Dissertation

Darren Martin
The University of Liverpool
Faculty of Social and Environmental
Studies
Department of Civic Design
To evaluate whether, if all currently
planned wind farms were implemented,
the UK would meet its energy target of
15% of energy from renewables by
2020 or what additional efforts are
needed to achieve this target?
Master of Planning Degree
Session 2010/11

The University of Liverpool
Faculty of Social and Environmental
Studies
Department of Civic Design
Darren Martin
Being a dissertation submitted to the University in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of.............................................................
I declare that this dissertation is my own work
SIGNED: ..................................................
DATE: ...............................
To evaluate whether, if all currently planned
wind farms were implemented, the UK would
meet its energy target of 15% of energy from
renewables by 2020 or what additional
methods are needed to achieve this target?
Town and Regional Planning MPlan
Session 2010/11

ii
Acknowledgements
This project has been successfully completed on time. The researcher would like
to express his devoted acknowledgement to the following people:
Firstly thanks to Professor Dave Shaw together with all the staff in the Department
of Civic Design, University of Liverpool for their help and support throughout the 4
years of academic study on the Town and Regional Planning MPlan course.
Secondly his supervisor, Professor Thomas Fischer, for his direction during this
research project and for taking time out from his busy schedule to meet a number
of times throughout the year to offer advice and suggestions on this interesting
topic.
Thirdly to the support from Johns, Cassidy and Co. Town Planning Consultants
who employed the researcher during the summer for a work placement and
allowed him to get involved in the initial stages of a wind farm project. It was from
this the author decided on a dissertation topic surrounding wind farms.
Also to all those individuals and academics that have helped the researcher in the
preparation of this dissertation especially the anti wind farm campaign group who
took the time to complete questionnaires, Paula Sergeant and Dr Gordon Edge
from RenewableUK, Adam Bell from Embrace my planet and Dr Richard Cowell
from Cardiff University who all willingly helped by sharing their views on the
dissertation topic.
Finally, thank you to my family and friends for the moral support and
encouragement in helping me keep motivated in the completion of this project.
Without their help this project would not have been feasible.

iii
Abstract
The UK government has set itself an ambitious target for the generation of
electricity from renewable energy sources. The target is for 15% of total electricity
consumption to be generated from renewable sources by 2020. This comes from
the UK government’s agreement on the overall EU’s target of generating 20% of
EU’s energy supply from renewable sources by 2020 as part of the EU Climate
and Energy package. The acquirement of this target is of national significance
because it is vital to reaching the country’s legally binding RES target of 15% set
by the EU. Much of the renewable energy will come from wind energy both
onshore and offshore, which will have a major role to play in the UK reaching the
15% target.
As the UK moves forward towards achieving the 15% target by 2020, this project
asks can the UK meet its ambitious target through consideration of the many
challenges ahead such as the financial crisis, local opposition, campaign groups
and the planning system. A specific focus is placed upon the role of the planning
process with due consideration into the future changes ahead for planning agenda.
The deployment of onshore renewable energy is contentious and can create public
opposition and campaign groups therefore the author seeks to investigate their
impact and how they can delay planning permission.
The study has four aims: to determine the current state of the onshore wind energy
industry, to investigate the factors that delay planning permission, to investigate
the impact of campaign groups and to consider what additional efforts are needed
in the future.
Finally the research considers the future and address whether or not the 2020
renewable energy target of 15% energy from renewables can be achieved but also
to recognise the implications for planning and how it is changing and to what
extent this will promote the use of onshore wind energy or add to the opposition
surrounding wind farms.

iv
Table of contents
Title Page........................................................................................................i
Acknowledgements........................................................................................ii
Abstract.........................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents..........................................................................................iv
List of Figures...............................................................................................vi
List of Tables................................................................................................vii
Abbreviations...............................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION...................................................................1
1.1 Background...................................................................................
1.1.1 Planning Background.............................................................
1.2 Overall Aim.....................................................................................
1.3 Research Questions.......................................................................
1.4 Research Aims and Objectives.......................................................
1.5 Relevance and Importance.............................................................
1.6 Outline............................................................................................
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................
2.2 Background – UK’s 2020 renewable energy target........................
2.3 UK’s Onshore wind energy.............................................................
2.4 Planning........................................................................................
2.4.1 Localism............................................................................
2.5 Campaign groups...........................................................................
2.6 Recent Developments....................................................................
2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review.....................................................
CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...............................................
3.1 Research objectives and questions................................................
3.2 Scope of Study...............................................................................
3.3 Research Methods..........................................................................
3.3.1 Secondary data collection: desktop research...................

v
3.3.2 Secondary quantitative data collection: case
study..........................................................................................
3.3.3 Primary Quantitative data collection: questionnaire
survey........................................................................................
3.3.4 Primary qualitative data collection: interview with Dr
Gordon Edge, RenewableUK.....................................................
3.4 Data Analysis..................................................................................
3.5 Online Sources...............................................................................
3.6 Triangulation...................................................................................
3.7 Issues and Limitations....................................................................
CHAPTER 4 - REPORT ON STUDIES...........................................................
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................
4.2 Research Questions.......................................................................
4.2.1 Research Question 1........................................................
4.3 Conclusion to report on studies......................................................
CHAPTER 5 - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..........................................
5.1 Summary of the research...............................................................
5.2 Recommendations..........................................................................
5.3 Planning implications......................................................................
5.4 Suggestions for further research....................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................
APPENDICES.................................................................................................

vi
List of Figures
Figure page
Figure 1: Diagram Research Plan 4
Figure 2: Graph on wind operating capacity 31
Figure 3: Map of all the UKs operational wind farms 34
Figure 4: Map of all UK wind farms under construction, consented 34
and submitted awaiting planning permission
Figure 5: Map of Caton Moor (exiting wind farm) and Claughton Moor 37
Community Wind farm (proposed wind farm)
Figure 6: Graph representing the anti-wind farm campaign group’s 44
response to question four.
response to question nine.
Figure 8: Pie Chart representing the anti-wind farm campaign group’s 46
response to question seven.
response to question eighteen.
response to question five.
response to question five a.

vii
List of tables
Table page
Table 1: Research Objectives and Questions 18
Table 2: Current UK onshore status 33

viii
Abbreviations
1 Megawatt = 1000 Kilowatts
1 Gigawatt = 1000 Megawatts
AONB Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
BWEA British Wind Energy Association
CLG Communities and Local Government
CPRE Campaign to Protect Rural England
DECC Department or Energy and Climate Change
GW Gigawatts
IPC Infrastructure Planning Commission
LPAs Local Planning Authorities
MW Megawatts
NIMBY Not In My Back Yard
NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan
RES Renewable Energy Strategy
RSS Regional Spatial Strategy
SACs Special Areas of Conservation
SPR ScottishPower Renewables

1
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
During April last year the researcher had to choose a research topic in their subject
area. After taking a number of options into consideration, the researcher decided to
carry this out on the ability of onshore wind farms in reaching the 2020 renewable
energy target. The reason for choosing this topic is because the researcher wants to
undertake a research project that will have a practical use in a current controversial
issue surrounding renewable energy.
1.1 Background
The UK has been given an ambitious target to deliver 15% of its energy from
renewable sources by 2020 as part of the EU Climate and Energy package. This
binding EU 2020 national target for the UK requires that 15% of the national energy
used is to come from renewable energy sources. To meet this, the UK has already
set itself a target to generate 20% of its electricity from Renewables by the year
2020. However the RES identifies in its ‘lead scenario’ that this target could and
should be increased to 30% (Renewable Energy Strategy, 2009, p.8). Wind energy
will provide much of this renewable energy which will help the UK reach the target.
1.1.1 PLANNING BACKGROUND
To identify the Planning Policy within England the researcher will begin with National
Planning Policy which is set out within a number of Planning Policy Statements
(PPS) that are topic related. Those that will be of particular relevance to the outlined
within the research are PPS22 Renewable Energy which is the national policy for
renewables, published in 2004 together with the supplement to PPS1 Planning and
Climate Change published in 2007. These documents will form the initial planning
context for this research project. Wind farms developments have become a
contentious issue when it comes to planning permission as there are a number of
areas throughout the UK where planning legislation restricts any development from
taking place and examples of these are AONBs, historical areas, or Special Areas of
Conservation (SACs), some of these areas also happen to have the highest wind
speeds. Also because some people recognise the UKs rural areas as attractive,
idyllic and a “picturesque landscape” (Mingay, 1989, p.51) then this creates further
opposition and resistance towards wind farms therefore hinders the UKs chances of
reaching the 2020 renewable energy target.

