2. The most common way of defining "ethics":
Norms for conduct that distinguish between
acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be
tempted to regard them as simple commonsense.
3. ETHICAL
NORMS IN
RESEARCH
First,
norms promote
the aims research,
such as knowledge,
truth, and
avoidance of error.
Second, since research often
involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination
among many different
people in different
disciplines and institutions,
ethical standards promote
the values that are
essential to collaborative
work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual
respect, and fairness
4. 3RD
• many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be
held accountable to the public
4TH
• ethical norms in research also help to build public support for
research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can
trust the quality and integrity of research.
FIFTH
• many of the norms of research promote a variety of other
important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human
rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and
safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and
animal subjects, students, and the public
5. Codes and Policies for Research Ethics
Given the importance of ethics for the
conduct of research, it should come
as no surprise that many different
professional associations, government
agencies, and universities have
adopted specific codes, rules, and
policies relating to research ethics.
Many government agencies, such as
the National Institutes of Health
(NIH), the National Science
Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA),
the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules
for funded researchers.
. Other influential research ethics
policies include Singapore Statement on
Research Integrity, the American
Chemical Society, The Chemist
Professional’s Code of Conduct, Code of
Ethics (American Society for Clinical
Laboratory Science) American
Psychological Association, Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct, Statements on Ethics and
Professional Responsibility (American
Anthropological Association), Statement
on Professional Ethics (American
Association of University Professors),
the Nuremberg Code and the World
Medical Association's Declaration of
Helsinki.
6. THE FOLLOWING IS A ROUGH AND GENERAL SUMMARY OF SOME
ETHICAL PRINCIPALS THAT VARIOUS CODES ADDRESS*:
1.Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific
communications
2.Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental
design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects
of research where objectivity Is
expected or required.
3.Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements;
act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
4.Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and
negligence; carefully and critically
examine your own work and the
work of your peers
5.Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools,
resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
6.Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other
forms of intellectual property. Do not
use unpublished data, methods, or
results without permission
7. .Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications,
such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade
or military secrets, and patient
records.
.Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research
and scholarship, not to advance just
your own career. Avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.
.Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise
students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own
decisions.
11.Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or
mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
12.Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or
students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity,
or other factors not related to scientific
competence and integrity.
13.Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional
competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to
promote competence in science as a whole.
14.Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and
institutional and governmental policies.
8. 15.Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them
in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed
animal experiments.
16.Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize
harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions
with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly
9. Ethical Decision Making in Research
Although codes, policies,
and principals are very
important and useful,
like any set of rules, they
do not cover every
situation, they often
conflict, and they
require considerable
interpretation.
It is therefore important for
researchers to learn how to
interpret, assess, and apply
various research rules and how
to make decisions and to act
ethically in various situations.
The vast majority of decisions
involve the straightforward
application of ethical rules. For
example, consider the
following case,
11. There are many other activities that the
government does not define as
"misconduct" but which are still regarded
by most researchers as unethical.
These are sometimes referred to as
"other deviations" from acceptable
research practices and include:
12. Publishing the same paper in
two different journals without
telling the editors.
Submitting the same paper to
different journals without telling
the editors.
Not informing a collaborator of
your intent to file a patent in
order to make sure that you are
the sole inventor.
Including a colleague as an
author on a paper in return for a
favor even though the colleague
did not make a serious
contribution to the paper.
Discussing with your colleagues
confidential data from a paper
that you are reviewing for a
journal.
Using data, ideas, or methods
you learn about while reviewing
a grant or a papers without
permission.
13. Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper
Using an inappropriate statistical
technique in order to enhance the
significance of your research
Bypassing the peer review process
and announcing your results
through a press conference
without giving peers adequate
information to review your work
Conducting a review of the literature that fails to
acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field
or relevant prior work
14. Stretching the truth on a grant
application in order to convince
reviewers that your project will
make a significant contribution to
the field.
