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1. The term learning stands for all those changes and modifications in the behavior of the individual
which he undergoes during his lifetime.
Gardner Murphy (1968):
“The learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements”.
B F Skinner:
“Learning is a process of progressive behavior adaptation”
Nature and characteristics of learning
1. Learning involves all those experiences and training of an individual which help him to produce
changes in his behavior.
2 .It involves modification of behaviour through practice and experiences.
3. Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation to ever changing physical as well as
social environment.
4. It is a continuous life long process.
5. It is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes.
6. Learning is a process 0f development.
7. It is both formal and informal process.
8. Learning is adjustment. It bring progressive changes in the behaviour of an individual as a result of
which the individual gets himself adjusted to the changing situation.
9. Learning requires maturation as a pre – requisite.
10. All learning is goal – directed. It is the goal which motivates the learner to learn.
VARIBLES IN LEARNING
[Factors Affecting Learning]
A variable in learning is a factor that influences the learning process.
The factors that affect learning can be divided into three type;
A. Individual variable [Nature of the learner]
B. Task variable [Nature of the learning material]
C. Method variable[Nature of the learning situation]
A. Individual Variables [ Nature of the leaner ]
The important individual variable that influence leaning are;

2. 1. Maturation; Maturation refers to the unfolding of biologically inherited potentialities as
a function of time. The learning which an individual is capable of taking up is dependent
on the level of his maturation. Lacking a sufficient degree of maturity, a child cannot
learn. Maturation sets limits beyond which development cannot progress even with the
most favourable learning methods and strongest motivation on the part of the learner.
The rate of learning will be greatest when the maturation condition is most favourable.
2. Readiness to learn; Learning readiness is the capacity and willingness to learn. Specific
learning will not occur until the learner is ready for it. If the child is ready, or mentally
set to learn, he learns faster, better and with greater satisfaction.
3. Age; When other factors remain constant, a progressive improvement occurs in learning
with increase constant till 30 and declines rapidly after 50.
4. Sex; sex difference has been noticed in learning of certain abilities. Boys excel girls in
learning of motor skills involving the exercise of strong gross muscles; whereas girls do
better in skills requiring delicate co- ordination of smaller muscles and strict attention to
detail.
5. Previous experience; Successful previous experience is a motivational force to
consequent performance, while unsuccessful experience puts a drag on further learning
and lowers the level of aspiration.
6. Mental abilities; Learning of a task necessarily depends upon the learner’s mental
abilities like intelligence, aptitude, creativity, imagination, thinking, reasoning etc.
7. Physical handicaps; The defects of vision, hearing speech etc. tend to affect an
individual’s learning adversely. Orthopaedic handicaps retard the the learning of many
motor skills.
B. Task variables [Nature of learning material]
The important task variables that influence learning are;
1. Length of the task; If the length of the learning material exceeds the memory span of the
learner, the time taken to learn will be more.
2. Difficulty of the task; Difficult tasks takes more time to learn. The leaner has to spend
more energy and time and this creates fatigue which in turn slow down the rate of
learning of such material.
3. Meaningfulness of the task; It is easier to learn and retain a meaningful material than a
meaningless one. Meaning enable the learner to identify previous experience to which
the new task can be associated. Such association facilitates effective learning.
C. Method Variables [Nature of learning situation]
The important method variables that influence learning are the following;
1. Method of learning; Learning success depends upon whether the learner is adopting the
whole or part method. If the unit for study is meaningful and compact the whole method
is better. But in cases, where the parts themselves are more closely integrated than the
whole, the part method may work well.

3. 2. Amount of practice; Retention increases with practice. Over-leaning is recommended for
better retention. Over-learning means learning beyond the point of first errorless
reproduction.
3. Distribution of practice; for better learning and longer retention spaced or distributed is
superior to massed practice. Distributed practice helps in removing the monotony of
long period of study. Moreover the leaner gets a fresh start after a period of rest and
thus his interest in the task can be maintained.
4. Availability of incentives; It has been found that availability of incentives in learning
situation encourage better learning and longer retention. Knowledge of result acts as a
strong incentive to learning. Pupils who are promptly informed of their improvement,
make satisfactory progress in their studies.
5. Nature of sensory approach; Senses are the gate-ways of knowledge. Effectiveness of
learning depends upon the number of senses involved in the learning process. Hence a
multi-sensory approach can cause better learning.