This is the final paper I wrote for my work in cognitive science at DePaul University.

1. Joseph Howerton
CSC587 Cognitive Science Final Exam
Introduction to the Paper:
I just read this today that “Cognitive science is the scientific study of the
human mind and human intelligence.” I might say that Cognitive Science
put very simply explores the way the brain functions in order to explain
complex cognition in the human mind. I believe that both of these
ssertions are overly simplistic and undercut what is at the core of the a
scientific research in cognitive science.
It’s important to remember that the roots of cognitive science extend into
the exploration and studying of damaged brains. But asking ourselves the
questions of what exactly is the mind and how does it function, and
ttempting to determine the complex processing power that is the brain as a
a sort of super computer is indeed a worthwhile endeavor.
The scientific research seeks to discover the work being done in the brain
by the different kinds of neurons and neural transmitters that work
together to perform the elaborate system of processing and functioning of
the human brain in responses to specific stimuli. I believe the scientific
research is engaged in seeking out phenomenon in the functioning of the
brain in order to analyze the physical processing at work in brain
esponses as well as the physiological functioning and psychological r
explanations of the responses.
According to Wikipedia the field of cognitive science draws from different
disciplines such as “neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, anthropology,
linguistics and artificial intelligence” that coalesce to create the science of
studying how the brain is organized and how it processes the activities of
the mind. This interdisciplinary nature of cognitive science was confirmed
in our studies as we attended to the discussion of each of these sciences
within the lectures and assignments. In the same Wikipedia entry it states
that “the term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of
ental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms"
Lakoff and Johnson, 1999).”
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2. It is indeed imperative for any student of cognitive science to study,
understand, and be well versed in each of the different disciplines involved
to grasp the depth and breadth of the factors associated within the corpus
of the scientific research. Cognitive Science attempts to extend these
ultiple disciplines to attend to the inner workings of the mind in times of m
cognitive dysfunction, deficiency, and duress.
The field of Cognitive Science itself was formed in its beginning stages by
focusing on the injured brain and understanding the myriad of
dysfunctions and deficits in information processing, perception of input
and stimuli, and in cognition that existed because of damage to the brain’s
different hemispheres, lobes, and regions. It was posited by a philosopher
of psychology Jerry Fodor that “a single phenomenon in the activity of the
brain can be characterized as either functional or physical, and the
ognitive processing of events in the brain can be viewed from both of c
those levels.”
There are cognitive abilities that can be studied within the regions of the
brain that include the higher level activities such as attention, memory,
perception, judgment, decision making, learning, language, and speech. By
studying the various regions of the brain and their associated functional
apabilities cognitive scientists can begin to map the cognitive activities to c
increased or decreased neural activities in that specific region of the brain.
Further, cognitive scientists ultimately determine deficiencies in the neural
pathways that promote higher level functioning of those activities. Much of
this work has been done in studying humans who have experienced some
sort of brain damage and that has been the roots of the scientific research.
Metaphor
Introduction: George Lakoff and John Searle have constructed two
different content theories on the topic of Metaphor. A Content Theory in
this case is basically taking the larger topic of Metaphor and breaking it
down into its subcomponents to a fine level of granularity. The concept of
granularity is a design decision where the research scientist makes a
decision of depth or breadth in granularity. It must be pointed out that
esigning and developing content theories with elegant structure are real
ork.
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3. We shape our speech to be understandable to others and even in our own
thinking we connect what we know to something similar to analogize
topics for our discussions. There is a basis for the experience of our lives
where Metaphor emerges and seeks to explain which include factors of
time, space, causation, and purpose. Metaphor can take the literal
interpretation of an event, experience, or thing and re‐frame it poetically
nd figuratively. Further, we can use some sort of symbols or other types a
of representations to take our metaphor and make it cross‐cultural.
I could say that I’m thankful to Reddy as he is described by Lakoff as the
figure in our history who took away the true meaning of metaphor from
the classical theorists. If only because he posits that metaphor is a product
of thought (and not language), which I believe (as stated) to be wholly true.
I do think it can be characterized as a language construct of sorts, but the
idea behind the mode of expression is creative. Metaphor emerges as we
experience and perceive the world around us. It takes form and life as we
build associations around it and make connections to it by drawing on our
ast experiences, and we are reminded of the similarities in seemingly p
disparate events in our lives.
I can hang my hat on Lakoff’s description of the contributions of Reddy.
It is about conceptualizing the world through our experiences, and that is a
matter of thought. I agree with him. I can get closer to embracing a system
of thought and generalization around the meaning of metaphor, if not
simply generalizing the experiences in our lives to make pat associations
ith the experiences of others. But I’m talking as a philosopher and not as w
a linguistic analyst.
The article then goes on to introduce that contemporary research
challenges the assumption that metaphor is strictly figurative language
and cannot be construed as a literal interpretation or expression. I’m not
sure I can follow this logic as I see comparisons of events or things as not
literal descriptions of that particular thing. I think we are speaking
figuratively when we compare one distinct thing in real‐time and space, to
another from a past experience or thing. I’m thinking that poetry describes
a literal event, in a creative and an artistic way, and I still think that
etaphor does become a construct, not of the language, but of the
xpression of the interpretation of meaning.
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4. I think the idea that our everyday lives our governed by a system of
metaphor can be challenged in a myriad of ways. It’s all open to
interpretation, and maybe that is what Lakoff asserts is metaphor. I think
about it in terms of people. We are all people this is true. People are people
being people, but we do behave in many different ways. We construe the
importance of things differently, and interpret and express meaning in
many different ways. For some people, a thing is very cut and dry, and
maybe they need it to be for their own survival. For others, every thing
around them is subject to an experience by the individual, and what will
merge as the expression will be different. We see the world differently,
ut we can try
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b on each others’ lenses if we dare. Is this metaphor?
Conclusions: The fact that humans speak and think in metaphor shows us
that we are a diverse species that can overcome challenges and barriers to
communication. Communicating in terms of metaphorical explanation is a
huge part of the process in which we interact with other human beings. We
draw comparisons and make associations to enhance connections and to
further our and to th search for truth and meaning to our lives e world.
Summary: We have studied the content theories of Metaphor as put forth
by George Lakoff and John R. Searle. It is understood that Metaphor is a
language construct in itself and possess strong communication abilities for
human beings. One takes in life and shapes what they are viewing in order
to express a moment. The system that is Metaphor helps us to give
meaning to something that is currently too abstract for us to express or
even further maintains personal meaning to the individual. It helps us in
making correlations to our experiences, and moreover Metaphor can help
us to express conceptual universals and universal truths.
Categorization
Introduction
Categorization represents building blocks of understanding of things in the
world around us to allow us to make sense of our realities. From what I
understand the human brain is naturally able to categorize persons, places,
and things in the world based on their perception, or bottom up processing,
of what they have experienced and learned about them throughout their
lives. These categories initially take the form of exemplars which are
examples of the person, place, situation, experience, or thing being
perceived by the individual which they are visualizing and perceiving with