Stretching the truth on a job
application or curriculum vitae
Giving the same research project to
two graduate students in order to
see who can do it the fastest
Overworking, neglecting, or
exploiting graduate or post-doctoral
students
Failing to keep good research
records
Failing to maintain research data for a
reasonable period of time
Making derogatory comments and personal
attacks in your review of author's
submission
Promising a student a better grade for
sexual favors
Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
Making significant deviations from the
research protocol approved by your
institution's Animal Care and Use
Committee or Institutional Review Board
for Human Subjects Research without
telling the committee or the board
Not reporting an adverse event in a human
research experiment
Wasting animals in research
15. Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of
your institution's biosafety rules
Sabotaging someone's work
Stealing supplies, books, or data
Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer
programs
Owning over $10,000 in stock in a company that sponsors
your research and not disclosing this financial interest
Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a
new drug in order to obtain economic benefits
16. These situations create difficult decisions for research known
as ethical or moral dilemmas. Consider the following case:
Case 3:
Dr. Wexford is the principal investigator of a large, epidemiological
study on the health of 10,000 agricultural workers. She has an
impressive dataset that includes information on demographics,
environmental exposures, diet, genetics, and various disease
outcomes such as cancer, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and ALS. She has
just published a paper on the relationship between pesticide exposure
and PD in a prestigious journal. She is planning to publish many other
papers from her dataset. She receives a request from another
research team that wants access to her complete dataset. They are
interested in examining the relationship between pesticide exposures
and skin cancer. Dr. Wexford was planning to conduct a study on this
17. On the one hand, the ethical norm of openness obliges her to
share data with the other research team. Her funding agency may
also have rules that obligate her to share data. On the other
hand, if she shares data with the other team, they may publish
results that she was planning to publish, thus depriving her (and
her team) of recognition and priority. It seems that there are
good arguments on both sides of this issue and Dr. Wexford needs
to take some time to think about what she should do. One
possible option is to share data, provided that the investigators
sign a data use agreement. The agreement could define allowable
uses of the data, publication plans, authorship, etc. Another
option would be to offer to collaborate with the researchers.
18. What is the problem or issue?
It is always important to get a clear
statement of the problem.
In this case, the issue is whether to share
information with the other research team.
What are the diff000erent
options?
People may fail to see different options
due to a limited imagination, bias,
ignorance, or fear.
In this case, there may be other choices
besides 'share' or 'don't share,' such as
'negotiate an agreement' or 'offer to
collaborate with the researchers.'
.
What is the relevant information?
Many bad decisions are made as a result of poor
information. To know what to do, Dr. Wexford needs
to have more information concerning such matters
as university or funding agency or journal policies
that may apply to this situation, the team's
intellectual property interests, the possibility of
negotiating some kind of agreement with the other
team, whether the other team also has some
information it is willing to share, the impact of the
potential publications, etc.
How do ethical codes or policies as well as
legal rules apply to these different options?
The university or funding agency may have policies
on data management that apply to this case.
Broader ethical rules, such as openness and respect
for credit and intellectual property, may also apply
to this case. Laws relating to intellectual property
may be relevant
19. Are there any people who can offer
ethical advice?
It may be useful to seek advice from a
colleague, a senior researcher, your
department chair, an ethics or
compliance officer, or anyone else you
can trust. In the case, Dr. Wexford might
want to talk to her supervisor and
research team before making a decision.
After considering these questions, a
person facing an ethical dilemma may
decide to ask more questions, gather
more information, explore different
options, or consider other ethical rules.
However, at some point he or she will
have to make a decision and then take
action.
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Ethics in research are very
important when you're going
to conduct an experiment.
Ethics should be applied on
all stages of research, such
as planning, conducting and
evaluating a research
project.
The first thing to do before
designing a study is to
consider the potential cost
and benefits of the
research.
20. Ethical Standards - Researchers Should...
• avoid any risk of considerably harming
people, the environment, or property
unnecessarily. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is an
example of a study which seriously violated
these standards.
• not use deception on people participating,
as was the case with the ethics of the Stanley
Milgram Experiment
• obtain informed consent from all involved
in the study.
