Foundations for a Geological Career Day 3

Foundations for a Geological Career
What do I need to know after graduation
14 - 16 August 2019
Glenhove Conference Centre

FOUNDATIONS FOR A GEOLOGICAL CAREER
14-16 August 2019
Day 1 (14 August 2019) Glenhove Conference Centre
7:00 7:45 Registration
7:45 8:00 Welcome & Introduction Sifiso Siwela GSSA President
8:00 8:30
State of Geology in SA and outlook for the
future
Bill McKechnie Snowden Consulting
8:30 9:30 Professionalism in the Geosciences Tania Marshall GSSA
9:30 10:00 Statutory Registration (SACNASP) Sarah van Aardt SACNASP
10:00 10:30 Tea
10:30 11:30 Compiling your CV
Briony Liber
Briony Liber Coaching
and Consulting11:30 12:30 Cracking that interview
12:30 13:15 Lunch
13:15 14:15 SAMCODES Steven Rupprecht SSC Chairperson
14:15 14:45
The role of geoscientists in a large mining
company
Pete Roberts Anglo American Corp
14:45 15:15
The role of geoscientists in a junior
exploration company
James Campbell Botswana Diamonds
15:15 15:30 Tea
15:30 16:00
The role of geoscientists in a consulting
company
Sifiso Siwela Deloitte
16:00 16:30
The role of geoscientists at the Council for
Geosciences
David Khoza CGS
16:30 17:00 Panel Discussion / Q&A Session
Tania Marshall (& panellists: Pete Roberts, James
Campbell, Sifiso Siwela & David Khoza)
17:00 Networking

7:00 8:00 Registration
8:00 9:00 Writing as thinking Pamela Nichols Wits Writing Centre
9:00 10:00 Time management; Mari Laas Career Counsel
10:00 10:30 Tea
10:30 11:30
What geologists need to know; about ….
South African Mining Law, the MPRDA and
the Mining Charter
Lloyd Christie ENSAfrica
11:30 12:30
Mining (Surface & Underground) and MHS
Alex Holder Petra Diamonds
12:30 13:00
Minerals Processing & Metallurgy
Jeremy Clarke PPM
13:00 13:45 Lunch
13:45 14:15
Survey
Leon Koorsse
Institute of Mine
Surveyors of South Africa
(IMSSA)
14:15 14:45
Environmental, Social & Governance (ESG)
Issues
Anneli Botha Independent Consulting
14:45 15:15
Remote Sensing/GIS
Prevlan Chetty
Digby Wells
Environmental
15:15 15:30 Tea
15:30 16:30
Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology
Matthys Dippenaar University of Pretoria
16:30 17:00
The Marketability of the Modern
Mineralogist
Igor Tonžetić MINSA
17:00 Networking
8:00 10:00
Drilling
Colin Rice
Colin Rice Exploration &
Training
10:00 10:30 Tea
10:30 12:30 Structural Logging
Colin Rice
Kevin Peyper
Masibulele Zintwana
Colin Rice Exploration &
Training
Reflex
Kumba Iron Ore
12:30 13:30 Lunch
13:30 16:30 Borehole logging Rod Tucker Lone Tree Exploration

Speaker CV’s
Sifiso Siwela
Sifiso Siwela is a Manager at Deloitte Technical Mining Advisory and specialises in exploration strategy
design, mineral project valuations, Mineral Resource estimation and reviews as well as due diligence
reviews. He has some 15 years’ consulting experience in various commodities including base metals,
precious metals, precious stones and industrial minerals. He has conducted work in various countries
including those in southern, west and east Africa, as well as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Afghanistan. He is
the current President of the Geological Society of South Africa and is the GSSA representative on the
SAMCODES Standards Committee.