5. certain attributes. If the attributes of an exemplar match up closely to a
certain category it becomes a prototype or what is also called a “master
concept” and belongs in the category. This categorization process in
humans happens in a natural way to give meaning to what we know, and
lso unconsciously, we just do it drawing from what we have experienced a
in our lives and what makes sense to us.
According to the research we were introduced to there are a lot of forms of
rules for membership to categories, such as optimal which means that they
are necessary, meaning that all members of that category must have it. And
then there are rules that are sufficient to an item or exemplar, which means
that if this person, place or thing possesses the characteristic, then it
defines membership within that particular category. We then are able to
use these examples to represent a prototype of the object we are
processing whether person, place, or thing. And when we visualize an
object in the world that matches up with certain attributes it begins to fit
ur expectations of that which we perceive it to be. This expectation o
“mechanism” is an example of top down processing.
We learned that there is what is called a graded structure to how we
evaluate or process input from the world around us. This concept basically
asserts that there are three variables that distinguish the
“representativeness” of a prototype which include the speed, accuracy, and
confidence of our perception of the attributes of any person, place, or,
hing. And this processing of information and input helps us to make t
meaningful connections to the world that is happening around us.
Further, the research shows that there exists in prototyping a weighted
effect on the value people place on the importance of these attributes they
are receiving as input and subsequently processing what is a prototype
during the process of categorization. The grading of a prototype is directly
affected by the distance between the person receiving the input and the
object that is being perceived. Graded structure in its most basic sense
eans that any instance of the prototype will be possess a gradient
etween itself
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b and the match of the prototype.
Conclusions: We as humans while engaged in an interactive state in an
environment are constantly processing input received into our brains
from the world around us. The research shows us that we naturally tend

6. to “chunk” people, places, and things into what are called exemplars,
prototypes, and categories.
Summary: To understand the phenomenon of categorization leads us to
how we as humans need to have a model that connects one thing to
another thing. These things might be people, places, or things and are the
objects that exist in the world. Much research has been accomplished to
establish the constructs of categorization including how we perceive a
thing and see it as an exemplar to the weight and grading we are able to
give it to establish if it fits into the prototype or category of that certain
thing.
Emotion Reasoning and Content Theories
Introduction: We studied Clark Elliott’s content theory on Emotion
Reasoning and The Affective Reasoner which was born out of Andrew
Ortony’s et al work and subsequent book called The Cognitive Structure of
Emotions. The system has agents with goals, standards, and preferences
which are created through eliciting situations and simulation events. These
situations then lead to responses in the agent which are then construed
within a construal process using the goals, standards, and preferences
databases.
I see an elegant theory as being complete, irrefutable, and one in which all
arguments have been accounted for, thus its thoroughness or elegance is
not up for debate. With that said I’m not scholar of content theory or the
reasoning of affective emotions to debate whether Clark Elliott’s Emotion
Content Theory holds up to the test of being defined as elegant. It seems
like it is though, and I think it’s fascinating. The very idea of a computer
rogram like The Affective Reasoner system is a brilliant contribution to p
the field of Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science.
I’m very much into understanding the human emotions (in myself and
others) as I see every aspect of our lives being governed by one emotion or
the other. I suspect the counter to that thought would be someone saying,
“I’m not ruled by my emotions.” I’ve heard it said before, yet that still is a
pretty emotive statement being made. I believe even the smallest feeling of
atisfaction or disappointment is an emotional response at play in the
uman.
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7. I thought this research was very well written and quite accessible. There’s
a lot going on in this system and Clark Elliott elucidates the process of
emotion reasoning in an approachable way that opens up a good
understanding of the cognitive processing at work. I believe that any
layperson can pick up this research, flip through it, and stop at the Emotion
Categories (Types) table and glean usable insight from it. The breakdown
f the compound emotions is enough for any novice cognitive science o
researcher to appreciate this research.
At its core the system possesses a database of agent Goals, Standards, and
Preferences (GSPs). This seems to be the very essence of the reasoner
system, as these elements form the basis of human emotive expression, i.e.
at the heart of every expression of emotion lies one or more of these three
concepts in action. The interpretation of the Emotion Eliciting Condition
ccurs in the construal process and sheds light into how we as humans o
bring to the fore our emotional response, and states.
By introducing emotion reasoning, the construal process, and emotion
eliciting conditions in this manner, Clark Elliott provides us with a
backdrop that raises self‐awareness, and thus, Emotional Intelligence (EI).
It is my opinion that this research is a major achievement and an excellent
resource for the corpus of multidisciplinary knowledge within AI, Cog Sci,
and specific topics of interest as EI.
Conclusions: The Affective Reasoner is a content theory that seeks to
define the distinguishing characteristics of what makes a human being a
personality. Since human beings are replete with emotions the system is
guided by the fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science.
In the system, “no event has meaning until after it has been filtered
through the concerns of that agent. The primary concerns of the agent
include that of self, other, desire‐self, desire other, pleased, status,
evaluation, responsible agent, and “appealingness.” These are called
Emotion Eliciting Condition relations.
Summary: In the system there are eliciting responses that are “funneled”
through a construal process which appears to be the heart and soul of the
reasoning system. This process means to construe the responses in order
to ascertain with accuracy the appropriate emotion that is occurring in the
agent. There are twenty‐two specific emotion types modeled around the
work of Ortony et al that are organized by group, specification, and
category label and emotion type. The goals, standards, and preferences