• preserve privacy and confidentiality
whenever possible.
• take special precautions when involving
populations or animals which may not be
considered to understand fully the purpose of
the study.
• not offer big rewards or enforce binding
contracts for the study. This is especially
important when people are somehow reliant on
the reward.
•not plagiarize the work of others
•not skew their conclusions based on funding.
• not commit science fraud, falsify research or
otherwise conduct scientific misconduct. A con-
study, which devastated the public view of the
subject for decades, was the study of selling more
coke and popcorn by unconscious ads. The
researcher said that he had found great effects from
subliminal messages, whilst he had, in fact, never
conducted the experiment.
• not use the position as a peer reviewer to give
sham peer reviews to punish or damage fellow
scientists.
Basically, research must follow all regulations given,
and also anticipate possible ethical problems in
their research.
Competition is an important factor in research, and
may be both a good thing and a bad thing.
Whistleblowing is one mechanism to help discover
misconduct in research.
21. THE ROLE OF MEASUREMENT IN
RESEARCH
Reliability is important because it enables researchers to have some
confidence that the measure they taken are close to the true measure
Validity is important that the measure they taken is
actually measures what they hope it does.
Measure is important in research. Measure aims to ascertain the
dimension, quantity, or capacity of the behaviors or events that
researchers want to explore. According to Maxin ( 1999),
measurement is a process of mapping empirical phenomena with
using system or numbers.
22. Basically,, the events or phenomena that searchers
interested can be existed as domain. Measurement links
the events in domain to vents in another space which
called range
Basically,, the events or phenomena that searchers interested
can be existed as domain. Measurement links the events in
domain to vents in another space which called range
QUANTITATIVE
MEASUREMENTS
Is a quantitative
description of the
events or
characteristics which
involves numerical
measurement
24. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Measure is important in
research. Measure aims to
ascertain the dimension,
quantity, or capacity of the
behaviors or events that
researchers want to explore.
According to Maxim (1999),
measurement is a process of
mapping empirical phenomena
with using system of numbers.
25. Quantitative
Measurement is a
quantitative
description of the
events or
characteristics which
involves numerical
measurement.
Quantitative
measurement
enables researchers
to make comparison
between the events
or characteristics
Quantitative Measurements
26. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
2. QUESTIONING METHOD
2.1 CRITERIA OF AN EFFECTIVE
QUESTION
2.1.1 CLARITY OF LANGUAGE
2.1.2 SPECIFICICTY OF CONTENT
AND TIME PERIOD
2.1.3 SINGLENESS OF PURPOSE
2.1.4 FREEDOM FROM ASSUMPTION
2.1.5 FREEDOM FROM SUGGESTION
2.1.6 LINGUISTICE COMPLETENESS
AND GRAMMATICAL CONSISTENCY
27. 2.2 METHODS AND TOOLS FOR
QUESTIONING
2.2.1 THE RESEARCH INTERVIEW
2.3.QUESTIONNAIRE
1. OPEN-END FORMAT
2. MULTIPLE-CHOICE FORMAT
3. CHECKLIST FORMAT
2.4 THE CRITICAL INCIDENT
TECHNIQUE
3. OBJECTIVE METHODS
3.1 MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE
3.2 SCALE TYPE
3.2.1 RATING SCALES
3.2.2 RANK-ORDER SCALES
3.2.3Q-SORT OR Q-TECHNIQUE
3.2.4 THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
3.2.5 FORCED-CHOICE TECHNIQUE AND
PAIRED COMPARISON
3.2.6 THE ATTITUDE SCALES
A. THURSTONE SCALES
B. LIKERT SCALES
C. GUTTMAN SCALE CUMMULATIVE
SCALES
28. 1. THE OBSERVATION METHOD
Is the process whereby the
researcher or observer watches
the research situation.
This is most appropriately
used in researches involving
observations of teaching-
learning
conditions/interactions, play
behavior of children and group
interaction.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Observations can be done either freely or
in a structured manner.
1. An unstructured observation is flexible
and open.
