Apoptosis also known as cell suicide. Difference between necrosis and apoptosis. Changes in apoptosis. Mechanism of apoptosis. Functional significance of apoptosis. Applied aspects of apoptosis
2. OBJECTIVES
• Introduction
• History of apoptosis
• Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
• Functional significance
• Reasons for apoptosis
• Mechanism and regulation of apoptosis
• Changes in apoptosis
• Examples of apoptosis
• Detection and recent advances
• Applied physiology
3. INTRODUCTION
• Apoptosis is defined as the natural or programmed cell death that occurs
under genetic control.
• When cells are no longer needed or become a threat to the organism, they
undergo PCD or apoptosis.
• Apoptosis is a Greek word meaning “falling off”.
• Since the cell’s own genes play an active role in its demise, apoptosis can also
be called as cell suicide.
.
5. • Walther Flemming, an anatomist described the process of
programmed cell death. in 1885.
6. • John Kerr in 1965, while studying tissues using electron microscopy,
was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death.
• In a signal article published in 1972, John F. Kerr, Andrew H. Wyllie
and A. R. Curie coined the term “apoptosis”.
• Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter prize on
March 14, 2000 for his description of apoptosis.
7. • The 2002 Nobel prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H.
Robert Hovitz and John Sulston for their work in identifying genes
that control apoptosis.
8. APOPTOSIS vs NECROSIS
• Cell death occurs in two ways : necrosis and apoptosis.
• Apoptosis should be distinguished from necrosis in which the healthy
cells are destroyed by some injury inflicted on the cells.
• Since necrosis is caused by some external process, it can also be
called as cell murder.
9.
10.
11. FACT
About 10 million cells are
produced every day in human
body by mitosis. An equal
number of cells die by
apoptosis. Thus maintaining
homeostasis.
12. FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
• The purpose of apoptosis is to remove unwanted cells without
causing any stress or damage to the neighboring cells.
• It plays a role in cellular homeostasis.
• Useful in removal of cell that is damaged beyond repair by toxins or
viruses.
• It is an essential event during developmental stages and in adults.
Therefore, decreased apoptosis has been implicated in the
genesis of malignancy and autoimmune diseases.
13. REASONS FOR APOPTOSIS
• Withdrawal of positive signals
• Growth factors for neurons
• IL – 2
• Receipt of negative signals
• Increased levels of oxidants within the cell
• Damage to DNA by oxidants
• Death activators
• TNF α
• TNF β
• Fas ligand
14. MECHANISM
• Apoptosis is initiated by two stimuli:
• Extrinsic pathway
• Intrinsic pathway
• In extrinsic pathway, the stimulus is received from outside of the cell and in
intrinsic pathway, the stimulus arises from within the cell.
• Both the pathways lead to activation of cysteine proteases in the cell called
caspases which triggers apoptosis.
• Caspases are synthesized in the cell as precursors named procaspase.
15. FACT
There are 12
confirmed caspases
in humans and
10 in mice, carrying
out a variety of
cellular functions.
CASPASES
stands for
cysteine-aspartic
proteases
16. • There are three types of caspases
• Inflammatory caspases : Caspases 1,4 and 5.
• Initiator caspases : Caspases 2, 8, 9, 10.
• Effector caspases : Caspases 3, 6 and 7.
• In the case of apoptosis, the process starts with activation of
caspase 8 or 9 which inturn activates caspase 3 & 7 which then
activate other caspases resulting in a cascade.
17. REGULATION OF APOPTSIS
• Certain intracellular proteins provide signal for the final programmed cell death.
• Pro-apoptotic proteins : BAX and BAC
• Anti-apoptotic proteins: BCL-2, BCL-X, MCL-1
• Apoptosis depends upon the balance between the pro and anti apoptotic proteins. In
a healthy cell, anti-apoptotic proteins binds with pro-apoptotic proteins thereby
blocking their action.
• If a cell is damaged or it stops receiving survival signals, Bcl – 2 and Bcl –x are
blocked in turn. Bax and Bac are then free to punch a series of channels in the
mitochondria.
18. INTRINSIC PATHWAY
• Also known as mitochondrial pathway.
