apprehension towards renewable energies such as wind and solar
technologies on a whole, with the majority of participants believing that the
affects on visual amenity, land uses and animal welfare to be the main causes
behind negative public attitudes. Despite the main outcome of the study being
positive, respondents showed a preference towards solar energy when
compared to wind energy technologies and believed the impacts associated
with wind energy to be of greater concern. Further to this it exhibited strong
opinions in favour of increased community involvement in renewable energy
developments. I believe this to be beneficial in mitigating the issues
associated with these technologies as it would not only better in form
residents but also aid in reducing their impacts.

56. 56
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