It is an open situation where the observer
watches events pertinent to his purpose.
This does not mean that this is unplanned,
however. Although there are no objective
observation guides used, it is assumed that
the researcher has planned what specific
sample, setting, behavior, or events he is
going to watch.
The research purpose govern the aspects of
observations made.
29.
30. C.Reliability of observation- you
may employ these trained observers
through the data collection and
make their observations as well as
yours part of the data.
You may involve them, however,
only in pre-determining the
reliability of recording if you so
wish.
you may apply the formula for
determining the reliability
coefficient of agreement( Mussen
1960)
R= no. of agreements
Total no. of dimensions observed
The reliability coefficient (r) is interpreted
to be very high if it is within.90 to 1.00,
and high if within .80 to .89. if the r falls
below these ranges, it can mean that
further orientation among the observers is
necessary; in which case you need to
improve on some needed aspects.
31. D.Behavior Sampling-
kerlinger( 1973) presents two aspects of
behavior sampling in the observation
method. These are event sampling and
time sampling.
Based on the author’s definition, event
sampling is the selection of behavioral
occurrences or events like the teacher’s
questioning, pupils hand raising,
teacher’s use of visual aids, teacher’s
reinforcements can be observed.
E.Time sampling- is defined as the
selection of behavioral units for
observation at the different points
in time.
This involves scheduling at what
time of the day, how often, and
with specific intervals, you will
make your observations.
Time samples can be systematic
32. 1.1 METHODS AND TOOLS FOR OBSERVATION
A. The tally sheet or
checklist- this is a form which
describes the behaviors to be
observed in considerable
detail to enable the observer
to just tally or check each
behavior when-ever it occurs.
EVENT SAMPLE FREQUENCY(Tallies) Illustrations/examples
1. Questioning
a. Knowledge
b. Comprehension
1. Explaining
a. Use of objects
b. Translation into
vernacular
1. Evaluating
technique
a. Use of pencil and
paper test
b. Oral evaluation
1. Lesson
presentation
a. Story telling
b. games
33. 1.1.2 THE OBSERVATIONAL RATING SCALE
Often used in classroom
observations, this form describes the
behaviors desired to be observed
with the corresponding scale beside
each item.
The observer rates the subject being
observed by encircling a number
within a scale that represents the
quality of the behavior observed.
In a study conducted by ASEAN
development Education Project (
ADEP) on teacher education (
1983), a rating scale was constructed
for use in classroom observations in
five ASEAN countries.
Scale points Extent to which the
behavior is
exhibited
How frequently the
quality/attribute is
observed
1 and 2 Exhibits “hardly” or
“ little” of this
quality/attribute
“never” or “ rarely”
observed
3,4 and 5 Exhibits to
some/considerable
extent this
quality/attribute
“ occasionally” to “
often” observed
6 nd 7 Exhbits “ hughly”
or “very highly”
this quality/
attribute
Observed “ most of
the time or always”
34. 1.1.3 the critical incident technique
is a form of observational tool
that was developed by Flanagan
( borg, Fox. 1963) in the 1950’s.
This is a technique where the
researcher observes the
subject’s specific behavior
patterns considered to be
critical to the situation being
studied.
Studies of children’s play
behavior, for example,
can be observed with the
use of this tool. This
technique though is more
commonly employed as a
questioning tool rather
than direct observational
tool
35. 2. THE QUESTIONING TOOL
The questioning method is most
effectively used in the survey
approach.
Just like techniques, this method
can be more reliable if the
questions are structured
beforehand
and if the sample of questions are
representative enough of all the
questions needed for the
research problem.
2.1 CRITERIA OF AN EFFECTIVE QUESTION
Fox ( 1969) presents some
characteristics of an effective question, and
are summarized very briefly as follows:
1. clarity of language- the vocabulary level,
language structure and the conceptual level
of the question suit the level of the
respondents. To ensure clarity of the
questions, these may be tried out on a small
sample.