Bill McKechnie
Bill is the Regional Manager and a Director of Snowden Mining industry Consultants based in
Johannesburg and responsible for the Company’s business throughout Europe, the Middle East and
Africa. He is an exploration geologist with 44 years’ experience in the mining business, including 10 years
with Snowden and 32 years with Anglo American and De Beers which includes eight years as head of De
Beers global exploration activities. Bill was directly involved in the discovery and development of four
new diamond mines in southern Africa. He is a registered Professional with SACNASP, a Fellow of the
GSSA and a member of the SAIMM.
Tania Marshall
Tania R Marshall has been involved in the alluvial/marine diamond and precious stone exploration and
mining industry since 1985 and has worked in many countries throughout Africa, both as an operator
and as a consultant. She is a Fellow of the GSSA, a Member of the SAIMM, a life Member of the GSAf
and is registered with SACNASP. In addition, she is an active member of both the SAMREC and SAMVAL
Committees, chairs the SAMREC Diamond Working Group and is the immediate past-Chairperson of the
SAMCODE Standards Committee (SSC) as well as the Vice-President (Professional Affairs) of the GSSA.
Sarah van Aardt
Operations Manager at SACNASP previously Customer Service Director for INTEL UK. She has an
honours degree in Economics, an Editing diploma from University of Pretoria and a Science
Communication qualification from Stellenbosch University.
Briony Liber
Briony has had a few changes in career direction in her life moving from town and regional planning,
into environmental management in the mining industry, to road construction, back to mining and now
into career development and leadership coaching. One of the reasons for her latest career pivot was
her observation of young professionals’ struggle to advocate for themselves. Over the last three years
she has built a business around helping professionals in the mining industry manage themselves and
their careers as a business. Part of that includes helping people tell their career story through their CV
and LinkedIn profiles in a way that not only connects with human beings, but also passes the application
tracking systems (in other words AI). She is here today to take us through some of the basics of writing
a good CV and preparing for interviews.

Steven Rupprecht
Steven is a Mining Engineer with +32 years mining experience in various mining companies,
consultancies and, most recently, as a professor at the University of Johannesburg. Steven is a Fellow
of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM), a member of the SAIMM Council,
member of the SAIMM Technical Programme Committee, member of the SAIMM Diversity and Inclusion
Committee, and observer on the SAIMM Young Professional Council. Steven has been Vice Chairperson
of the SAMREC working group since 2012 and is currently the Chair of the SAMCODES Standards
Committee.
Pete Roberts
Wits graduate from the previous century. Over 30 years industry experience: research, exploration
(greenfields to incline shaft development), production and management across various commodities
(base metals, oil and gas, diamonds, gold and coal). Amongst other things, currently responsible for the
Professional-in-Training programme at Anglo American Coal SA.
James Campbell
James Campbell has spent over 30-years in the diamond industry in a variety of leadership roles both in
major and junior companies. He is currently Managing Director of Botswana Diamonds plc and also a
Non-Executive Director of Shefa Gems ATM. Previously he held leadership roles at Rockwell Diamonds,
Stellar Diamonds, Lucara Diamond, African Diamonds, West African Diamonds and De Beers where he
spent over 20-years with notable appointments including General Manager Exploration and Nicky
Oppenheimer's Personal Assistant. James is also Chairman of the leadership development Non-Profit
Organisation Common Purpose SA. James holds a degree in Mining & Exploration Geology from the
Royal School of Mines (Imperial College, London) and an MBA with distinction from Durham University.
James is a Fellow of the IOM3, SAIMM and IODSA. He is also a C.Eng (UK), C.Sci (UK) and Pr.Sci.Nat.
David Khoza
David Khoza is geophysicist who’s worked in minerals exploration, mining and geoscience research.
