LANGUAGE TEACHING and EVALUATION: APPROACHES & TECHNIQUES

1. Language Teaching and Evaluation:
Approaches and Techniques
B Y : D O N N A B E T H B . P O N - A N
A N D
J O R L I N M A N A G U I T
M A E D E N G L I S H 2 - A

2. A. APPROACHES TO
LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE TEACHING
AND TESTING

3. Language -Based
Approach
 Language-based approach helps students pay attention to the way
the language is used when studying literature.
 It is student-centered and activity-based for productive use of
language.
 It improves students’ language proficiency, and incorporates
literature and language skills among the students (Dhillon &
Mogan, 2014).
 It engages students more on experiences and responses (Aydin,
2013).
 Role play, cloze, poetry recital, discussions, forum and debate,
dramatic activities, making prediction, brainstorming, rewriting
stories ending and summarizing are practiced in this approach
(Divsar, 2014).
•
•

4. To start with..
It is an approach that remarks on how certain
specific ways of using the language in a literary
text could have a better impact on students’
understanding of the language.
Literary texts are seen as means to help
students improve language proficiency by
providing them exposure to the target language
and connecting them to specific vocabulary and
other aspects of the language

5. How does the approach work?
1. repetition of
certain words
2. repetition of
certain phrases
3. words that are
equivalent in
meaning
4. Images that are
equivalent in
meaning
5. lines that deviate
from an
accustomed pattern
and create contrast.
6. vivid images/
feelings/mood/tone.

6. Indication of LBA from the lesson plan
The teaching of the theme “ Perseverance
in Life” in relation to imagery elements in
the poem
The creation of dialogue script added with
words from the poem in order to give
better impact on meaning.

7. Paraphrastic
Approach
 Paraphrastic approach is primarily paraphrasing and
rewording the text to simpler language or use other
languages to translate it.
 Teachers use simple words or less complex sentence
structure to make the original text easy to understand
(Divsar, 2014).
 It is teacher-centered and does not contribute much
interesting activities towards students (Hwang & Embi,
2007).

8. A stepping stone
• This approach deals with the surface
meaning of the text (Diana Hwang & Amin
Embi 2007). Rosli (1995) asserts that it
allows teachers to use simpler words and
sentence structures compared to the more
complicated ones in the texts and
sometimes the teacher can translate it into
other languages. He argued further that this
approach is suitable for beginners of the
target language as it acts as a stepping
stone in formulating original assumptions of
the author’s work.

9. Information-
based
approach
 Information-based approach gives knowledge and
information to students (Thunnithet, 2011).
 It is teacher-centered and demands a lot of
teacher’s input in giving students various contents
of literary text like on historical, political, cultural and
social background.
 Knowledge of literature is delivered as a source of
information to students (Rashid, Vethamani, &
Rahman, 2010). It includes reading from the
criticism or notes, explanations and lectures given
by teacher for examinations sake (Hwang & Embi,
2007).

10. source of
information to
students
• . Information-based approach This is an approach that
demands a large input from the teacher and it is closely
related to the term Literature with a big ‘L’ proposed by
McRae (1991). It describes the study of literature as
“aesthetically patterned artifact endowed with the knowledge
potentials philosophy, culture, morality, and humanities”
(Ganakumaran 2007:2). Carter and Long (1991) further
argue that it involves critical concepts, literary conventions
and metalanguage and the students should be able to use
such terms and concepts in talking and writing about
literature. This approach is a way of teaching knowledge
about literature where literature is seen as a medium to offer
a source of information to students (Carter 1988).

11. Personal-
Response
Approach
 Personal-response approach encourages students to
make sense of their experiences and personal lives with
text themes.
 It also promotes students to associate the subject matters
of the reading texts with personal life experiences (Rashid,
Vethamani & Rahman, 2010).
 It engages individual in literary text reading as personal
fulfilment and pleasure can be met while developing the
language and literary competency (Divsar, 2014).
Brainstorming, small group discussions, journal writing,
interpreting opinions, and generating views from a text are
practiced in this approach (Hwang & Embi, 2007).