2. Specificity of content and time period-
the language used may be clear an
appropriate but may have the searchers
question intent ambiguous and confusing to
the respondent. The content and time
period should be specified in the question
36. 3. Singleness of purpose- a single
question should seek a single bit of
information. The question, “Do you think
that psychoanalytic therapy is effective
and have you used this technique
frequently ? , is a double purposed
question
4. Freedom from assumption- the
question “ Will you give an instance in
which you believe you have failed as a
psychotherapist? Has an attached “
unasked question”.
. In other words, the researcher already
assumes that the respondent
experienced failure.
5. Freedom from suggestion-
introductory phrases like “don’t you
agree that….. “ isn’t it surprising
that….. “ can you think of any
justification for…. “Suggest some
expectations form the respondents that
things are more desirable than others.
6. Linguistics completeness and
grammatical consistency- the question
should provide a complete cue to the
linguistic nature of the response and
that the answer desired should be
grammatically consistent with the
question
37. 2.2 METHODS AND TOOLS FOR QUESTIONING
2.2.1- THE RESEARCH
INTERVIEW-
there are two types of interview
in the social disciplines: the
research interview and the
personal evaluation interview
used by job placement and
clinical diagnosis.
TWO TYPES OF THIS TECHNIQUE
1. Structured interview- the
researcher uses a set of
standardized questions and
questioning procedures. The
questions are asked in a fixed and
sequential manner.
2. Unstructured interview- is more
flexible and open. The interviewer
can modify, repeat, elucidate the
questions asked and may follow up
the responses of the interviewee
without of course deviating from the
purposes of the interview.
38. Interview structure- is defined as
the amount of direction and
restriction imposed by the
interview situation( Borg, 1963)
1.Establishing rapport
2. The interview guide
3. The open form and the close
form-
4. The close form or fixed-
alternative form
5. Recording the data
INTERVEWS CAN BE DONE
EITHER:
A. THE TRY-OUT INTERVIEW- the data
gathered trough the interview method
is considered subjective.
B. THE GROUP INTERVIEW- the group
interview involves an interviewer and
a group of respondents usually ranging
from six to twelve
C. THE TEAM INTERVIEW-this is called
Tandem Interview or Interview Team
Technique
39. 2.3 QUESTIONNAIRE
EITHER CLOSE FORM OR
THE OPEN FORM
Three common forms of
questions may be
presented here for review:
1.Open-end format-
2. Multiple-choice
format-
3. Checklist format-
40. 2.4 THE CRITICAL-INCIDENT TECHNIQUE
in this technique, it is the
respondent himself who chooses
events of significance to him or
those which are critical to him
(Fox, 1969).
The instrument consists ask the
respondent to recall an actual
critical incident of a relatively
specific nature and to describe
that incident in detail
The specific behavioral situation may
be an actual event that happened to
the respondent, an observation, or a
report form another person.
At the end of the form, the
respondents were asked to identify
the critical ends of the continuum by
describing/evaluating the behavior on
whether it was very desirable or very
undesirable along a 5-point scale.
41. 3. OBJECTIVE METHODS
Wiersma( 1975) repeatedly mentions
that objectivity of tests is not
concerned with the type of item but it
is closely associated with reliability of
scoring
Annastasi( 1976) explains that the
objectivity as one in which agreement
among observers or scores is at a
maximum.while Kerlinger (1973)
defines objectivity as one in which
agreement among observers or scores
is at a maximum.
THERE ARE TWO IMPLICATIONS THAT WE CAN
DEDUCE FROM THE ABOVE DEFINITIONS:
1. A test, which is highly objective, is highly
reliable
2. All reliable tests regardless of type items
have certain degree of objectivity
Therefore, the researcher may make
objective inferences with any of the
methods of data collection, whether
multiple choice type or open-ended
questionnaire type, but would only vary in
degree of inferences made from the raw
data.
42. TYPES OF OBJECTIVE TESTS AND SCALES
3.1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE TYPE-
3.2 SCALE TYPE- while achievement
tests, intelligence tests and aptitude
tests connote competition, success or
failure, scales usually do not carry
these meanings.