After completing university, David joined BHP Billiton’s mineral exploration division, conducting
geophysical surveys primarily in Africa. David took a break and then back into academia to complete his
PhD, which focussed on understanding the tectonic evolution of the Southern African lithosphere using
magnetotelluric data. Following that, he joined Anglo American’s Technical Solution department
supporting several business units in mining, green and brownfield exploration and research efforts
within Anglo American. He then joined SPECTREM AIR, primarily focused on airborne data processing,
modelling, interpretation and research. He holds a BSc (Geology and Physics), BSc Honours (Geophysics)
and a PhD (Geophysics) from the University of the Witwatersrand, specialising in EM methods. David
Khoza is currently the Executive Manager: Applied Geoscience, at the Council for Geoscience
Pamela Nichols
Pamela Nichols came to South Africa in 1995, originally to the WITS English Department. Nichols helped
to found and has been since 1998 the Director of Wits Writing Centre. Since its inception the WWC has
produced 17 award winning fiction writers and part-organised 6 literary festivals as well as promoting
successful academic writing and writing intensive teaching. Nichols took her first degree at Sussex
University, taught and studied at the American University of Beirut, completed a teaching degree at the
Institute of Education in London, before attending New York University where she completed a
doctorate in Comparative Literature guided by the work of, and personal engagement with, Edward
Said. Her recent published work focuses on writing centres, writing intensive teaching, writing
programmes, new African writing, and on strategies to enhance democracy through the development
of citizen scholars.

Mari Laas
Mari is a devoted trainer - She has been in Training for nearly 30 years. She has two Magister degrees
in Education and Functional Therapy and has a Doctorate in Education – Program Development. She
runs a private practise for 15 years where she does Career counselling. She is married to a pastor and
has two children and stays in Pretoria. Mari enjoys soft skills training and has developed several course
whiles being at the University as well as Training manager at Lanseria International Airport. Skills
upliftment is her passion.
Lloyd Christie
Lloyd Christie is a director at ENSafrica and Head of the Natural Resources and Environment
Department. He specialises in natural resources law. He has been recognised as a leading lawyer by the
following reputable rating agencies: Chambers and Partners Global Guide to the World’s Leading Layers;
The International Who’s Who of Mining Lawyers; and The Legal 500 Guide to Outstanding Lawyers.
Alex Holder
Alex is a mining engineer with a degree from UP. He started working life as a graduate student working
for De Beers. After completing his studies, he received his introduction to mining on the Kimberley,
Finsch and Koffiefontein operations to the level of Section Manager. In 2001 he joined the 1st C-Cut
Study at Cullinan as a Senior Mining Engineer. When the project was halted, he was transferred to
Venetia, where he was involved with systems, planning and production. Alex consulted for Petra in the
Koffiefontein Mine acquisition, before joining them as a Mine Manager where he re-opened the
Koffiefontein mine. He was also involved in technical assessment of new acquisitions including
Kimberley Underground, Cullinan, Williamson and Finsch from De Beers. As Group Technical Services
Manager for Petra, Alex’s role includes Governance on Planning, LOM Planning, Production Information
systems, Technical assessments and Feasibility studies.
Jeremy Clarke
Jeremy Clarke started his career in the mining industry with the Anglo-American Corporation group of
companies as a trainee metallurgist. He spent twenty years with the company gaining experience in
gold, uranium, copper, and diamonds and rose to the position of Consulting Metallurgist for De Beers.
He left De Beers to start his own mining companies and successfully started four new ventures in the
gold, diamonds, copper and emerald industries which were all subsequently listed on the TSE and AIM
exchanges. In 1999 Jeremy founded Metcon, a metallurgical consulting business that concentrated
mainly in the diamond mining arena and eventually merged with Paradigm Project Management (Pty)
Ltd (PPM) in 2008, where he is now a Director and owner.
Leon Koorsse
Leon Koorsse is currently Group Surveyor for Sibanye-Stillwater Marikana Operations where he is
Responsible for all Survey and Draughting functions as well as for Mine Technical Services Systems. He
has been involved in the Survey and Mining Technical Services and Mining Projects Environment for
more than 30 years. He has a National Higher Diploma Mine Surveying, Graduate Diploma Engineering
– Mining and Mine Surveyors Certificate of Competency and is registered with the Institute of Mine
Surveyors of South African.