2
The researcher’s specialist study area is Environmental Planning and Management
and for this reason the researcher would like to continue in this field of study and
this is why the topic surrounding wind farms was chosen. The chosen topic is
current, and will have a major role to play in the coming years in the production of
renewable energy so the UK can reach the 2020 renewable energy target. In
addition to this the majority of the population now live in urban areas and this is why
we see wind farms and electricity power stations on the peripheral of our cities an
example is Liverpool particularly offshore at Burbo bank in order to support the large
consumption of energy in the city. This is proving controversial with rural dwellers as
the countryside is being ‘blanketed’ with onshore turbines right across the UK. The
researcher will analyse the existing policy together with any associated literature to
find out what the planning implications; restraints and requirements are when
developing a wind farm on a selected site. In the coming years it is inevitable that
we will see wind farms cropping up in rural areas so that the UK can meet the 2020
renewable energy target but it is the local opposition which is created as a result that
the author wishes to investigate. Thus this will slow down the development of wind
farms going active which will mean we continue to rely on conventional power
stations for some time yet.
“Every unit of electricity from a wind turbine displaces one from conventional power
stations: in January 2009, wind turbines in the UK had the capacity to prevent the
emission of 3,682,562 tonnes of carbon dioxide per annum.” (RenewableUK, 2010).
1.2Overall Aim
The title of this study is:
“To evaluate whether, if all currently planned wind farms were implemented,
the UK would meet its energy target of 15% of energy from renewables by
2020 or what additional efforts are needed to achieve this target?”
The overall research aim is to find out whether onshore wind farms are the answer
to reaching the target which the UK government has set in producing 15% of our
electricity from renewable sources by 2020 or what additional efforts are needed to
achieve this target? The researcher will also analyse the surrounding planning policy
associated with renewable energy and examine what the requirements are in order
to obtain planning permission for such a development.

3
1.3Research Objectives
This project aims to analyse and evaluate what the current position the UK is in
towards meeting the 2020 renewable energy target, together with finding out what is
currently happening in the North West and to contribute to our knowledge by
studying an operational wind farm together with a wind farm which is currently
seeking planning permission. Also through a questionnaire the researcher hopes to
gather responses concerning an anti wind farm campaign group reflecting their
views on a proposed wind farm in their local area. Together with an interview from a
professional in the industry to determine their stance on the current situation and the
future of onshore wind energy, along with the relevant academic literature review,
which will be applied to the results of the study in order to produce a discussion
which will lead to recommendations and a conclusion.
This study will be progressed by accomplishing the following objectives:
1. To determine the current state of the onshore wind energy industry and to
consider if all currently planned wind farms were implemented, would the UK
meet its energy target of 15% of energy from Renewables by 2020.
2. To investigate factors that delay planning permission through focusing on
two case studies in close proximity to each other where there is one
operational wind farm and one currently in the planning process.
3. To investigate the impact of campaign groups against wind farms and their
views on the feasible alternatives to onshore wind which would still allow the
UK to meet its 2020 target.
4. To consider what additional efforts are needed in the future which would
allow the UK to meet its energy target of 15% of energy from renewables by
2020.
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Figure 1 below sets out the research plan through considering how the
objectives will be met by answering the research questions and how the
researcher hopes to make progress to achieve the overall aim set out.

4
1.4Research Questions
Figure 1 Diagram Research Plan
Research Objective 4
To consider what additional efforts are needed in the future which would allow the UK
to meet its energy target of 15% of energy from renewables by 2020.
R.Q 8
What are the implications ahead for the future
development of onshore wind power in
meeting the renewable energy target?
R.Q 9
How can planning address these implications
so that the UK has a realistic chance of
reaching the legally binding 2020 renewable
energy target?
To investigate the impact of campaign groups against wind farms and their views on
the feasible alternatives to onshore wind which would still allow the UK to meet its 2020
target.
R.Q 5
To what extent are the number of
anti wind farm campaign groups
increasing throughoutthe UK?
R.Q 6
What are the particular issues
which campaign groups'have
againstthe wind farm proposals
for their area?
R.Q 7
What do campaign groups
suggestas an alternative to
onshore wind farms in the
production of renewable energy?
To investigate factors that delay planning permission through focusing on two case
studies in close proximity to each other where there is one operational wind farm and
one currently in the planning process
R.Q 3
What are the reasons why a wind farm cannot
obtain planning permission on a site where
there is already an existing wind farm?
R.Q 4
How can local residents' opposition impact the
planning decision of a wind farm proposal?
To determine the current state of the onshore wind energy industry and to consider if all
currently planned wind farms were implemented, would the UK meet its energy target
of 15% of energy from Renewables by 2020.
R.Q 1
What is the current state of the UK's wind
power industry and its current position in
R.Q 2
How is the position affected through those
wind farms which are currently under
construction, approved awaiting construction
and held up in the planning process?

5
The diagram above shows the systematic approach that the researcher will use in
order to answer the overall aim within this research project. It is clear from the
diagram that the research questions are set out to answer the four objectives and
following this the objectives will produce a discussion into answering the overall aim.
The diagram represents a ‘bottom up’ approach similar to the proposed Localism Bill
which will be discussed later as this also places an emphasis on the ‘bottom up’
approach to planning for local communities.
1.5 Relevance and Importance
There has recently been much media coverage on how the UK may fail in meeting
the 2020 renewable energy target of generating 15 per cent of all our energy from
renewable sources. At the time of undertaking this research project between term
time 2010-2011 there was no single report publicly available which assesses the
challenges facing this target. In order to undertake this research the researcher
must address what the current position is in the UK in reaching the target but also
how onshore wind farms alone are contributing to reaching this target.
The author will concentrate specifically on onshore wind energy as wind powered
generation will contribute the vast share of the electricity generated from the
renewable energy sources to meet the target of 15%.
There are a number of considerations to include which has resulted in a decline in
the number of wind farm projects going online, the most obvious one is the current
credit crunch, described by the Bank of England deputy governor Charles Bean as
the 'largest financial crisis of its kind in human history’ (Bean, 2008 cited in Fleming,
2008).
Other reasons are a decline of the construction industry; further local opposition;
campaign groups and the resistance of wind farms in the countryside which has led
to wind farm developments being held up in the planning process.
1.6 Outline
Following this chapter the author beings with an overview of academic and
government texts along with any current media coverage surrounding onshore wind
farms and this provides the knowledge-based context for the research. Chapter 3

6
contains the research questions which are set out in more detail with the
methodology used for this dissertation, including the methods used to collect the
evidence. Chapter 4 contains the presentation and analysis of the findings it
includes an analysis of the current position the UK holds in meeting the 2020
renewable energy target together with a focus on the two local case studies, as well
as a discussion based on the questionnaire carried out for the research. In Chapter
5, the concluding points of the study are presented.

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CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The overall research aimis to evaluate whether, if all currently planned wind
farms were implemented, would the UK meet its energytarget of 15% of
energyfrom Renewables by 2020 or what additional efforts are needed to
achieve this target? The literature review will also investigate the surrounding
planning policy associated with renewable energyand review what the
requirements are in order to obtain planning permission for such a
development.
From the following literature review the researcher has found an abundance of
literature surrounding this topic. This includes studies and publications on the
current situation in the UK, the UK’s renewable energy target, the failure of wind
farms, on the potential problems facing onshore wind farms, the challenges and
recent developments where action must be taken to secure a higher level of wind
energy production in order to meet the 2020 renewable energy target.
A review of the literature shows a common theme of the range of challenges that
wind farm developments today face, but it also identifies the potential which wind
farms have in producing renewable energy, especially in the UK with its wind
resources. A number of reasons - including environmental, social, economic and
technical reasons - all contribute to the challenges and future of the UK’s wind farm
developments.
On the other hand there are few published studies or reports, other than newspaper
articles, which identify the role that campaign groups and local opposition have in
defeating planned wind farms throughout the country.
The review below illustrates the current situation and literature surrounding onshore
wind farms, campaign groups and the case for planning permission for such
developments. From this, the author then summarises the main focus areas of the
study by reviewing relevant material in order to give a background to the study and
to summarise what is already known. This will highlight any gaps or lack of
knowledge which later research hopes to address.

8
2.2 Background - UK’s 2020 renewable energy target
The purpose of this section helps the reader understand the immediate importance
of this topic and why there is a sudden emphasis placed upon wind farms in order to
meet the UK’s renewable energy target in 2020. There seems to be an increased
interest in the installation of wind farms across the UK mainly due to the UK
agreement in signing up to the EU Renewable Energy Directive which requires the
UK to make their contribution in generating 15% energy from renewable sources by
2020.
“As part of EU-wide action to increase the use of renewable energy, the UK has
committed to sourcing 15% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020”
(Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2009, p.10)
The EU’s 20-20-20 targets were established in the 2008 EU Climate Change
package which set out that 20% of energy is to come from renewable sources and
that it was committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 20% by 2020
(CIViTAS, 2010). Each Member State was then given a national target to meet and
the UKs contribution is 15 percent of energy from renewables by 2020.
The UK Renewable Energy Strategy (2009) states the target is a ‘legally-binding
target to ensure 15% of our energy comes from renewable sources by 2020’
(Renewable Energy Strategy, 2009, p.8). Similarly, the Energy Saving Trust (2010)
discusses how the UK is on course to meet the 15% target in the next 10 years.
However not everyone agrees that this target can be met particularly the media who
warn of fears that the 15% target will not be achieved by the 2020 deadline. An
example of this is from the Ecologist, 2010, where it investigates how the UK will
miss the legal 2020 renewable energy target as the current rate of renewable
energy production in the UK is too slow to meet these EU targets.
On the other hand, Devine-Wright (2010) states that the UK Renewable Energy
Strategy (RES) in its ‘lead scenario’ proposes that over 30% of electricity should
come from renewable sources by 2020 yet further research has found information
on the immediate state of our renewable sources and where we currently are in
reaching this 2020 target.
‘Currently the figure is approximately 5.5 per cent, consisting mostly of
biomass, hydro and wind.’
(Devine-Wright, 2010, p.275)