12. Their
interpretation
must be in
tandem with the
text
• This approach is associated with Personal Growth Model
proposed by Carter and Long (1991) as it aims is to elicit
personal response and foster students’ personal
development. Hirvela (1996) argues that this approach
focuses on learner’s response to the author’s text. The
learners would respond to what they think are the author’s
intentions and what are the meanings that could be derived
from the text. Vethamani (2003) further argues that although
learners are encouraged to explore various textual
meanings, their interpretation must be in tandem with the
text. Rosli (1995) claims that this approach motivates and
encourages students to read by making a connection
between the themes of the texts studied and their personal
life experiences.

13. Stylistic
Approach
 Stylistic approach implies literary critics and linguistic
analysis.
 It is for students to appreciate and understand in a deeper
manner of the literary text.
 It helps students to interpret the text meaningfully and
develops language awareness and knowledge (Thunnithet,
2011).
 It analyzes the language prior to the elements of literary
text (Aydin, 2013).

14. Moral-
Philosophical
Approach
 Learners seek moral values from a particular literary text
while reading it. It helps students to be aware of values of
moral and philosophical and identify them that lies in their
reading (Rashid, Vethamani & Rahman, 2010).
 Students need to go beyond the text for moral and
philosophical inference (Divsar, 2014).
 With this approach, teachers are able to direct students to
achieve self-realization as well as self-understanding while
interpreting literary works (Lim & Omar, 2007

15. Moral and
philosophical
considerations
behind one’s
reading
• This is an approach which incorporates
moral values across curriculum. The focus
of this approach is to discover moral
values while reading a particular literary
text (Diana Hwang & Amin Embi 2007). It
seeks to find the worthiness of moral and
philosophical considerations behind one’s
reading (Rosli 1995).

16. B. TECHNIQUES FOR
LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE TESTING

17. Types of Test
Techniques

18. Formal and
informal testing:
 Formal testing
• tests are told in advance what they
need to know, what the criteria are for
success, and so on.
 Informal testing
• a homework assignment questions
asked during the routine give-and-take of
classroom interaction textbook exercises.

19. Elicitation
techniques
• 1. Questions and answers.
• Simple questions, very often following reading, or as
part of an interview; may require short or long answers:
• What is the (family) relationship between David
Copperfield and Mr Murdstone?
• 2. True/false.
• A statement is given which is to be marked true or false.
This may also be given as a question, in which case the
answer is yes or no.
• Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. Is Addis
Ababa the capital of Egypt?
• 3. Multiple-choice.
• The question consists of a stem and a number of
options (usually four), from which the testee has to
select the right one.
•A person who writes books is called
• a) a booker. b) an editor. c) an author. d) a
publisher.

20. Elicitation
techniques
• 4. Gap-filling and completion.
• The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding
something. A gap may or may not be signalled by a blank or dash;
the word to be inserted may or may not be given or hinted at.
•They (go) to Australia in 1980. Or
• They ________ to Australia in 1980. (go) Or
• A ________ is someone who writes books. Or I've seen that
film, (never)
• 5. Matching.
• The testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences;
each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the
second.
•large small
• unhappy many
• a lot big
• little sad
• 6. Dictation.
•The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes
them down.

21. Elicitation
techniques
• 7. Cloze.
• Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for
example, every seventh word). Usually the first two or three
lines are given with no gaps.
• The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu
last week. He spent most of it lying on the sofa watching
________ when he wasn't sleeping!
• His exams ________ in two weeks, so he is ________
about missing school, but has managed to ________
quite a lot in spite ________ feeling ill.
• 8. Transformation.
•A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to
some given instruction.
• Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus.
• 9. Rewriting.
• A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given
change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning.
•He came to the meeting in spite of his illness. Although ....