Although oftentimes we call some of
these scales as personality tests, they
are not meant to measure the
“Rightness” or “wrongness” of a
response.
This is the reason why in most
personality tests, we usually include
“this is not a test” as part of the
directions.
3.2.1Rating Scales-The behavior
to be rated is regarded as
“remembered behavior” or
“perceived behavior”. This
means that the rating is not done
through direct observation
Items SCALE 1.
NEVER
2
SELDO
M
3
MODERATELY
4
OFTEN
5
ALWAYS
A
B
C
43. 3.2.2Rank –Order Scales- if
you are not concerned with
the qualitat6ive aspects of
scaling, but more concerned
with the ordering of the items
being rated, you may use a
rank-order scale. The
respondent has an easy task
of ranking items, traits or
adjectives in the order of how
important he believes these
items are for a certain
criterion.
44. 3.2.4 The Semantic Differential
Scale
this is an instrument use in rating
a concept stimulus on bipolar
scales set on seven steps from one
end to the other end of the
continuum.
Osgoosd ( 1967) and Sebeok (
1965) explain that it is not a test
but a combination of association
and scaling procedures. It is a
device for reporting the nature of
concepts so that instead of asking
the questions.
3.2.5 Forced-Choice Technique and Paired
Comparison Scales- an example of the
forced-choice method is the Gordon
Personal Inventory. The choices are in a
form of a tetrad
Ex, Kerlinger describes one useful form of
a tetrad as consisting of two pairs of
items, one pair high in preference value,
the other pair low in preference value,
one member of each pair being a
discriminator( or valid), and the other
member being irrelevant ( or not valid)
The paired-comparison scale employs a
forced-choice method.. the respondent is
presented with all possible pairs of items
and he is directed to choose which he
would prefer over the other in each pair.
45. 3.2.6 The Attitude Scales- Thurstone
( in Fishbein, 1967) defines attitude as
the sum total of a man’s inclinations
and feelings, prejudices or biases,
preconceived notions, ideas, fears,
threats, and convictions about any
specifies topic. Consequently, an
attitude scale is an instrument
designed to yield a total score
indicating the direction and intensity
of the individual’s attitude is
favorableness or pleasantness,
however, may vary within a single
continuum that is set for the measure.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF
ATTITUDE SCALES,
These are: Thurstone equal-
appearing interval, the Likert
type or summated rating scale
and the Guttmann scale
46. THURSTONE SCALE-
Thurstone developed the
method of “ equal appearing
intervals” .
it is necessary to describe
the construction of this scale
in order to understand how
it is made. Thurstone
standard with a collection
of statements of opinion
toward a specific topic he
desired to measure.
After content evaluation based
on a set of criteria, he presented
these statements to 200 to 300
judges who classified or sorted
them into various categories
representing a scale ranging from
extremely favorable to extremely
unfavorable within eleven scale
points, after this step was
trough, tallying was done for
frequency of judges who sorted
the cards under various
categories, based on frequency
distributions ,cumulative
distributions or ogives were
constructed.
47. LIKERT SCALES- the Likert
scale uses the “method of
summated ratings” statements
of opinions are presented to
respondents who indicate
agreement or disagreement
with statements.
Usually the respondents check
in scale of 1 to 5 whether they
strongly agree, are undecided,
disagree or strongly disagree
with the statement. Half of the
items are worded positively and
the other half negatively.
Example 5- I strongly agree, 4- I
agree, 3- undecided, - I
disagree, 1- I strongly disagree
Guttman Scale Cummulative Scales
The guttmen scale is essentially an ordinal scale.
Its principle is that , successful performance at one
level implies success at lower levels. ( Annastasi,
1976).
This type of scale consists of a relatively small set
of homogenous items that measure just a single
variable. The items are unidimensional in the total
scores of individuals ( Kerlinger, 1973).
In Mathematics, for instance, a pupil who masters
division is presumed to have mastered to have
multiplication and addition. Children’s
development ca be appropriately observed through
this type of scales. Punsalan (1976).