8. databases are used to interpret the agent’s responses and represent their
concern structure.
McClelland, et al.
Introduction: The major paper by McClellend et al introduces us to a new
vocabulary and argot from his scientific research into Connectionist
Models of Learning and Memory. We are introduced to what are called
structured knowledge systems which mirror the ensembles of experiences
from our lives and categorized into three different types of memory;
semantic, episodic, and encyclopedic. Further, the researchers ask the
uestions where did the brain get us and what can we do with it? And q
ultimately, could we design a learning system and a memory structure?
He explores the process of what he calls in the process of human memory
the concept of “storing the story” i.e. the sequence of events this is also
called the episode. The neo‐cortex is the “main store” for activation and
chunking of memory. Another key point to be considered by the research
is pointed out to us that learning and memory of learning are two different
rocesses; and that the concept of interleaved learning is actually the best p
way for us to learn and store episodes into memory as humans.
This is essentially a process of gradual learning with smaller learning rates,
and slow learning can be essential in increasing our ability to transfer the
story or episode from the hippocampal region of the brain to the neo‐
ortex. This process may also decrease or slow the rate of hippocampal c
decay in that region of the brain.
The hippocampal system in humans is essential to forming rapid
associations or from experiences and events of learning. The paper starts
out by talking about the effects of damage to the hippocampal system
which functions as part of the limbic system) that will produce a profound (
deficit in new learning.
The researchers conducted experiments with rats by producing lesions on
the hippocampal system and found that it caused pronounced impairments
in memory, specifically short term memory. I found it of interest that it is
theorized that the hippocampal system has the ability to teach and instruct
the neocortical system about the memories it has acquired. There is an

9. actual transfer of memory that happens between the two systems. These
make the two complementary learning systems.
It’s my understanding that the hippocampus serves as a storage area
within the memory system of the brain; hence it stores our initial
memories from past episodes, events, and experiences. These memories
(in essence) then move to the neo‐cortex region of the brain in a gradual
manner, so as not to disrupt the knowledge that is already stored in the
neo‐cortex. The hippocampal decay rate coupled with the cortical learning
rate which is slower, and the fact that the neocortical is the eventual
“storage center” for all means that the rate of “transfer” is slow.
Conclusions: McClellend introduces us to inter‐leaved and sequential
learning and how each approach is able to impact the memory in a
different manner or rate of consolidation. The researchers studied brain
lesions in rats in order to determine how a damaged brain reacts to re‐
introduced stimuli or activities into their existing realm of knowledge. The
damaged or lesion brain will most certainly be more pre‐disposed to the
inter‐leaved system of learning and memory consolidation. But they
further make the case that inter‐leaved learning is the best case scenario
for the entire process of learning, temporary memory storage, and
memory transfer to the main store that is the neo‐cortex.
Summary: The brain is a system of connectionist networks that provide
the human being with the abilities to process situations and episodes and
store them to memory. The primary regions that make up the network for
learning and memory exist in the hippocampal region (temporary storage)
and the neo‐cortex (permanent storage and retrieval) whereby they can be
described as a complementary learning system.
It is shown that there is actually a transfer process between these stored
memories and experiences that occurs between the two regions. These
take the form of three unique types of memory which include semantic
knowledge, episodic or knowledge of experiences, and encyclopedic. The
transfer processing or the duration of the consolidation interval is
constantly occurring at a gradual pace in order to ensure a more effective
rate of memory consolidation, and I believe reduces the rate of decay in
the hippocampal region of the brain.

10. Fatheadism and the Nature of Scientific Criticism
Introduction: The foundations of scientific research are guided by process
and procedural requirements intended to guide the researcher to
empiricism and what are results that can be repeated. The work is quite
tedious replete with much trial and error in order to come to certainty and
well‐founded conclusions, and often is one step forward, two steps back.
This is to say that the work is incremental and doesn’t just appear
automagically.” Thereby the work produced and output as fact must be “
supported by these tenets and actually stand up to rigorous testing.
Oftentimes the research work of scientists is attacked in unfounded ways
by other scientists or critics, whose critiques are unsupported by the
rigors of scientific inquiry, analysis, and testing procedures. The critics
often don’t challenge their own assumptions and opinions relying on their
own reference points in place of attempts at independently repeating the
experimental design. Further, they often criticize the original experimental
design in deference to others without offering a suitable, tested alternative
or even examining why the existing design was chosen in the first place.
It may just be true that we run away from what we don’t understand. What
we learned about Fatheadism is that oftentimes in intellectual circles there
are groups of thought that take precedence over new ideas. I think this
becomes staid thinking and undermines true innovative thinking. This is
why it’s of critical importance in scientific research to stick to the facts and
test with rigor to obtain empirical data and results within any theoretical
framework. This is a tenet of the work and if it exists with a degree of
certainty that is conclusive then criticism becomes less scientific and much
more grounded in opinion.
This is not to say that scientific criticism cannot begin from the point of
what we learned was “discomfort with the results” per se; but this initial
dissatisfaction must then be motivated by a thorough understanding of
what was researched and how the results were obtained. The
experimental design may be and should be scrutinized; but not without
alternatives and fact‐based assertions to support a refutation of the
original research within the critical argument of the competing camp of
scientists. And the argument must be able to refute the empirical data that
exists born out of the scientific research.