9
A recent Ecologist’s evaluation of wind farms would agree with the media and
suggests that wind farms alone will never meet the UK’s renewable energy targets.
Etherington, (2009), argues that wind turbines cannot generate enough energy to
reduce global CO² levels to a meaningful degree and the following statement
justifies this argument:
“Between them, all the 2,400 wind turbines so far built in Britain generate, on
the governments own figures, only a minute fraction of the electricity we
need, just over 1.3 per cent.”
(Etherington, 2009, p.8)
The Independent (2010) - one aspect of the popular media - summarises the
challenges the wind power industry faces through the new planning regime, local
opposition and campaign groups, but the target they state is ‘20 per cent of all our
energy needs from renewable sources by 2020’ (Wright, 2010).
Investigating the renewable energy target is a fundamental aspect of the research
into onshore wind farms and whether the UK can actually meet the 2020 renewable
energy target. There are future challenges mentioned above facing this target and
this is something the researcher aims to draw out within this study. It will also be
necessary to determine the current state of the wind power industry in the UK and
its current position in meeting the renewable energy target.
2.3 UK’s onshore wind energy
The current state of the UK’s wind energy industry is defined in the Global Wind
Energy Report (2010). This report is concerned with the length of time the wind
energy market has taken to develop and to start realising the excellent wind
resource potential we have here in the UK.
‘Despite being host to some of the best wind resources in Europe, the United
Kingdom’s wind energy market has taken a long time to start realising this
potential.’
(Global Wind 2009 Report, 2009, p. 60)
This is evident in our concerns over meeting the 2020 renewable energy target.
However, the report fails to recognise the financial crisis which has an obvious
impact on the development of wind farm projects, highlighted in the number of wind
farms awaiting construction. What is clear from this report is the potential offered
from wind energy but also the barriers facing this sector, such as public opposition,
planning consent and grid connection.

10
The current state of the industry is investigated by Renewable UK (2010), which has
identified the consented capacity of wind farm energy in the UK awaiting
construction in comparison to this time last year.
‘The UK currently has 3,616MW of consented capacity yet to break ground,
up slightly from the 3,357MW recorded as awaiting construction this time last
year.’
(Renewable UK, 2010, p.3)
One of the main reasons for this could be the economic downturn and the
‘availability of project finance’ (Renewable UK, 2010). On the other hand, the
Independent (2010), in a recent article, suggested that ‘local revolts against wind
farms have jeopardised the plan’ (Wright, 2010) of the UK meeting its 2020
renewable energy target. The article similarly reviews the state of the industry but
focuses on campaign groups against wind farms and the role they play in defeating
planned wind farms, whereas Renewable UK (2010) considers the exact figures of
the approval rates compared to previous years’ local approval rates.
‘Over the last 12 months, the UK has achieved an average local approval
rate of 55% by scheme and 44% by capacity.’
(Renewable UK, 2010, p. 13)
Another recent article, published in PLANNING (2010), agrees with Renewable UK
that planning alone is not the problem and that there have been many projects
which have had planning consent for years but have never materialised into
developments. Wind farms have a significant cost and developers may choose not
to develop in these difficult economic times.
‘Some of these projects have had consent for years, so it is unfair to say that
the planning system has prevented wind farm development.’
(PLANNING, 2010, p.14)
The above literature sets the context for the research project by looking at the
current situation where wind farms have been both successful and unsuccessful, but
the overarching aim is to meet the Government’s 2020 renewable energy target.

11
2.4 Planning
The planning system is a key player in the UK meeting the 2020 renewable energy
target because, ultimately, ‘planning regulates the use and development of land and
sets out plans for development’ (Renewable UK, 2010).
Planning Policy Statement (PPS) 22 on renewable energy considers what impact
wind farms can have on the environment. It sets out a number of factors that should
be considered in the preparation of a planning application for the development of a
site producing renewable energy e.g. a proposed hillside wind farm. These include
considerations of individuals in terms of noise, visual impact and landscape effect.
From this document the researcher has found that planning has a critical role to play
from the planning application stage and regulations, but also in terms of community
involvement for people to engage with wind power developments in their
communities, therefore increasing social capacity.
Another key document is the Planning and Climate Change - Supplement to PPS 1,
2007, which gives evidence to suggest that the Government are active in making
policy concerning the requirements placed upon local planning authorities to
promote and encourage renewable energy generation.
‘In developing their core strategy and supporting local development
documents, planning authorities should provide a framework that promotes
and encourages renewable and low carbon energy generation.’
(Planning and Climate Change - Supplement to PPS 1, 2007, p. 14)
Devine-Wright, 2010, recognises the need for education of the benefits of
renewables and the risks of climate change as a means of persuasion which would
encourage the public to support wind farm development. This relates back to the
emphasis from PPS 22 which has previously been mentioned.
‘PPS 22 exhorts local authorities to “promote knowledge of and greater
acceptance by the public of prospective renewable energy developments”’
(Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004, cited in Devine-Wright, 2010, p. 22)
A common consensus from a series of seminars discussing the role of planning is
that planning acts as a barrier in the development of the generation of electricity by
wind power.
‘A persistent line of explanation for this implementation deficit is that planning
is a “barrier” to the expansion of wind energy.’

12
(Ellis et al, 2010, p.523)
Ellis et al (2010) provide us with a context on the constraints facing the wind power
sector, such as financial problems, grid infrastructure, public engagement and,
primarily, a focus on the perceived problems with the planning system in delivering
wind power developments. The paper questions the effectiveness of current
planning processes through the UK national policy frameworks and decision-making
procedures.
It is clear that there are problems with the planning process but to say that ‘planning
is a barrier’ (Ellis et al, 2010) will no doubt be contentious with local planning
authorities because, after all, planning is there to safeguard, to regulate and make
the best use of our land.
Maria McCaffery ,the Chief Executive of RenewableUK previously BWEA, would
agree with Ellis et al as she has stated that the planning system is ‘broken when it
comes to wind energy’ (Maria McCaffery, 2009). However this is contrary to the key
principles within PPS 22 which states that
“regional spatial strategies and local development documents should contain
policies designed to promote and encourage, rather than restrict, the
development of renewable energy sources”
(Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004. P.7)
Devine-Wright, 2010, also recognises the slow progress that has been made over
the development of onshore wind power and identifies planning as only one of the
barriers to getting wind farms built but there are others such as local opposition and
financial constraints.
“there has been much debate over diagnosing why there has been such a
relatively slow deployment of wind power, it is the spatial planning system
that is often reported as being a key cause (e.g. British Wind Energy
Association, 2008).”
(Devine-Wright, 2010, p. 29)
To sum up the literature has identified planning as a key issue however planning is
set to change but is it going to be an improvement is the big question. The author
identifies these changes in the next section below. The localism agenda may prove
to make planning permission increasingly difficult to obtain as there is a risk that the
obligations on local authorities will be stripped back therefore making it more difficult
to get onshore wind through the crucial planning stage.

13
2.4.1 LOCALISM
The Localism Bill is concerned with shifting power from central government to local
communities and instead of a top down process; the new government wants a
bottom up kind of approach. One of the radical changes is replacing all of the PPS
documents. As previously mentioned, it is difficult to know what the implications will
be of replacing thousands of pages of carefully drafted national planning statements
and planning policy guidance which have had endless consultations; into a single
small document which is the National Planning Policy Framework.
“This Bill will shift power from central government back into the hands of
individuals, communities and councils”
(Communities and Local Government, 2010)
With the Localism Bill it allows parish councils and neighbourhood forums to
produce a local-level tier in the planning system which will give power to the
community to allow planning permission to certain types of developments. Eric
Pickles, the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government has stated
that the Localism Bill “will give people new rights, new powers, new opportunities to
act on the issues that matter to them.” (CLG, 2011). In relation to onshore wind
farms many of the developers have expressed concern with giving people and
communities a greater say over their area which would allow anti-wind farm groups
to “set up Neighbourhood Forums in an attempt to oppose new developments.”
(Murray, 2011).
The Infrastructure Planning Commission (IPC) is an independent body who are
currently responsible for all major planning applications and applications for
electricity production of over 50GW. However the IPC is to be abolished in line with
the Coalition agreement.
“The IPC – seen as undemocratic by the government – is to be axed, with
ministers regaining the final say on major planning applications.”
Ministers will now take decisions on big planning projects such as wind farms,
airports and nuclear power stations. Once this has been done there should be more
of a feeling of democratic accountability for the people who actually take the
decisions. Milner (2010) suggest that planning could be used to ‘improve relations’
between the developers and the communities because,
‘planning should be seen as an essential part of the democratic process’
(Milner, 2010, p.538)