22. Elicitation
techniques
• 10. Translation.
• The testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or
entire passages to or from the target language.
• 11. Essay.
• The testee is given a topic, such as 'Childhood memories', and
asked to write an essay of a specific length.
• 12. Monologue.
• The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak
about it fora minute or two.
• Which you will choose to use for a certain testing purpose
will probably depend mainly on the following
considerations:
• 1) What will it tell me about the testee's knowledge? In
other words, for what type of knowledge might it be a valid
test?
•2) How easy is it to compose?
• 3) How easy is it to administer?
• 4) How easy is it to mark?

23. C. TEST CONSTRUCTION

24. Test
Construction

25. a. Phases of
Evaluation
In general, evaluation
processes go through
four distinct phases:
• planning,
• implementation,
• completion, and
• reporting.

26. Planning
• The most important considerations during the planning phase of your project
evaluation are prioritizing short and long-term goals, identifying your target
audience(s), determining methods for collecting data, and assessing the feasibility
of each for your target audience(s).
26

27. Implementation
• This is the carrying out of your evaluation plan. Although it may vary
considerably from project to project, you will likely concentrate on formative
and process evaluation strategies at this point in your efforts.
27

28. Completion
• Upon completion of your program, or the intermediate steps along the way,
your evaluation efforts will be designed to examine long term outcomes and
impacts, and summarize the overall performance of your program.
28

29. Reporting and Communication
• In order to tell your story effectively, it's critical for you to consider what you
want to communicate about the results or processes of your project, what
audiences are most important to communicate with, and what are the most
appropriate methods for disseminating your information.
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30. b.Stages of Test
Construction
Step # 4. Evaluating the Test:
Step # 3. Try Out of the Test:
Step # 2. Preparing the Test:
Step # 1. Planning the Test:

31. Step # 1.
Planning the
Test:
Planning of the test is the first
important step in the test
construction. The main goal of
evaluation process is to collect
valid, reliable and useful data
about the student.
Before going to prepare any test,
we must keep in mind that:
•(1) What is to be measured?
•(2) What content areas should be
included and
•(3) What types of test items are to be
included.
Therefore, the first step includes
three major considerations.
•1. Determining the objectives of testing.
•2. Preparing test specifications.
•3. Selecting appropriate item types.

32. Step # 2. Preparing the Test:
After planning, preparation is the next important step in the
test construction. In this step, the test items are constructed
in accordance with the table of specification. Each type of
test item needs special care for construction.
The preparation stage includes the following three
functions:
• (i) Preparing test items.
• (ii) Preparing instruction for the test.
• (iii) Preparing the scoring key.

33. Step # 3. Try Out of the Test:
Try out involves two important functions:
(a) Administration of the test. (b) Scoring the test.
Once the test is prepared now it is time to be confirming the validity, reliability and
usability of the test. Try out helps us to identify defective and ambiguous items, to
determine the difficulty level of the test and to determine the discriminating power
of the items.

34. Step # 4.
Evaluating the
Test:
• Evaluating the test is the most important step in
the test construction process. Evaluation is
necessary to determine the quality of the test
and the quality of the responses.
• Quality of the test implies that how good and
dependable the test is. (Validity and reliability).
• Quality of the responses means which items are
misfits in the test. It also enables us to evaluate
the usability of the test in a general class-room
situation.
• Evaluating the test involves the following functions:
• (a) Item analysis.
• (b) Determining the validity of the test.
• (c) Determining the reliability of the test.
• (d) Determining the usability of the test.

35. References
• https://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/testing/types_of_test_tech
niques.htm
• https://aese.psu.edu/research/centers/cecd/engagement-
toolbox/evaluating-engagement-efforts/evaluation-phases-
and-
processes#:~:text=In%20general%2C%20evaluation%20pro
cesses%20go,implementation%2C%20completion%2C%20
and%20reporting.
• https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/test/top-4-
steps-for-constructing-a-test/64781