11. As we have learned, we can’t just wave our hands over the research and
expect a valid theoretical framework to emerge out of thin air. True
science takes a lot of work to achieve so the critic must also engage in a
significant effort if they are to engage in a debate over the results of
another scientist’s research, theories, and conclusions. Otherwise, this is
Fatheadism.
Conclusions: We learned that in Computer Science, agreement doesn’t
matter. The bit is either on or off, the algorithm works or it doesn’t, and
there is not a lot of gray area. Scientific research is driven by research,
experimentation, and data collection, analysis, with the end goal being one
of empiricism. These constructs of science must be held in the highest
regard because the basis of the theoretical framework is grounded in fact,
or what can be concluded as highly significant findings and conclusions.
What we learned about Fatheadism is that oftentimes in intellectual circles
there are groups of thought that take precedence over new ideas. I think
this becomes staid thinking and undermines true innovative thinking.
Some of the skeptical tactics when critiquing scientific research include
labeling the research as triviality and distorting the descriptions of the
research. The main point is that one cannot hold an opinion without the
facts or an understanding of the proof. As we have learned a valid proof is
still a proof.
Summary: The foundations of scientific research are guided by process
and procedural requirements intended to guide the researcher to
empiricism and what are results that can be repeated. Oftentimes the
research work of scientists is attacked in unfounded ways by other
scientists or critics, whose critiques are unsupported by the rigors of
scientific inquiry, analysis, and testing procedures. This is why it’s of
critical importance in scientific research to stick to the facts and test with
rigor to obtain empirical data and results within any theoretical
framework. If a critic is seriously in doubt then they should attempt a
replication of the constructs of the research being debated and see if they
can obtain repeatable results on their own
Perception
Introduction: Perception in the human brain is as complex of a processing
activity as are all of the cognitive functions and processing mechanisms in
the brain. The process of perception occurs within the realm of all of the

12. human senses in order to ascertain and understand what is occurring
before them and around the individual experiencing the vast array of
impulses and stimuli that life throws at them throughout the experience of
daily living.
It can be asserted with assurance that perception is tightly linked with
categorization as the process draws on the constructs of creating
representations, exemplars and prototypes to make conclusions about the
activities they are sensing and experiencing. I believe that there is also an
aspect of expectation to perception as the brain will process what falls into
a certain category it has perceived and the human mind will infer to the
experience one or more expected outcomes. The concept of resemblance
was introduced to us with regard to perception as we can perceive a
situational context as one that has resembled another experience and
assist in leading us to some sort of conclusion or resolution of the situation
at hand.
What we have learned is that within perception processing is that we
apply knowledge that we possess about a situation, past experiences,
people, places, and things as we take in the world around us. This is also
very similar to categorization. The knowledge we apply in these
experiences is either learned first hand or it can even be of an innate
nature. We experience the world around us based on the working senses
we possess and tune into the inner workings of it to understand what is
happening and what may happen. The cognitive event of perception
processing will happen automatically so that the individual can ultimately
make choices about what is happening. Thus perception will be
accompanied by certain expectations or conclusions of the potential
outcome of the situation.
The existence of illusions in perception processing appear to possess a trait
of a faulty knowledge‐base i.e. one that is misinformed about the realities
of a situation. This is to say that an individual may construct a situation out
of a situation they are experiencing and being misinformed or ignorant
about it they draw wrong conclusions. What they are seeing as reality in
this instance is an illusion of their own making. These illusions can also be
created by filling in missing information, which we learned is called object
occlusion, around a situation and just plain getting the actual details or the
facts wrong.

13. Conclusions: Perception is largely based on what we can experience
within the consciousness of our human senses. The process is closely
associated with the concept of categorization in that we construct models
of what we are experiencing based on our knowledge of exemplars and
prototypes. In our perceptions we are attempting to represent things as
we are experiencing them to understand the situation occurring in reality.
Summary: The cognitive processing that takes place when a human brain
perceives a situation, a person, place or thing within an experience is
based on several factors. The individual may have embedded knowledge
about an event and can draw an accurate conclusion based on that prior
experience. The expectation of the outcome may be correct or flawed, an
illusion, according to the accuracy of information they possess in their
knowledge‐base. The individual may be required to incorporate any of
their working senses to define the event or what their reality is
experiencing and flesh out the specifics of what they know about it.
The Visual/Spatial Nature of Thought
Introduction: The constructs of representing what we can see and
visualize in the world around us include the visual aspect and a spatial
aspect. This natural function of our thought processes may be the first
function that we have in terms of other functions like perception for
instance. We size up the world as it coming at us, around us, and as we are
engaged in it. We cannot get around it unless of course we are blind but
there would probably exist in that individual a heightened sense of the
spatial construct in their thought process.
We learned that visual/spatial representation is tightly integrated with all
of our sensory systems, as well as the auditory system. This systems
approach to understanding the nature of thought guides us to the
conclusion that are senses are the gateway to the very nature of our
perceptions, thought, and understanding. Within this process of receiving
information, stimulus, data, and input are perception filters become crucial
to the activity of organizing our thoughts in realistic terms of what we are
experiencing.
Throughout our daily lives and interactions with the world around us we
are experiencing a “staggering” amount of this sensory data that needs to
be filtered and perceived. We begin to understand with clarity and depth