14
This controversial change in planning agenda may, or may not, influence the
achievement of the 2020 renewable energy target however there are growing fears
that the legislation “will result in serious delays to renewable energy projects and
make it far easier for NIMBY groups to oppose new wind farm proposals.” (Murray,
2011). The author will now consider the impact of campaign groups and those who
oppose planning applications which inevitably halt progress in the UK reaching the
2020 renewable energy target as fewer onshore wind farms are going active.
2.5 Campaign groups
There has recently been a considerable amount of research into the social
(un)acceptance of wind farms which is summarised by Ellis et al (2010). They
identify the complexity and difficulty in defining the social acceptance of wind farms
because they recognise how a development, such as a landfill, would be a
contentious development for obvious reasons; however, wind farms offer a
sustainable solution and a realistic chance to meet the renewable energy target, yet
are still opposed and refused planning permission.
‘Thus, while opposition to landfill sites or road building can be characterised
as a straight fight between unsustainable and sustainable visions of the
future, or technical versus social/political approaches to problem solving,
disputes over wind farms are more difficult to interpret, appearing to be
heavily contextualised and arising from a wide range of concerns.’
(Ellis et al, 2010, p. 526)
It is also known that there is widespread contradiction in public opinion where
surveys have shown a high level of support for wind power; however, there is
commonly ‘rejection or objection on the basis of proximity’ and this ‘is sometimes
referred to as NIMBYism’ (Devine-Wright, 2010, p.102).
This can be seen in a number of recent newspaper articles namely, the Independent
(2010) which suggest that campaign groups are hindering green energy plans and
the UKs ability to meet its renewable targets. The changes to planning laws and the
Localism Bill mentioned above are also described as a further barrier by making it
harder to get planning permission.
“These groups are scoring striking successes in defeating planned wind
farms – even when faced with the weight of official recommendations.”
(Wright, 2010)

15
This attitude or behaviour may also be called selfishness where local residents
uphold and reject any developments - not just wind farms - in their area because of
their opinions and views against having neighbours imposed on them, or their views
becoming restricted. Wolsink (2010) considers the view that, ‘in many countries,
from the early 1970s onwards any delays faced by wind energy developers have
been blamed on local resistance, ignorance and selfishness.’
Onshore wind farms do offer benefits however not everyone would agree and this is
where we get local opposition and campaign groups emerging which causes delays
in planning therefore preventing more wind farms going active meaning the target
still seems increasingly optimistic.
Wind power has emerged as both a solution to environmental problems and
an environmental problem in itself in the UK’
(Toke & Strachan, 2006, p. 155)
2. 6 Recent Developments
The researcher has found a practice which until recently is not often heard of which
is discussed by Milner (2010), of the Campaign to Protect Rural England CPRE,
who describes the offering of incentives and bribes by large energy developers to
rural communities - in effect, buying their planning permission.
‘A growing number of rural communities are being offered “goodwill
payments” by wind energy developers, particularly the large multinationals
such as E.ON and npower.’
(Milner, 2010, p.537)
Developers can play on the words of the policy set out in PPS22, particularly where
it mentions the term ‘front-loading’ of engagement which is the early involvement of
communities in plan-making and the early taking of key decisions. The developers
do this by encouraging the local communities to be involved in a wider public
participation much earlier than they are required to do in the statutory planning
process. They are only legally obliged to consult the public following the submission
of the planning application, so they obviously recognise this as a major asset and
benefit to their development proposal. This view has been supported in the work of
Parks (2007).
Further to this a significant development has been the community benefit schemes
that have recently been announced by RenewableUK where wind farm owners are

16
to offer money to local residents. The RenewableUK’s protocol is for the applicant at
the time of submission of the planning application to commit and sign a “statement
of community benefit” which sets out the commitment to provide benefits once the
application is consented (RenewableUK, 2011).
“Wind farm developers have signed up to a deal to offer at least £1,000 a
year to local communities for each megawatt of power produced”
(Johnston, 2011, p.11)
During these difficult financial times then local benefits such as new jobs and
ensuring that some of the benefits stay in the local area will appear attractive. This
will offer an incentive for communities to accept wind farms in their local area.
“This Protocol sets out the commitment by RenewableUK’s members to
deliver real and tangible benefits to those communities that live near onshore
wind farms of 5MW and above (installed capacity).”
(RenewableUK, 2011, p. 20)
This will also support neighbourhood planning and the need to consult communities
which the government wishes to encourage through the localism proposals.
Producing these neighbourhood plans is said to be costly and the impact
assessment which has been published by CLG “estimates estimates the average
cost of the plans at between £17,000 and £63,000.” (Inside Housing, 2011)
Therefore it may be suggested that the community commitment will allow the local
community to acquire the professional skills and resources to engage in, coming up
with a neighbourhood plan. On the other hand it could be seen as a buy off because
if local communities don’t want these wind farms then developers will let a bit of
money flow their way in the hope they will accept the proposal.
We would then see communities rightly coming together and opposing renewable
energy projects as is currently happening across the UK.
“More than 230 separate local campaign groups against wind farms are
operating across the UK”
(Wright, 2010)
Alternatively there are instances where communities and local people come together
to purchase wind farms and become a community owned wind farm. An e.g. is
Baywind which is the UK’s first community-owned wind farm supported by the Co-
operative.
“Baywind's aim is to promote the generation of renewable energy and energy
conservation. To date, members have received a competitive return on their
investment from the sale of electricity.”
(Baywind, 2011)

17
2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review
Through this literature review the researcher has identified the existing gaps in
knowledge where the study will fit. There is a need to take stock of the following: the
current status of the UK’s particular energy characteristics and needs; of the
emerging challenges and issues; of the actions and plans and decisions in place or
being developed.
The literature review has summarised what’s already been investigated, known and
said around the topic which creates a background to the study. There is a lack of
knowledge in particular areas, such as where onshore wind farms fit in meeting the
UK’s renewable energy target and what local opposition wants in its back yard if
wind farms are not an option (but the opposition must accept that we, as an EU
member, must meet the legally binding renewable energy target).
The literature review has stated the many problems surrounding planning and the
potential the long awaited Localism Bill has in causing planning delays that will
make it harder for the country to cut the green house gas emissions and meet its
renewable energy targets. Also identified were the benefits as it could lead to
communities coming together and proposing renewable projects as they accept the
target must be met.
The aim of this research study is to collate this information into a single report so as
to better understand the current onshore wind farm energy situation and how far
onshore developments are contributing to the 2020 renewable energy target. Also,
the researcher will investigate the adequacy of the measures which exist at this time
to meet the known challenges, such as the current credit crunch, local opposition
and campaign groups which have all been identified throughout this literature
review.

18
CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Objectives and Questions
Table 1: Research Objectives and Questions
Research Objectives Research Questions
1. To determine the current state of the
onshore wind energy industry and to
consider if all currently planned wind
farms were implemented, would the
UK meet its energy target of 15% of
energy from Renewables by 2020.
1. What is the current state of the UK's wind
power industry and its current position in
2. How is the position affected through those
wind farms which are currently under
construction, approved awaiting
construction, and held up in the planning
process?
2. To investigate factors that delay
planning permission through focusing
on two case studies in close proximity
to each other where there is one
operational wind farm and one
currently in the planning process
3. What are the reasons why a wind farm
cannot obtain planning permission on a
site where there is already as an existing
wind farm?
4. How can local residents' opposition impact
the planning decision of a wind farm
proposal?
3. To investigate the impact of campaign
groups against wind farms and their
views on the feasible alternatives to
onshore wind which would still allow
the UK to meet its 2020 target.
5. To what extent are the number of anti wind
farm campaign groups increasing
throughout the UK?
6. What are the particular issues which
campaign groups' have against the wind
farm proposals for their area?
7. What do campaign groups suggest as an
alternative to onshore wind farms in the
production of renewable energy?
4. To consider what additional efforts are
needed in the future which would allow
the UK to meet its energy target of
15% of energy from renewables by
2020.
8. What are the implications ahead for the
future development of onshore wind power
in meeting the target the renewable energy
target?
9. How can planning address these
implications so that the UK has a realistic
chance of reaching the legally binding
2020 renewable energy target?
5. Conclusions and Recommendations

19
3.2 Scope of Study
This study concentrates on the proliferation of onshore wind energy in the UK and to
what extent onshore wind energy contributes to meeting the 2020 renewable energy
target. This study will consider the reasons why the UK is, in its current state, failing
to meet the target.
The study focuses solely on wind power, as wind-powered generation will form
much of the renewable energy required to meet the renewable energy target of 15%
by 2020.
The literature review has identified a large volume of research into wind farms. To
avoid repetition, this study will not consider the efficiency of wind turbines or wind
farm design because literature already exists to suggest this is a proven and mature
technology.
This study is confined to onshore wind energy only because offshore wind energy is
technically less mature than onshore wind energy. Offshore also has different
characteristics to onshore, such as offshore wind farm planning applications being
decided by the Crown Estate, and the planning regimes, cost and grid integration of
offshore wind farms are all different to onshore.