Anneli Botha
Anneli holds a BSc in Geology and Geography and a Hons in Environmental Management. She has 19
years’ experience mainly in the mining industry assisting clients around the world to develop, implement
and improve their occupational health, safety, environmental management, community and corporate
governance management systems and practices. She has worked in 25 countries across the globe and
her passion is to make a difference to people and the environment wherever she goes.

Prevlan Chetty
Prevlan is a GIS and Remote Sensing Specialist with 9 years of experience across a variety of geospatial
platforms that includes cartographic, remote sensing and various geospatial reporting applications.
Prevlan graduated from UJ with a BSc in Geology and Geography. Prevlan is currently enrolled for his
MSc in Geography with a Remote Sensing application theme. Prevlan currently works for Digby Wells
Environmental, as a GIS & Remote Sensing Specialist. Prevlan is also currently registered with SACNASP.
In addition to this, Prevlan is an ambassador for GIS through the Geographical Information Society of
South Africa (GISSA) where he heads up the education portfolio which aims to expose students and
industry role-players to GIS & Remote Sensing.
Matthys Dippenaar
Matthys Dippenaar holds an MSc in Engineering Geology and PhD in Hydrogeology from the University
of Pretoria. He is presently a senior lecturer there, teaching in these fields while working on his research
focus of variable water saturation and its impacts on engineering infrastructure. He is the present
national chair of the Ground Water Division and a member of the Institute for Engineering Geologists
and the GSSA.
Igor Zeljko Tonžetić
Igor currently works as a senior lecturer in the Metallurgical Department of the University of Pretoria
whilst furthering his postgraduate studies. Previously, he has been the principal consulting mineralogist
for companies in Australia and South Africa. His specialities involve the operation of semi-automated
instrumentation. He has also variously worked as a consulting technical specialist in Brazil, India,
England, South Africa and New Zealand. He is currently a fellow of the GSSA, the Chair of the
Mineralogical Association of South Africa (MINSA), a visiting researcher at the University of the
Witwatersrand and a member of the SAIMM.
Colin Rice
He was a founder partner in SA Mud Services (Pty) Ltd and he was Managing Director of Professional
Diamond Drilling Equipment (Pty) Ltd for eleven years when the company was acquired by Atlas Copco
AB. In 1995, Colin and his business partner launched Borehole Survey (Pty) Ltd and imported the very
first electronic borehole survey tools into the country. Colin Rice established Colin Rice Exploration and
Training in September 2009 with the purpose of offering consulting and training services to the
exploration drilling industry – was responsible for setting up the National Diploma, Drilling Practice
Course at Technikon SA. He has been delivering drilling and exploration related courses at a number of
institutions and in a number of other Southern African countries for the past twenty years. Colin is the
Chairman of the newly launched Drilling Industry Certification Authority of South Africa (DICASA) and
President of the Borehole Water Association of Southern Africa.
Rod Tucker
Rodney Tucker graduated from Wits University in 1970 with a BSc (Eng) degree in Mining Geology. In
1980 he completed an MSc on the Sedimentology and Mineralogy of the Composite Reef on
Randfontein Estate Gold Mine. Rod is a Registered Professional Natural Scientist and a Fellow of the
GSSA. He served as President of the GSSA in 1997. He is also a Fellow of the SAIMM and Society for
Economic Geology. He was the Africa Representative of the IAS (International Association of
Sedimentologists) and a Member of the SEPM. His career has spanned 50 years, working for JCI and the
Anglovaal Group. After an early “retirement” he joined Snowden Mining Consultants as Divisional
Manager Exploration and was General Manager for Africa in his last year there. As Group Sedimentogist
and Exploration Manager in the Anglovaal Group, he was an originator of the SABLE borehole logging
system and has resented several courses on a “Paradigm Shift in Borehole Logging in Exploration”.

Foundations for a Geological Career 8/16/2019
Geological Society of South Africa 1
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What geologists need to know about drilling?