14. the visual and spatial nature of though is indeed a complex one, as well as
being fundamental to our being in the world.
Conclusions: We have been shown that human beings function in real‐
time in order to survive. We are constantly bombarded by multiple
incoming streams of data, information, input, and stimuli. Our
visual/spatial cognitive process functioning appears to be at the epicenter
of those experiences. We take everything into our senses and filter through
it in order to continue to carry on in an appropriate effective manner. The
real intelligence nature of our thought process then organizes things in a
rational manner to keep us moving forward. It’s important to note that this
process can be severely undermined by mental illness however.
Summary: The visual/spatial construct within cognitive functioning
supports a systems approach where multiple systems are interacting to
perceive the world around us. Our instinctual nature engages our filters of
perception to reduce the amount of unnecessary noise within the streams
of data to allow us to function in an effective manner. We can reduce the
input into cogent thought processes in a more malleable way to
understand our experiences and the world at large as it is happening in
real‐time and space. If the assertion is true that the visual/spatial
embodies a total sensory systems approach to gathering the information
before us then it truly becomes the gateway to all of those senses.
Philosophical Arguments CogSci Must Address
Introduction: The worlds of computer science, artificial intelligence, and
cognitive science appear to be colliding at a steadily rapid pace and the
issues that appear to be ethical are going to be up for a challenging
philosophical debate in the years to come. We have discussed at length the
notion of adding computer chips to neurons in a brain to perform the
diverse cognitive functions of the brain and the mind at work. The
questions are many when it comes to this thinking and the issues will be
myriad. What is a sentient being? What makes us human and what are the
repercussions of transhumanism? What are the boundaries of artificial
intelligence that should not be crossed? Because there are fundamental
thical issues at stake when prototyping sentient, conscious, living beings, e
with beings that are artificial.
This is an insanely complex argument/debate with a ton of layers and
nuances. This is my first crack at writing something toward it but I had to

15. jump into the water. My focus here is on humans, as I see the cat example
as a kind of experiment in the concept of replacing neurons with computer
hips, one by one until we have a robot. I guess I’m just cutting to the chase. c
I’m certainly open to constructive criticism here.
The brain is the epicenter of the human experience and central to one’s
identity. I believe that once we start inserting computer chips where
neurons used to exist in the brain then we have crossed the line
into Artificial Intelligence, underscore Artificial. If our senses and
perceptions and all that makes up our human consciousness is being
controlled by an electronic prosthetic then we have lost our humanness, in
order to create a sort of superhuman. It is my belief that once you replace
one neuron with a computer chip, then you have changed the fundamental
tructure of that brain, and that human being has now crossed been turned s
into a computerized being.
I believe that Transhumanism is a slippery slope. On the face of it, it
sounds great to be able to make alterations to a brain that is experiencing a
deficit, a disease, a mental illness, or a trauma of some sort. I get it, and it
sounds great. Of course, the value‐add is going to be espoused by the best
and the brightest minds around the agenda. But what are the drawbacks?
What are they? How are we going to find them? There will have to be
considerable practical research performed to answer these questions,
hich will require a hefty number of human guinea pigs to accomplish the w
task.
There are a great many resources being applied to R & D in
Transhumanism. Why aren’t they being applied to brain plasticity? I
suspect it’s because Transhumanists believe that the human brain, will
never function as precise, process as well, and will never be as good (in
general) as a “computer brain.” But we haven’t even scratched the surface
f how our brain functioning and processing can be vastly improved o
through natural means of therapy and learning.
What makes us human is at the core of this debate. Transhumanists are
proposing to fundamentally alter the human experience. Can a computer
chip help us to get in touch with our emotions, or create meaningful
connections to the world around us? What is being proposed is to change
the way that human beings experience that which is life around us, in
order to make us supposedly more productive and effective as people.

16. Is this person still a human? Their humanness is being fundamentally
altered and it is shifting into a computerized being. Ask yourself this, is a
computer human? Is a robot a human? Once you begin to alter the
structure and makeup of the fundamental properties that make us human,
I believe we’ve crossed a line of demarcation. We’re in completely new
erritory. And I don’t believe we should be messing with the neural t
structures of cats either.
ada “Just be. After all, we are human beings, not human doings.” Kobi Yam
Conclusions: The philosophical issues that will emerge in Cognitive
Science and maybe most specifically Artificial Intelligence (AI) will be
many and varied. This is a complex debate with a lot of layers and nuances
to it. Cognitive Science is about building brains as we have learned. Much
of the work around brain plasticity is about re‐building the brain,
redesigning the brain, and re‐wiring the brain. I believe that we as a people
must hold onto our humanness within this endeavor, and that raises many
ethical considerations. We must consider the softer sciences to address
dysfunction . s and deficits in the brains functioning and processing abilities
Summary: The scientific research around Cognitive Science will continue
to produce many benefits to our understanding of how our brains function
and how human being can live more productive and effective lives. I do
believe we must be careful in setting limits around what is understood and
perceived to be true progress in the field. There will be many scientists
that want to incorporate computing technologies i.e. microchips to replace
damaged neurons in the brain to assist in performing dysfunctional
rocessing and certain other deficits to effective processing of the p
activities of the brain.
If we are attempting to push the limits of what it means to be productive as
a species by altering the genetic makeup of a human in this endeavor then
we are crossing a line of no return. But asking ourselves the questions of
what exactly is the mind and how does it function, and attempting to
determine the complex processing power that is the brain as a sort of
super computer is indeed a worthwhile endeavor. I believe that a tighter
integration of the softer sciences of psychology and philosophy will be of
great value in keeping the overly ambitious in check in the definition of
what is indeed meaningful progress for the human species as a whole.

17. What We Can Learn from Damaged Brains
Introduction: It is clear that cognitive science has its roots in studying
brains damaged by a traumatic event. We call stroke and other Asphyxia
types of brain injury Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) but these experiences are
just as traumatic in an emotional sense. I understand the differences
etween external trauma to the head and TBI but we should also play close
kdown.
b
attention on the cognitive dysfunction caused by emotional brea
We can ultimately learn how the brains cognitive processes are
functioning and pinpoint any cognitive dysfunctions and deficits that a
brain injured individual might be experiencing. We can study the loss of
he higher‐level cognitive processing activities like attention, memory, t
perception, judgment, decision making, learning, language, and speech.
I appreciate how Ramachandran opens this seminal work by calling the
understanding of the human brain, “the greatest revolution of all.” I would
push further and connect another of his thoughts in the research where he
puts forth the importance of the link between physiology and psychology
as being one of the major goals of cognitive neuroscience. To understand
this connection more clearly would surely be a cause for an emotional
evolution of mankind, if it is accessible to the masses and out of the lab. As
e states, ‘this scientific insight into the functioning of the brain will surely h
be a cause for advances in the humanities as well.’
He states that “By studying neurological syndromes we can acquire
knowledge about the functions of a normal brain.” This makes sense to me
in that we observe oddities of human behavior and study the brain in an
attempt to make sense of them. It would follow suit that
we could ultimately uncover the ideal functioning of the brain by tracing
observed abnormalities. Ramachandran speaks to the understanding we
possess about the functions of the human brain as being understood best
from an evolutionary vantage point. I feel he is talking about natural
election with this statement as he states later in the research that our s
brain chemistry is established in the womb as a fetus, and in early infancy.
He goes on to give us a cursory understanding of the physiology at work in
discussing brain neurons, and how contacts with other neurons create
synapses which lead to an exchange of information. The very essence of
our nervous system is made up of these 100,000,000,000 nerve cells or