20
3.3Research Methods
3.3.1 SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION: DESKTOP RESEARCH
The initial desktop research was completed to determine the current state of the
wind power industry in the UK and what position it is in toward meeting the 2020
target (question 1). Further desktop research was carried out to compile a register of
wind farm output in the UK, and to give a breakdown of those farms that are
currently operational, approved, under construction and in the planning process
(question 2).
The current status of wind energy in the UK (November 2010) is illustrated through a
graph and table extracted from the RenewableUK website, which provides a
progress update on the growth of onshore developments in the past year.
In preparation for this research, the author participated in a seminar which accessed
the progress that has been made by both the UK Government and the UK’s
renewable energy industry to safeguard the RES and to ensure the UK is on course
to meet the European target of 15% of all energy being produced from renewable
sources by 2020. The seminar addressed the interim targets outlined in the strategy,
the strength of the renewable energy organisations’ coalition manifesto, and the
future for the successful delivery of renewable energy. This seminar on the UK
Renewable Energy Strategy led to a deeper understanding of the progress being
made, the next steps and the range of issues the UK faces.
An email was sent in February 2011 to an action group active in campaigning
against the construction of a wind farm comprising of 8 wind turbines. In view of the
nature of the information requested from the anti-wind farm campaign group and the
sensitivity of this information the campaign group indicated that it wished to remain
unidentified. For the purpose of this empirical research they are referred to as the
“anti-wind farm action group”. (See Appendices 1, 2, 3 and 4 for email and
correspondence).
To gather additional data, an email was sent in November 2010 to the UK’s largest
onshore wind farm developer, ScottishPower Renewables (SPR), outlining the study
and requesting information on their wind farms. The information requested would be
used to identify 2 wind farms located in the North West in close proximity to each

21
other; where one is in operation whereas the other would be currently in the
planning process awaiting its decision. (See Appendices 5 for email).
Qualitative data was also derived from case studies and observations, as will be
explained below; however, it was thought most important to collect quantitative data
in the form of questionnaires. The reason for this was to create a broader picture of
local residents’ thoughts and experiences as an anti-wind farm action group in the
UK.
3.3.2 SECONDARY QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION: CASE STUDY
This study seeks to investigate the factors that delay planning permission through
focusing on two case studies to assess the reasons why a wind farm cannot obtain
planning permission on a site where there is already an existing wind farm (question
3). This will provide examples of some of the issues surrounding planning
permission for a local onshore wind farm within the North West. Considering there is
an existing wind farm in close proximity to the proposed wind farm one would
envisage the planning permission to be granted with relate ease. The researcher will
acknowledge the impact of local residents’ opposition and how this can determine
the planning decision of a wind farm proposal (question 4) through studying the
public comments towards the proposed wind farm, which will give a general
consensus of the locals’ attitude towards this proposal.
The case study will use secondary data as the researcher has decided to use
someone else’s data due to time restrictions; however, a case study offers flexibility
as “it provides an opportunity for one aspect of a problem to be studied in some
depth”. (Bell, 2005, p10)
Qualitative case studies are a type of empirical inquiry. In this case, it will be used to
investigate and assess the reasons why a wind farm cannot obtain planning
permission on a site where there is already an existing wind farm. Considering the
form of the research questions are to do with ‘how’ and ‘why’ the planning process is
delaying wind farm developments, as well as the adequacy of onshore wind energy
in meeting the 2020 target, a case study method is the most appropriate solution.
The use of qualitative case studies should help the researcher to understand the
mistakes or failures in the planning system, and this information could also help
portray the intervention of an anti-wind farm action group and/or local residents.
‘How’ and ‘Why’ questions “are more explanatory and are likely to lead to the use of

22
case studies, histories, and experiments as the preferred research method” (Yin,
2009, p.9).
The sample size will be very small, as there will be 2 case studies conducted
consisting of one local area where there is an existing wind farm that has been in
operation for a number of years and one which is awaiting a planning decision but
has already experienced some local opposition. The case study is a focus on
contemporary events that will provide the researcher with an opportunity to test a
hypothesis with empirical evidence and discover new data that may not have been
uncovered by more superficial research.
The literature review identified the role of the media in promoting and discrediting
the use of wind farms throughout the UK. However, it also recognised the increasing
number of anti-wind farm campaign groups in the UK. The researcher aims to
discover the growing number of anti-wind farm campaign groups in the UK (question
5) through desktop research, which will also allow the researcher to identify the
questionnaire subject.
3.3.3 PRIMARY QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION: QUESTIONNAIRE
SURVEY
It was decided that a questionnaire would be considered to capture information in a
systematic way and to find out what has happened, or what is happening, from the
anti-wind farm campaign group’s perspective.
As the project aims to investigate local resident’s opposition to wind farms and their
views on the alternatives to onshore wind farms, primary quantitative data, such as
questionnaires, were deemed to be most suitable. The questionnaire allowed for
questions to be asked from the anti-wind farm campaign group providing information
which is easy to analyse statistically.
A questionnaire survey of the anti-wind farm campaign group was conducted in
February 2011 to collect data on the campaigns group’s resistance to a wind farm
proposed for their area (question 6) and what the campaign group suggests as an
alternative to onshore wind farms, while still allowing the UK to meet its 2020 target
(question 7).
The questionnaires were issued by post to 50 members of an anti-wind farm
campaign group in the UK who were identified through desktop research as

23
previously mentioned. There are numerous methods the researcher could have
chosen in order to select a sample of potential questionnaire respondents. However,
the decision depends on what the study seeks to find out, what type of population is
being studied and, most importantly, who will give the most accurate, useful and
appropriate answers? The outlined study will use the purposive sampling technique
for its collection of primary quantitative data. Purposive sampling is “hand-picking
supposedly typical or interesting cases” (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 1996, p79).
Using this technique to select the sample for the research will provide the best
information in relation to the study’s research questions.
The questionnaire consisted of six sides of A4 with 30 questions arranged into six
sections, including questions on: the 2020 Renewable Energy Strategy, climate
change, local benefits from the installation of a wind farm, environmental effects
caused by wind farms, wind farm siting and location, and how the media portrays
wind farms. One questionnaire was issued to each committee member of the anti-
wind farm campaign group, and the committee chair took responsibility for gathering
the responses. The questionnaire was accompanied by a reply-paid envelope and a
letter outlining the purpose of the research (see Appendices 6 and 7 for
questionnaire and covering letter). It was considered necessary to offer the
respondents to the questionnaire an incentive by means of a copy of the final output
document so they could see how relevant their responses were to the academic
study. The questionnaire was piloted to ensure the length was appropriate for the
audience and recipients.
The questionnaire used the Likert scale to allow respondents to choose one option
that best described their view. They were designed to capture quantitative data
either via tick box or Likert scale responses that would allow categorical analysis.
Likert scales “are devices to discover strength of feeling or attitude towards a given
statement or series of statements” (Bell, 2005, p142).
No open ended questions were used because they have many disadvantages, such
as being difficult for respondents to answer, and requiring more thought and time for
the researcher to analyse; also the number of open-ended questions in a
questionnaire may deter potential respondents from participating in the
questionnaire. On the other hand, open questions also have advantages and offer
flexibility for the respondent to answer as they wish, which means they may offer
opinions and attitudes which would help to gather richer, qualitative data. The

24
respondents did have an opportunity at the end of the questionnaire to express their
views and opinions and to raise any further concerns they may have. The reason for
using mainly quantitative questions is that they produce a “small amount of data in
standardized form from a relatively large number of individuals” (Robson, 2002,
p.230).
A recent example of this type of method is the distribution of the 2011 census, which
is used to survey the whole population, but the researcher is not looking to survey
the whole population for obvious reasons, mainly time restraints, but the aim is to
get a sample which is representative of the population being studied. “The census
provides a detailed snapshot of the population and its characteristics.” (Census,
2011)
There are no ethical dilemmas involved in this research study; however,
participation in the questionnaire is voluntary and there is no pressure placed upon
recipients to complete the questionnaire. The anti-wind farm campaign group
showed an interest in participating. The topic is not a sensitive one and there are no
risks involved to the individuals participating in the questionnaire. However as
previously mentioned, the campaign group wished to remain anonymous and the
researcher must meet their requests therefore they will be identified throughout the
research as “an anti-wind farm action group.”
3.3.4 PRIMARY QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION: INTERVIEW WITH DR
GORDONEDGE, RENEWABLEUK.
The researcher has recognised the need for an academic or professional’s stance
on the overall aim and for this reason the researcher has decided to interview the
Director of Policy at RenewableUK. RenewableUKs work has been previously
mentioned therefore there is little need to recognise their significance only that Dr
Edge has had a varied career in energy, initially in academia, followed by journalism
and now advocacy for the renewable energy industry as director is policy within
RenewableUK. (BWEACymru, 09)
The researcher through a focused interview seeks to identify what the implications
are for the future development of onshore wind power in meeting the renewable
energy target (question 8). The author is also interested in discovering how planning
can address these implications which have been outlined in the research which