• Internal stimuli may be due to cellular stress, viral infections, increase
in the concentration of intracellular oxidants, heat, radiation, nutrient
deprivation, hypoxia, increased intracellular calcium concentration,
damage to the DNA etc.,
19. INTRINSIC PATHWAY
INTERNAL STIMULI
Damage to
mitochondrial
membrane increasing
permeability
Entry of
Cytochrome C into
the cytoplasm
Cytochrome binds to
Apaf – 1 forming
apoptosome
Apoptosome
activates procaspase
9 to caspase 9
20. • Mitochondrial proteins called SMACs (Second Mitochondria derived
Activator of Caspases) are also released into the cell’s cytosol
following increased mitochondrial permeability.
• SMAC binds to anti – apoptotic proteins thereby deactivating them
and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed.
21.
22. EXTRINSIC PATHWAY
• The extrinsic pathway of apoptosis begins outside a cell, when conditions in the
extracellular environment determine that a cell must die.
• External stimuli are various ligands that bind with cell surface to activate apoptosis.
• TNF and Fas Ligands are some examples of ligands that activates Caspase 8.
• These ligands are called death ligands and they bind with Death receptors like
TNFR1.
• Ligand binding causes the receptors to cluster and ultimately form a Death
Inducing Signalling Complex (DISC).
• Upon DISC formation caspase cascade activation takes place.
23.
24.
25. • Activation of Caspases results in:
• Shrinkage of cell
• DNA fragmentation
• Chromatin condensation(pyknosis)
26. CHANGES IN APOPTOSIS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
• Apoptotic cells become round or oval and reduce in size.
• Cytoplasm becomes intensely eosinophilic.
• Though cytoplasm is reduced, organelles remain almost normal.
• Chromatic condensation occurs.
• Nuclear fragmentation occurs.
• Apoptotic bodies contain compacted organelles.
• Phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies occur by macrophages. The phagocytic cells
secrete cytokines like IL-10 and TGF-β which inhibit inflammation of neighbouring
tissues.
27. BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES
• Proteolysis of cytoskeletal proteins.
• Cross – linking of protein molecules.
• Fragmentation of nuclear chromatin by activation of nuclease.
• A glycoprotein – thrombospondin and a phosphoprotein –
phosphatidylserine appear on the outer surface of apoptotic bodies for
recognition by macrophages.
28.
29. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
• The separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because
cells between the digits undergo apoptosis.
• Endometrial shedding in menstrual cycles.
• Regression of lactating breast after cessation of breastfeeding.
• Normal shedding of intestinal epithelium.
• Involution of thymus after childhood.
• Degeneration and regeneration of neurons within the CNS and formation of
synapse.
• Regression of duct system during sex differentiation in the foetus.
30.
31. PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
• Tumor cell death on exposure to chemotherapeutic agents.
• Transplant cell death by cytotoxic T cells that cause transplant
rejection.
• Cell death induced by viral infections.
• Cell death induced by radiation, hypoxia.
• Degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease
etc.,
32. DETECTION OF APOPTOSIS
• DNA fragmentation assay by electrophoresis.
• TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end
labeling) staining.
• Demonstration of chromatic condensation by H & E staining.
• Estimation of cytosolic cytochrome – C, activated caspase and
annexin – V.
33. APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
• Understanding the concept of apoptosis has promising role in future regenerative medicine.
• Disorders with reduced apoptosis:
• Cancer
• Autoimmune diseases – SLE, Myasthenia gravis
• Inflammatory diseases – BA, IBD
• Viral infections – Herpes, pox, adenovirus
• Disorders with increased apoptosis :
• Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease
• Myocardial infarction, stroke.
• AIDS
34. RECENT ADVANCES
• Caspase inhibitors such as N – benzyloxycarbonyl – Val – Ala – Asp
fluoromethyl – ketone (Z – VAD) were being investigated for the treatment
of neurodegenerative disorders like :
• Alzheimer’s disease
• ALS
• Huntington’s disease
• Parkinson’s disease
• Another promising compound that is currently under evaluation is
Minocycline which is better than other caspase inhibitors with less side
effects.
35. SUMMARY
• Apoptosis is defined as the natural or programmed cell death.
• The purpose of apoptosis is to remove unwanted cells.
• May be physiological or pathological.
• There are two pathways – extrinsic and intrinsic pathway.
• It is regulated by pre and anti apoptotic proteins.
• Several changes occur in the apoptotic cells which is finally
phagocytosed by macrophages.
• Has a promising role in regenerative medicine.