18. neurons that make up its structural and functional units located in the
head and the brain. And everything about “the richness of our mental life”
leads back to how these neurons connect, interact, and exchange
nformation. Further, all of these combinations and permutations are what i
form each and every brain state we experience.
Ramachandran talks to us about the neural circuitry of the brain, and he
introduces the ideas of brain atlases, and brain mapping, as he brings to
the fore four neurological syndromes, prosopognosia (face blindness),
Capgras’ syndrome, phantom limb syndrome, and synesthesia. The
research is buttressed by a discussion of the mapping of the brain and the
known neural pathways of the brain. Ramachandran points out that,
medical students learn that the connections in the brain are “hard‐wired in
the fetus, and on into early infancy. And this reveals how when we observe
“abnormalities” in the functioning of others then scientists can study the
apping of the sensory inputs of the brain to find the anomalies causing m
the disruption in normal cognitive processing and function.
I believe he is saying (essentially) that it is a process of natural selection
over a process of nurturing that can exist in the bringing up of a child, and
that quite simply these abnormalities will emerge regardless of lifestyle
choices, education, or other external factors and conditions. We’re born
with it. He doesn’t get into the specifics of how the neural pathways and
sensory maps are formed and developed in the womb. However, later in
the research he does speak to the concept of neuroplasticity of the brain in
the context of a phenomenology; where he is stating that there is the
existence in the anatomy of the brain where there can be actual changes i.e.
improvements to a brain’s neural pathways and sensory mappings. This is
n area that is encouraging and I believe will be the focus of much future a
work in the field of scientific research.
While all of the abnormalities and syndromes cited in the research are
interesting, I did find the phantom limb syndrome, and The Penfield
Homunculus (Map) quite a compelling topic. I trust the assertion in the
research is that the mappings of the sensory inputs in the brain occur in
embryonic state in the womb when we are just a human fetus. And when a
erson loses a limb, the brains’ sensory maps become altered, and that is
n observed phenomenology in the field of science.
p
a

19. The limbic center, art, vision and the emotions
One of the things I found quite interesting in the research is the connection
between vision and emotion. And how there exists connections between
the visual brain centers and the limbic system which is the emotional core
of the brain. What I found most of interest is that the limbic system is the
emotional core of the brain, and that it allows us to gauge the emotional
significance of what we are seeing. It is, he says, the limbic structures that
mediate emotional arousal.” And it is the amygdala portion of the brain’s “
limbic structure that is the gateway to the limbic structure.
Expressive arts therapy has been a focus of mine over the last nine months
while I’ve been inside a program working with the brain injury community.
Art therapy and dance movement therapy is about making connections
with the emotions, and how it can free an individual from being “stuck” in
hidden fears and other debilitations. I was thinking about it in the context
of “unlearning learned paralysis”, and how that concept could be applied
potentially to the emotional state. Specifically from a psychological
perspective, and juxtaposing it to how a person can become, frozen in life
in fear and anxiety), flooded, and saturated with feelings of being over‐(
whelmed. This can thus lead to a breakdown in the individual.
I’m doing my best to connect these physiological aspects back to the
psychological aspects that govern the brain, the mind, and the human
experience. I attempt to make these connections come back to the process
of acquiring emotional intelligence and self‐awareness, and how there
exist opportunities for creating self‐control and thus encouraging
movement. In the emotional sense movement is any movement forward to
a goal, away from the symptoms and deficits caused by the lack of a strong
emotional skill set. I believe this can emerge in the rehabilitative setting
or brain injury survivors, as well in the field of mental health for people
uffering from things like Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
f
s
Brain neuroplasticity and malleability
After working with brain injury survivors over the last ten months, it is
always encouraging to hear confirmation of “the tremendous amount of
plasticity and malleability of the brain even in adults.” It does indeed
provide a deluge of hope for survivors in the treatment of the cognitive
deficits associated with their traumatic or acquired brain injury. I would
like to see the mapping of a human brain that has been compromised by
either of these traumatic events, as compared to what would be considered

20. a normal mapping. As it would be of extreme value as I see it to the
advancement of cognitive therapy, and the rehabilitative process.
One final note
here are two books that I have found (for further research) that get into
he physiological aspects and the link to the psychological aspects.
T
t
The emotional brain: the mysterious underpinnings of emotional life
By Joseph LeDoux
The emotional brain: physiology, neuroanatomy, psychology, and emotion
By Simonov, P. V.
Conclusions: Studying the damaged brain is where the study of cognitive
science has its roots. The benefits we can ascribe to this research for brains
that are not damaged are innumerable. Maybe most importantly we can
begin to diagnose more of that which cannot be seen but is damaged in a
seemingly healthy, fully functioning brain. I’m not convinced that any brain
is ever actually in this state of being however.
Summary: There is so much for us to learn in brain plasticity alone to
attend to the cognitive dysfunctions and deficits that exist in the damaged
brain. Further, there is much research emerging that brings to the fore
innovative approaches to addressing cognitive dysfunctions with more
natural means than to simply apply technology to it. We can expand our
understanding of the brain and its functions to create therapies and
exercises that will allow our neural pathways, functioning, and abilities to
expand and grow in a natural, organic fashion.
Cognitive Science and the Future
Introduction: As for the future of cognitive science, I am proposing
something that Clark Elliott has confirmed is an understudied topic of
research on this day, brain plasticity. From my perspective this is the near
future of Cognitive Science, or at least it should be as far as I can tell. There
are sophisticated thinking and learning systems that have emerged and
ill be at the epicenter of a revolution of sorts in how things get done on w
this planet.
We have explored the concepts and notions of re‐designing the brain, re‐
wiring the brain, and even the idea of building new brains. It was actually