25
would allow for the UK to meet the legally binding 2020 renewable energy target
(question 9).
Data collection through the above mentioned techniques - desktop study, case
study, questionnaire survey and an interview with a professional - allows for a quick
and low-cost way of collecting a lot of information at relative ease to the researcher.
In relation to the analytical research project highlighted in this paper, the researcher
will study the different research objectives set out. The conclusion and
recommendations formed will then bring these together and relate them to each
other, because they are all attributes of the central research question. The reader
will thereby assimilate a deeper understanding of wind farms and the debate
surrounding the 2020 renewable energy target. A desktop research and interview
with a academic/professional demonstrates the current state of the wind power
industry in the UK, and the reader will benefit from this current knowledge, but this
will be further developed to display an in-depth knowledge, importance and critique
of the chosen subject.
One approach to the research could be to look at best practice from other countries,
such as Denmark where “wind power provided 18.9% of electricity production and
24.1% of generation capacity […] in 2008” (Energy Agency Statistics, 2008). If the
researcher was to consider international examples, this would be very time
consuming and due to the nature of this research and the time constraints upon it,
investigating international practices is not a feasible option and local examples will
be used as they are more relevant to the study.
In addition to this, international research would require dealing with a different
territory where planning policy and laws are different than the UK. However, it is
important to note how in other countries, particularly Denmark, they tend to care
more for their urban areas than in the UK, where people care more for rural areas
and are very protective over the “picturesque landscape” (Mingay, 1989, p.51). This
creates opposition from local residents and campaign groups, with the so-called Not
In My Back Yard Syndrome (NIMBYS), which in turn means fewer planning
permission approvals for wind farms. This is something that hinders the UK’s
chances of achieving its 2020 renewable energy target, because if applications are
being refused then the number of new wind farms becoming operational also falls.
This is why it will be useful to compile a questionnaire for the anti-wind farm action

26
group for their views on and recommendations for achieving the 2020 target. It may
also be useful to ask them what they think the future holds and what alternatives
they suggest which would allow the UK to achieve its 2020 renewable energy target.
3.4 Data Analysis
The main reason the questionnaire was chosen as the tool to collect data is they
make data input much simpler, and they are easy to analyse once the questions
have been carefully selected and formulated to answer the objectives of the study.
Computer software packages can be useful for statistical analysis and this study will
take advantage of IBM SPSS to enter data into the computer system; therefore
allowing for relative ease of reading and analysis.
“IBM SPSS Statistics is a comprehensive, easy-to-use set of data and predictive
analytics tools for business users, analysts and statistical programmers.” (SPSS,
2010) The combined use of IBM SPSS and Microsoft Office Excel will help to
analyse the various aspects that need to be focused on by using tables, graphs and
charts for ease of comparison to handle the quantitative data and make good
presentation of the data. This will involve sorting the data after data collection, either
by inputting it into a data analysis program, like SPSS, or manually inputting the
data into tables prior to analysis and using Excel to display the results.
The research study will incorporate the use of collecting data through the use of
both primary quantitative/secondary qualitative data as they complement each other
by working jointly to meet the research objectives. This balance was designed after
consideration of all other research method alternatives, but due to various
constraints, such as the time and financial restrictions imposed upon this research
study, the proposed methods were deemed most appropriate compared to the
alternatives available.
3.5 Online Sources
Internet sources will be used throughout the research project, as web information is
extensive and expansive but also since information on websites can be accessed
much more easily than other sources of information. Another advantage of using
websites is that they are updated more frequently than texts, which means that the
data is current and gives more reliability. The use of the website for RenewableUK,
which is the trade and professional body for the UK wind and marine renewables

27
industries, is apparent throughout the project in order to acquire information on the
current state of the industry and a basis for the researcher to begin the project.
3.6 Triangulation
All of the methods of research can be used to complement each other, and the
results can be combined to produce a reliable conclusion. This action is known as
‘triangulation’ of evidence. The three methods each bring their own benefits to the
study, and provide a different ‘angle’ on the information as they are subtly different
ways of gathering opinion and facts on onshore wind farms their recent
development, problems and issues surrounding planning permission and public
opposition.
However as they all share the same aim, i.e., gathering information on the same
topic, the separate assumptions they assert can be brought together to increase the
knowledge in the study.
The accounts can be combined in order to establish the relevance or accuracy of a
certain piece of information. This means that an evolution from theory to practise –
for instance, written policy to everyday approaches – can be followed with a critical
eye, whereby it can be assessed whether or not what is written in policy for the
future of onshore wind farms e.g. the 2020 target is actually happening on the
ground and to what position we currently hold in reaching the target. The case
studies and more importantly, the interview responses based on the problems
surrounding the case study, allow scope for a form of substantiation, in terms of
assertion put forward on the evidence gathered. This means that the assumptions
made based on documentary analysis can be substantiated to some degree by the
other three forms of research, primarily the questionnaires.
3.7Issues and Limitations
This section of the investigation highlights the possible limitations that could hinder
the research.
The first, most apparent, issue with this research is that it could appear to offer a
one-sided or biased argument since the researcher is coming from a planning
perspective. To avoid this impression, variables in the research will be highlighted
and examined in terms of what they show regardless of justification towards the

28
research title or not. This was an important consideration in the design and creation
of the questionnaire. There may also be difficulties in establishing contact with the
anti-wind farm action group who would be willing to take part in the questionnaire.
The researcher will highlight the benefits of the investigation to the action group in
order to increase the likelihood of response.
The researcher has set out to make contact by expressing an interest in the action
group’s resistance against a wind farm proposal in their area and then
demonstrating the potential benefits of the research to them. The sample may also
be an issue. The research sets out to measure 50 members of the action group.
This is a realistic target for one action group as any more may deter the action group
from taking part because of the time associated with completing the questionnaire.
However, this sample may be too small to represent any significant findings. This
will be apparent in the conclusion section of the project.
The members of the action group may also be uninterested by the questionnaire
and not pay full attention to its completion. The questionnaire response rate is not
expected to be 100% because of the nature of the data being requested from the
anti-wind farm action group. However, the research subjects will be contacted in
advance by email to ensure they are willing to take part and to assure them that all
data would be treated sensitively and constructively.
The researcher appreciates that there may be negative results affected by a lack of
attention to complete the questionnaire and for inaccurate or rushed questionnaires.
The researcher will look to improve this aspect in the section regarding the
implications for further research.
A limitation issue for the research is time, particularly concerning the questionnaires
and awaiting the return of the results. This issue has been considered and a one
month period (February 2011) has been set aside in order to deal with any delays.
Another way this problem is addressed is to ensure that there is one person who
has responsibility for gathering the responses and returning them to the researcher,
therefore reducing the risk of delays or lost questionnaires. Further to this,
consistent contact with the action group will also be apparent throughout in order to
ensure progress is being made and the questionnaires are being undertaken as
requested on schedule. If there is any outstanding research as a result of
incomplete questionnaires then this will be addressed in the section concerning
implications for further research.

29
One further limitation to be identified is that, despite an effort to include as much
academic literature as possible, there will undoubtedly be an absence; the reason
being the word limit of this academic research. A possible setback of this is that
there will not be relevant literature to support or deny findings.
The data collection methods chosen aim to avoid any relevant information being
neglected and this is one of the benefits of having more than one method, as
discussed in the methodology section.
Asking an anti-wind farm action group on their experiences with wind farms in their
area will create some bias and skewed results, as they have strong opposition
against these wind turbines. The use of Likert scales could also create a problem as
the results may all be negative, with respondents portraying the strength of their
views and opposition.
Research suggests that respondents often avoid using the negative end of the
scale:
“One reason for distrusting measures of satisfaction is simply that people seem to
be satisfied with everything that social scientists ask them about.” (Gutek, 1978;
cited in Gillham, 2000, p92)
However, since the research study is examining a campaign group against the
construction of wind farms in its area, negative results are highly anticipated from
these unsatisfied communities.
One of the UK’s largest electricity-generators was also contacted to help identify an
appropriate location within the North West which would be used as the case study,
and it was anticipated that they may fail to respond because of the sensitivity of this
information. Alternative arrangements were therefore made with RenewableUK and
their Programme Team Administrator who provided a detailed list (see Appendices 8
for list) of all the North West wind farms, including detail on their status, location,
local planning authority and the developer. This information provided vitally
important for the progression of this research study, particularly the case study.
Any limitations experienced will be discussed in the section concerning implications
for further research, which can be found in the conclusions and recommendations.

30
CHAPTER 4 - REPORT ON STUDIES
4.1 Introduction
This section of the research investigates the data obtained from the chosen
research methodologies that have previously been described in chapter 3. The
researcher has chosen to use a variety of research methods and this chapter hopes
to identify their findings through a presentation and analysis on the studies.
From the outset of the dissertation, the overall aim was to evaluate, whether, if all
currently planned wind farms were implemented, the UK would meet its energy
target of 15% of energy from renewables by 2020 or what additional efforts are
needed to achieve this target? In order to develop a specific focus on such a broad
topic a number of key objectives were identified. These objectives will now be used
to analyse the findings gathered and identify whether the overall aim of the research
has been achieved and whether the UK is likely to achieve its legally binding target
and are there any policy implications for the future studies of onshore wind farms in
producing renewable energy and for the future of planning and how this will affect
the sector in coming years.
The researcher hopes that through the use of a case study, questionnaire and an
interview that this will discover a broad range of data that will help answer the
overall research aim.