21. presented to us that building brains was the goal of cognitive science. I
believe it would follow suit then that this is at least one of the goals for
many scientists regarding the future of cognitive science. I believe we can
xpect a more complete merging with Artificial Intelligence within the
s.
e
multi‐disciplinary field of cognitive science in order to achieve these aim
I visualize a more intense and complete integration of all of the sciences
that represent cognitive science at the present time. The brains adaptive
abilities represent much opportunity for exploration into how some of the
softer sciences can attempt to address brain plasticity in the damaged
brains of individuals. The field of cognitive therapy offers much to be
explored in learning to address the dysfunctions and deficits of the brains
neural activities in a more organic way.
Conclusions: We are on the cusp of some seriously significant advances
and breakthroughs in the field of cognitive science. The fields of computer
science and artificial intelligence will be tightly joined within this
revolution to push the boundaries of the human existence as we currently
know it. I would like to see a slower progression in the effort to apply
computing capabilities to the human brain in order for it to be studied in
more depth and breadth. It is inevitability that technology is going to be at
the heart of the next evolutionary period where people will either adapt or
die out so to speak. We have shifted from the organic and natural to a more
synthetic, technologically‐based lifestyle where people will become
knowledge workers or perish. I don’t see a great deal of in‐between in this
regard.
Summary: Brain plasticity is understudied on this day in time and space.
The seminal research that has emerged in mapping the brains neural
activities to cognitive functioning has been seminal and is being pushed to
new heights by the likes of V.S. Ramachandran, Deborah Zelinsky, Donalee
Markus, and Michael Merzenich. It would behoove us as a people to
approach these less invasive strategies to address cognitive dysfunctions,
deficits, and cognitive breakdowns, as opposed to pushing the envelope to
apply computer aided neuron‐like chips to perform the adversely affected
areas of the brain.
Love
Introduction: Love is most certainly an emotional state of being and a
natural function of the brain. I believe that love is innate, instinctual, and

22. some may assert that the brain is designed to support it. We love for a
need to be loved and appreciated to express and receive affection, and to
experience romantic love. Sexual desire is a huge impulse in the human
experience driven by attraction. We just have it. It’s in us. If it’s not then we
ay be experiencing some other phenomenon. I simply believe that we
on’t want to be alone nor do I believe that we should be.
m
d
Genesis 2:18 And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man
should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him.
When it comes to love it appears that men and women do indeed approach
it from point of view of attraction. Some of the basic facts we learned is
that when we are looking to find the very best mates possible. This is kind
of a primal, animalistic notion but it is clearly an obvious aspect of human
nature.
There are obviously major differences between sexual attraction and pure
love or romantic love but research has show that there are actually
imilarities in these two forms of love. Still they are different and distinct s
from each other.
hen are brains are in love they process and function id different ways.
hi
W
T
s is straight from the lecture by Clark Elliott.
The sc rains in love are
additio
ience of Functional MRIs show us that b

nally processing in three areas.

Ventral tegmental – controls dopamine
Nucleus accumbens – seratonin, oxytocin
 Caudate nuclei – patterns and mundane habits
Conclusions: Love is a natural part of the human experience. Humans fall
in love for many reasons. Companionship is a major reason that people
want to love. The way that humans pick their partners is largely based on
attraction, and that attraction is not always sexual. A woman might desire
a man for stability and security, or for his intellect, sense of humor, or
otherwise. A lot of it has to do with who will be a good father whether that
is because of good genes or being a good provider.
Summary: Love changes the chemistry in the brain. We love because it
feels fulfilling to us. It is innate to us as humans even if we don’t know how
to engage in it, we want it. We desire to be attached and wanted by another.

23. Loneliness
Introduction: Loneliness is a physiological response to a number of
different factors and can lead to deeper emotional trauma such as
depression. In fact, depression itself can be a cause of loneliness as it may
alienate an individual from making connections and experiencing other
humans in a social manner. We learned that people who suffer from
chronic loneliness may lack social skills and could end up exhibiting flawed
character traits such as hostility, and it may even affect their physical
health and well being.
I believe that we are living in a day and age where loneliness can become
more prevalent than ever before because the social strata is changing so
much. We can look at social media and say that is just an extension of the
existing social fabric, and it is in many ways. But as generations grow up
with more face time in front of their computers and other devices, their
abilities to connect in authentic and meaningful ways is diminishing. It was
shown to us that “American society is very isolating.”
Conclusions: For many reasons lonely people suffer from an inability to
connect with others. I believe that loneliness can stem from a number of
factors including mental illness or maladjustment brought on by emotional
neglect during the person’s formative years. To live in a social world
requires an emotionally intelligent individual with a strong sense of self‐
awareness. This could enable the lonely individual to become more
engaged in the world around them and take more chances with creating
relationships with people. If they feel more connected to themselves then
they will feel more connected to the world around them including the
people in it. And the emotional benefits of being connected are too great to
take lightly. Unfortunately far too many people suffer from varied
inabilities to make these connections, and the shaping of today’s society is
only going t loneliness. o make it harder for the individual who suffers from
Summary: We live in a social world. Human beings crave social
interactions to enhance the value they find in themselves and the meaning
in their lives. Much of our social interactions and encounters are based on
societal rank and social status and that can be a cause of serious
consternation in an individual. Not feeling valued or worthy will most
certainly contribute to loneliness but I believe that this lack of a strong
sense of self is caused by other emotional deficits in the individual. This

24. could be addressed by learning more about social cognition and the
constructs of the social dynamic.
Ambiguity in Language
The imprecision of language as we have discussed is a fundamental
challenge to the communications of human beings. It is imperative that we
as humans connect with each other accurately in order to interact with
each other effectively. If there is something that is said or written and it is
left open to interpretation then that is left open to ambiguity.
We must look at the role of context in language and most especially the
existence of ambiguity in communication between human beings. There
are explanations to ambiguity in a situation that is occurring, a symbolic
gesture that is understood, even in a situation that seems very vague to the
casual observer.
Conclusions: There are hidden or double meanings in much of what we
say, write, and do. Ambiguity exists in a variety of different forms and may
serve to misrepresent the author or speaker if the receiver is not well
versed in the semantics of the language.
Summary: The context of a statement or expression from one person to
another must be understood. If this facet of the communication mechanism
is not present then there will exist some form of ambiguity.
Teaching a ons mind to create meaning and connecti
Introduction: Authenticity and meaning are concepts that cannot be
under‐estimated as vital aspects of the human experience for making
meaningful connections with the world around us. I believe that it begins
with the inner‐personal relationship that we have been able to create
within ourselves which then help us to extend a self‐aware identity into
the world in a proactive manner. And thereby this nature that emerges
nforms our senses and abilities to develop, nurture, and maintain healthy i
relationships with other human beings.
Children need attention in order to succeed in cultivating a healthy identity,
self‐esteem, and sense of self. In order to achieve this higher level of
identity, sense of self, and self‐ awareness, I will assert a strong, stable,
nurturing environment is required during the developmental and

25. formative years of a child’s life. There are a lot of notions of what
constitutes that span of time. I have heard from 4‐8, Michael Merzenich
says there is a critical period from 7‐13, and I would say it begins in the
womb and extends to the age of 18. And it should be pointed out that one
f the primary causes of mental illness is emotional neglect, most o
especially during this time of growth in a person’s life.
If children are taught from an early age how to find meaning in their lives
and how to express themselves then they will possess a greater chance at
surviving what is a chaotic society and world. Their choices will be
governed by an internal barometer, some say moral compass that will
facilitate healthy growth and development throughout the stages of their
lives. With the use of Expressive Arts Therapies like Dance Movement
Therapy (DMT), children can learn how to occupy the world around them
to create space and harmony with themselves in the world. Further, the
relational aspects of DMT allow people to engage and interact with each
other in creative ways, express themselves in a group setting, and find
meaning to the challenges of this life.
Conclusions: The human species by many accounts is a social creature,
thus we are drawn toward developing and forming relationships with
other human beings. A strong sense of self and identity, self‐awareness and
self‐esteem should be rooted in this process. These skills and character
traits are developed in early childhood from the moment of conception I
would purport and require a strong family unit in order to blossom. This
will have a tremendous impact on our ability to love ourselves and others,
real nurturing love, and not the love we are conditioned by society to see
as love. And it will also certainly help us to sit within ourselves, in our own
juices, and just be comfortable.
Summary: Living a life that has meaning is not easy. An individual first
must receive the kind of support that comes from a nurturing environment
during their developmental years. I would assert that this gives a person
more effectiveness in their perception and filtering of the world around
them. Whether you’re an artist or a conformist, these traits of character
and adjustment are imperative to living a connected life with ourselves,
with others, and with the world. To live in our parasympathetic more
nurturing nervous system in a healthy way and not get lonely or depressed
but on the contrary to function as productive, effective, well adjusted,
adaptable, and highly functioning human beings.

26. Logical Conclusions of the Paper
The human brain is very much like a super computer. It possesses
immense processing power and capabilities. It is connected together with
billions of different neurons and different neural transmitters that perform
the myriad processing and functioning activities of the human mind. The
cognitive functions and processes of the brain are constantly functioning
together and are very much interlinked and intertwined with each other as
well as the other sensory systems.
It’s important to remember that the roots of cognitive science extend into
the exploration and studying of damaged brains. But asking ourselves the
questions of what exactly is the mind and how does it function, and
ttempting to determine the complex processing power that is the brain as a
a sort of super computer is indeed a worthwhile endeavor.
There are cognitive abilities that can be studied within the regions of the
brain that include the higher level activities such as attention, memory,
perception, judgment, decision making, learning, language, and speech. By
studying the various regions of the brain and their associated functional
apabilities cognitive scientists can begin to map the cognitive activities to c
increased or decreased neural activities in that specific region of the brain.
Further, cognitive scientists ultimately determine deficiencies in the neural
pathways that promote higher level functioning of those activities. Much of
this work has been done in studying humans who have experienced some
sort of brain damage and that has been the roots of the scientific research.
Summary for the Paper
The field of Cognitive Science is represented by a multi‐disciplinary
approach to solving issues and problems of dysfunction in the functioning
of the brain. Cognitive Science is a discipline that mixes computer
scientists with softer scientists such as psychologists and philosophers. I
believe this can keep everyone honest and maintain ethics and integrity.
The field of Cognitive Science itself was formed in its beginning stages by
focusing on the injured brain and understanding the myriad of
dysfunctions and deficits in information processing, perception of input
and stimuli, and in cognition that existed because of damage to the brain’s

27. different hemispheres, lobes, and regions. It was posited by a philosopher
of psychology Jerry Fodor that “a single phenomenon in the activity of the
brain can be characterized as either functional or physical, and the
cognitive processing of events in the brain can be viewed from both of
those levels.”
The scientific research seeks to discover the work being done in the brain
by the different kinds of neurons and neural transmitters that work
together to perform the elaborate system of processing and functioning of
the human brain in responses to specific stimuli. I believe the scientific
research is engaged in seeking out phenomenon in the functioning of the
brain in order to analyze the physical processing at work in brain
responses as well as the physiological functioning and psychological
xplanations of the responses. e