31
RQ 1 - What is the current state of the UK’s wind power industry and its
current position in meeting the renewable energytarget?
To evaluate if the UK will meet the legally binding 2020 target it is important to
consider the current position which the UK holds. The research is specifically
interested in onshore wind energy’s contribution to reaching this target. The
literature review identified the UK’s 2020 renewable energy target and where it
originated. The UK has got a 15% total energy target which is our share of the
overall European 20% target and as the researcher will now demonstrate this is a
challenging target.
RenewableUK is the professional body for the UK wind and marine renewables
industries and each year they publish the ‘State of the Industry Report’ which
identifies that the rate of growth in the sector is rising significantly. “While the first 1
GW of wind-powered electricity took 14 years to install, the last 1GW was developed
over the course of 12 months” (Jump, 2010)
Figure 2: Wind operating capacity - strong recent growth
This graph illustrates where 1GW of installed wind capacity was reached in 2005
however in 2009-2010 the 5GW capacity was reached within one year which proves
the recent strong growth rate of wind energy.
(RenewableUK, 2010)
Figure 2 above also shows where UK renewable energy has come from in the last
10 years and there is a steady growth particularly of onshore wind in the past 5
years which is represented by the green bars in this graph whereas offshore is
represented by the blue bar and we can see that in 2004 offshore only began to

32
operate and contribute to the recent growth of wind energy however this research is
solely focused on onshore wind energy therefore this is irrelevant. Further to this an
interview with Dr Gorgon Edge indicated the current position of onshore wind energy
in the UK.
“The UK’s renewable energy industry is growing rapidly particularly onshore wind
and we are now at a bit over 5 gigawatts of wind power altogether” (Edge, 2011).
In July 2009 the previous Government issued the Renewable Energy Strategy
(RES) following the sign up to the EU Renewable Energy Directive the reason for
this was to plan the future and begin thinking of the ways in which we might meet
this 2020 energy target. The incoming coalition government then produced the
National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) in a short space of time due to
the 2010 general election however they did produce a document which expressed
their intentions to meet the target domestically therefore meaning a greater
dependence on wind energy as it is the fastest growing renewable energy source.
“The NREAP is based on a template set by the European Commission, which asks
for the trajectory and measures that will enable the UK to reach its target for 15% of
energy consumption in 2020 to be from renewable sources.”
(DECC, 2010)
The significance of this is that the UK has decided to produce their own renewable
energy rather than importing energy from other countries. The government are yet to
produce the ‘delivery plan’ although this is due out in spring 2011 and will outline the
future for renewable energy however this research project is likely to be complete
before the government publish this.
“Under the RES there is a target that the UK produces over 30GW of wind energy
by 2020” (Jump, 2010) and 14GW of this target is to be produced by turbines.
Currently there is 3.8GW of installed onshore wind energy operational and the
14GW requirement seems impossible never mind the total overall 30GW target for
wind energy when we consider the past progress where it took 14 years to install
1GW and the target has to be reached by 2020. (RenewableUK, 2010)
Additionally research question 2 will give a breakdown of those wind farms which
are currently operational, under construction, approved awaiting construction and in
the planning process which will give an indicator as to the problems the UK faces in
reaching the 2020 target.

33
RQ 2 - How is the position affected through those wind farms which are
currently under construction, approved awaiting construction, and held up in
the planning process?
Question 1 has identified the 2020 target as being ambitious by illustrating our
current position and where we have come from. However much of the wind energy
waiting to go active is held up in the planning process as identified through an
interview with Dr Gordon Edge together with table 2 (below) which illustrates the
current UK status and we can see there is 7333MW in the planning process.
“We have about 7 gigawatts already in the planning system awaiting decision”
(Edge, 2011) therefore some may associate planning as acting as a ‘barrier’ in the
development of the generation of electricity by wind power. This is the view of Ellis
et al (2010) as identified in the literature review. “A persistent line of explanation for
the implementation deficit is that planning is a ‘barrier’ to the expansion of wind
energy” (Ellis et al, 2010, p.253).
The researcher will now discover the true current status of UK onshore wind energy
through considering those wind farms which are approved awaiting construction,
under construction, and held up in the planning process. Table 2 illustrates a
breakdown of the current UK onshore status and we can see that those projects
under construction is almost a third of our operational installed capacity and this is
currently being built whereas those which are approved and awaiting construction is
almost equivalent to the operational wind farms across the country. Therefore with
consideration of these schemes both operational, under construction and approved
but not built the UK would have approximately 8.5GW of capacity and this is not
taking into account the 7GW currently stuck in planning.

34
Table 2: Current UK onshore status
(RenewableUK, 2010)
Table 2, illustrates that contrary to Ellis et al (2010) that planning is not the only
‘barrier’ as there are a large number of schemes (189) comprising 3.5MW of
renewable energy waiting to be built therefore they have planning consent but have
yet to be constructed. Planning is only one of the many problems facing the
deployment of wind energy as we must recognise that the UK is in the “largest
financial crisis of its kind in human history” as described by the Bank of England
deputy governor Charles Bean (Bean, 2008 cited in Fleming, 2008).
This view is supported through a discussion with Dr Gordon Edge who recognised
that “there are some issues around getting finance and it may take a while to get
your grid connection energised” (Edge, 2011)
Wind farms come at a significant cost and developers may choose not to develop in
these difficult economic times as a typical commercial scale wind turbine can cost
anything from £1 million without taking into account land costs, environmental
statement costs, grid connection, construction, site preparation or community
benefits.
An article recently published in PLANNING (2010) reiterates that planning alone is
not the problem. “Some of these projects have had consent for years, so it is unfair
to say that the planning system has prevented wind farm development.”
The maps below interpret table 2 and illustrate the UK’s operational wind farms
through figure 3 in comparison to those under construction, consented and
submitted awaiting planning permission which are illustrated through figure 4.

35
Figure 3 Figure 4
(both sourced from RenewableUK, 2011)
As the RES requires 14GW to be produced by turbines (Jump, 2010) this would
mean the UK is currently a little over half way in reaching the target with 8.3GW, this
is if all those under construction and approved but not built were made operational
however this does not take into account the 7 gigawatts already in the planning
system awaiting decision which would allow us to meet the target if those 263
schemes were to get consent. However there are challenges ahead as summarised
by the Independent (2010) where they acknowledge that the wind power industry
faces difficult times ahead with the new planning regime, local opposition and
campaign groups which can all hinder the UKs chances of meeting the renewable
energy target. (Wright, 2010)
This question has given a breakdown of the onshore renewable energy industry so
we now have a clear understanding of where the UK is in meeting the 2020
renewable energy target but it is important that the researcher now investigates the
reasons why a wind farm cannot obtain planning permission.
The researcher is satisfied that objective one has now been met through
successfully answering research questions one and two.

36
RQ 3 - What are the reasons why a wind farm cannot obtain planning
permission on a site where there is already an existing wind farm?
Introduction into Case Study location
The researcher through focusing on a case study of a local wind farm located in
Lancashire will investigate the reasons why a wind farm cannot obtain planning
permission. The case study includes an existing wind farm comprising of 8 turbines
producing 16MW of energy, called Caton Moor wind farm has been operational
since summer 2006 however previously there were 10 x 300KW machines since
1993 on the site but the decision was made to upgrade the site with modern more
efficient machines in 2005. This wind farm was one of the earliest commercial wind
farms in the UK and the turbines can be seen from the M6 near Lancaster. (see
Appendices 9 for case study field visit photographs)
The next wind farm is a proposal of originally 20 turbines however this has been
reduced to 13 x 3MW turbines producing 39MW of electricity due to difficulties in
planning permission, some of which the researcher will later mention.
“The proposed wind farm is located on Claughton and Whit Moor, approximately
5km east of Caton and 10km east of Lancaster in Lancashire.” (Community
Windpower Ltd, 2011)
This proposed wind farm is called Claughton Moor Community Wind farm and would
stand next to the operational wind farm mentioned above called Caton Moor. It is
worth noting that this area is in the Forest of Bowland AONB however planning
permission was once granted for the original wind farm (Caton Moor) 18 years ago
and then again in 2005 for the repowering scheme. For this very reason the
researcher is interested in asking why this proposal cannot obtain planning consent
when there is already an existing wind farm on the site.
Figure 5 (below) illustrates a map of both the existing and proposed wind farms. The
map demonstrates the proximity of the existing wind farm to the proposed wind farm
where the existing 8 no. wind turbines are highlighted with the blue circles whereas
the proposed 13 no. wind turbines are indentified through the red circles. The field
visit undertaken by the researcher visualises the location of these proposed turbines
and where they will be situated in relation to the existing wind farm. (see Appendices
9 for case study field visit photographs)

37
Figure 5: Caton Moor (existing wind farm) and Claughton Moor Community
Wind farm (proposed wind farm)
Source: (Community Windpower Ltd, 2011)
In order to fulfil objective 2 the researcher will establish the factors that are delaying
this planning application when there is already an operational wind farm on the
proposed site.
To begin the researcher must note that this area is within an Area of Outstanding
Natural Beauty which means it is “a precious landscape whose distinctive character
and natural beauty are so outstanding that it is in the nation’s interest to safeguard
them” (National Association for AONBs, 2003). One would envisage that no
development should take place here as the Forest of Bowland AONB has been
confirmed as an AONB since 1964 however the existing Caton Moor wind farm has
been operational since 1993. This gives the proposed development an impetus and
creates an argument for the development however this proves controversial with
local residents by creating opposition which the researcher will now demonstrate.

38
To gather an overall view from the public surrounding this proposal the researcher
took a survey sample of 50 from the public comments regarding this application
which have been submitted online under the associated documents with this
planning application. The results are as expected particularly considering this case
study is located in an AONB with 38 out of the 50 responses opposing the
development whereas a minor 12 were for the proposal. It is difficult to apprehend or
associate this with the social (un) acceptance of wind farms which is summarised by
Ellis et al (2010) the main reason being this case study may not have been the
strongest in establishing what the reasons into why people oppose wind farms are
because the fact that the proposal was within an AONB meant this was the
underlying cause of opposition where people made their opinion heard.
The overall consensus from the public comments would also suggest that the visual
impact of these turbines would be detrimental in an area designated as an AONB.
Other objections are on the grounds of the impact on the local environment during
construction and afterwards, the threat to wildlife, the threat to tourism and local
economy and the economics of wind power. A public comment in objection to the
proposal is attached (see Appendices 10.)
Through researching the public comments it has become clear that the objectors
seem to question the resubmission of 13 turbines as opposed to the original 20. The
problem here is that there may be some dishonesty from the developer who first
“stated 20 turbines were needed to make the project viable but now seem able to
make it work with 13”. (Freeman, 2010)
However the objectors are adamant that their previous concerns over 20 turbines
are equally important when it comes to 13 turbines. The researcher will investigate
this further through the questionnaire. These include environmental concerns, noise,
worries about flooding and the potential harm to local wildlife.
Further to this one would question the credibility of the developer by offering
increased incentives and brides to this rural community as this too has been revised
to offer a further £1.3 million of local investment per annum. If there is less turbines
in the planning application then one would think the incentive to the community
would also reduce. This is a practise discussed by Milner (2010).
“A growing number of rural communities are being offered ‘goodwill payments’ by
wind energy developers....” (Milner, 2010, p.537)

39
Local residents also recognise this practise which has increased their frustration and
opposition towards the proposal.
“The debilitating tactics of developers who have the time and resources to press
their case(s) are regrettable. Furthermore, to offer local councils £500,000 to
influence their attitude towards them is obscene.” (Dybeck, 2011)
In support of communities benefiting from wind farms the community benefit scheme
has recently been announced by RenewableUK and this has previously been
mentioned in the literature review.
To consider how planning could affect this we must acknowledge how the planning
agenda is changing as mentioned in the literature review and this may favour the
majority the researcher has found that were opposed to the development. Through
the localism bill which will shift power from central government to local communities
and this creates some anxiety with developers as the plans for Neighbourhood
Forums could mean that just three people could ‘constitute’ themselves as a forum
and attempt to oppose new developments which is not representative of the
community. Anti-wind farm groups could set up Neighbourhood Forums to try and
oppose new wind farm developments therefore reducing the chances the UK have
in reaching the 2020 renewable energy target. (Murray, 2011). This will be
discussed later in the conclusions and recommendations.

40
RQ 4 - How can local residents’ opposition impact the planning decision of a
wind farm proposal?
The researcher through answering research question 3 has reported on some of the
reasons why the proposal in this case study cannot obtain planning permission and
has identified some of the reasons why local people are opposed to this
development with the volume of public comments that object the proposal which is
available from Lancaster City Council website. This case study demonstrates what
is currently happening in a local area within the North West where the main concern
raised was the Forest of Bowland AONB status.
Local residents can come together and form an anti wind farm group whose
presence are being heard throughout the UK as research question 5 will recognise.
It has also been established that many local residents like to uphold any
developments (not only wind farm proposals) in their area because they have this
view of a ‘picturesque landscape’ (Mingay, 1989, p.51) and are against having
neighbours imposed on them or their view becoming restricted. Wolsink (2010)
describes this as an ‘ignorance and selfishness’.
The researcher through the literature review has found that there is sometimes a
contradiction in public opinion where surveys have shown a high level of support for
wind power; however, there is commonly ‘rejection or objection on the basis of
proximity’ and this is ‘sometimes referred to as NIMBYism’ (Devine-Wright, 2010,
p.102). What this suggests is that people are generally supporting towards
renewable energy and meeting the UKs 2020 renewable energy target however they
do not want these turbines in their back yard hence why they are known as NIMBYs.
One would suggest that the main reason for opposition here is the AONB status of
the area however the through further research the author has found other grounds
for refusal as the proposed turbines will be over 40% higher than the existing 8
turbines on Caton moor. When the researcher visited the case study area they have
illustrated the size of the turbines through photographs taken at the base that can be
seen from appendices 9, photographs 1, 2 and 3. Therefore it is hard to picture the
size of these 40% higher proposed turbines within the beautiful mountains and
hillsides of this AONB. One would have to agree with a campaigner’s view where
they believe “the countryside is being industrialised for a technology that doesn’t
work.” (Hird, 2011 cited in Ingham, 2011). The scope of this research study will not

41
investigate the efficiency of wind turbines however this is a suggestion for further
research
Local residents have many concerns and issues over wind turbines and many
believe turbines are being built too close to their homes which cause noise, shadow
and flicker that can be distracting and cause disturbance affecting resident’s quality
of life. Through the case study site visit the researcher noted any local residents
close by to the existing wind farm and found the closest residence was located
approximately 500m from the first turbine however the village of Caton was only a
short drive away. The implication of these 40% higher wind turbines would have a
significant impact on the surrounding environment and local village through
becoming overbearing, dominant and intrusive to the nearby residential properties.
The researcher has now answered research question 3 and 4 therefore the second
objective has been completed. This now leads on to the third objective in this
systematic approach to the research study where the impact of campaign groups
will be investigated. The researcher has recognised the case studies weaknesses
and hopes to address these through using an alternative research method which
involves the use of questionnaires directed towards an anti wind farm campaign
group. From this the author hopes to draw on their experiences and establish what
they propose as an alternative to onshore wind in the production of renewable
energy while allowing the UK to meet the 2020 renewable energy target of 15%.

42
RQ 5 - To what extent are the number of anti wind farm campaign groups
increasing throughout the UK?
The UK has an ambitious target to meet as established in research question one
and the researcher hopes to evaluate, whether if all currently planned wind farms
were implemented, the UK would meet its energy target of 15% of energy from
renewables by 2020. However this target is being affected through an increase in
the number of anti wind farm campaign groups throughout the UK and this is why
the researcher will now investigate the extent of the increase in the number of anti
wind farm campaign groups throughout the UK.
There has been widespread media coverage particularly newspaper articles such as
the Independent, that the researcher has followed throughout this project which
have discussed how campaign groups are hindering green energy plans and the
UKs ability to meet its renewable targets. Wright (2010) suggests that the UK’s wind
farm plans are in disarray as a result of these local campaign groups.
“Hundreds of local revolts against wind farms have jeopardised the plan to use them
to generate more than a quarter of Britain’s electricity.” (Wright, 2010)
These campaign groups have their own views on the technology of wind turbines
and their efficiency together with the environmental damage they can cause. This
has been witnessed through the case study where opposition raised concerns over
the impact on the surrounding environment. Therefore this list of UK wind farm
action groups is increasing as local residents believe wind turbines are an eyesore
and are spoiling the most beautiful parts of the country through the noise they create
but also by destroying the local bird population. However the problem here is that
they are hindering the chances of the UK meeting the 2020 legally binding target by
making it increasingly difficult to get planning permission.
“These groups are scoring striking successes in defeating planned wind farms –
even when faced with the weight of official recommendations.” (Wright, 2010).
A desktop study has found recent research on campaign groups against wind farms
(Country Guardian, 2010) has shown there are over ‘250 UK wind farm action
groups’ and it contains a comprehensive database about wind energy which
includes a list of UK wind farm action groups. It is from this list the researcher has
found a campaign group to survey and questionnaire to find what the particular

43
issues these campaign groups’ have against the wind farm proposals for their area
and the following research question 6 will now investigate these issues.

44
RQ 6 - What are the particular issues which campaign groups’ have against
the wind farm proposals for their area?
This section will summarise the questionnaires which were designed to collect a
broad range of data from an anti-wind farm campaign group. A satisfactory response
rate of 48 respondents allowed the objectives and question to be pursued to
produce an analysis into research objective 3 within this study and to meet the
overall aim. The results from the questionnaire were entered into a SPSS analytical
tool. The results are analysed and any implications are discussed by the researcher.
The results also relate back to the objectives for the investigation and identify
literature where relevant. A bar chart or pie chart was drawn up for each of the
questions, visually showing the results.
The full questionnaire results are included in Appendices 11.
Total number of responses to questionnaire (n=48).
To begin the researcher has previously identified a theory found in research
question 4 that people are generally supporting towards renewable energy and
meeting the UKs 2020 renewable energy target.
Figure 6 is a bar chart produced in SPSS representing the response to question four
of the questionnaire.
Figure 6: Graph representing the anti wind farm campaign group’s response
to question four.
Question four: Do you believe that more energy should be produced using
renewable energy in the UK?

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