Foundations for a Geological Career
14 – 16 August
Glenhove Conferencing
What geologist need to know about drilling 2 © Colin Rice Exploration and Training (Pty) Ltd
What geologists need to know about drilling
• All geological information has its’ foundation in the examination and analysis of rocks.
• Rock samples at depth can only be obtained by drilling boreholes in the Earth’s surface.
• Therefore, an understanding of “drilling” is central to the core competence of a geologist.
(pardon the pun !!!)
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• Rock samples can be obtained using several different drilling methods and techniques.
• Rock samples can be either chip samples or core samples.
• The selection of drilling method will depend primarily upon the stage of the project and the
sampling requirements.
• In early stage projects chip samples will suffice but in late stage projects a core sample will be
necessary.
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The purpose of a exploration drilling operation
“the purpose of an exploration borehole is to obtain a representative sample of
the formation as safely and efficiently as possible”.
• If the sample is a core sample, then the sample (core) must be  totally representative of the composition
and structure of the formation.
• However, we often encounter fractured core, ground core or core losses that reduce the quality and
value of the sample.
• These issues multiply many times when we use a drilling method that produces a chip sample instead of
a core sample.
• can lose part of the sample through poor drilling practices,
• can lose sample through inefficient splitting or,
• through poor sample bagging procedures.
What a geologist needs to know about drilling
Drilling is an incredibly complex operation involving high powered machinery operated in
challenging environments requiring a great deal of manual handling of heavy equipment.
The geologist needs to have a detailed knowledge and understanding of many different aspects of
drilling.
1. Different methods of drilling
2. Factors that can affect the representivity and quality of samples
3. Safety aspects of drilling
4. Legal responsibilities and legal liability
5. Factors that can affect the cost of drilling
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You need to know about……
1. Different methods of drilling
2. Factors that can affect the representivity and quality of samples
3. Safety aspects of drilling
4. Legal responsibilities and liability
5. Factors that can affect the cost of drilling
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
SAFETY ASPECTS
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Technical aspects of drilling
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Technical aspects of drilling
• The components  of a rock drilling operation
• The features common to all rock drilling operations
• Rock breaking mechanisms
• A classification of drilling methods
• Diamond core drilling
• Dual‐tube reverse circulation drilling
Components of a rock drilling operation
• All drilling operations involve a drill bit that is
connected to a series of drill rods – called the
drillstring.
• All drill rods are tubular with pin and box (male and
female) threaded ends to allow them to be
connected together.
• The function of the drill bit is to fragment the rock
being drilled and the function of the drillstring is to
convey rotation and thrust forces to the bit.
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• In every drilling operation, the drillstring is connected to
the drilling machine, the drill bit is put in contact with the
formation and then rotated.
• While the drill bit is rotated, a downward force is
simultaneously applied to the drill bit and the
combination of rotation and down force causes
fragmentation (failure) of the rock and advance of the
drill bit into the formation.
Rotation
Bit thrust
• As the drill bit fragments the rock, cuttings (pieces of rock) are
created that have to be removed from the borehole.
• This is done by pumping a flushing medium (normally water
or air) downwards through the drillstring, across the face of
the drill bit and back up the annulus to surface.
• As the flushing medium flows upwards through the annulus, it
carries the drilled cuttings to surface.
The annulus is the space between the borehole wall and the drill rod
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Each of the drill bits shown below use different types of cutting element to fragment rock.
Bit Type of bit Cutting element
A Drag bit Tungsten carbide inserts
B Diamond core bit Synthetic diamond
C Diamond core bit Natural diamond
D Tricone bit Tungsten carbide inserts
E
Drag bit Polycrystalline diamond
compacts
Bits A, D and E are called “full‐face” bits and they
will produce a chip or sludge sample while the
diamond core bits, B and C produce a cylindrical
core sample.
The features common to all drilling operations
There are five features that are common to every drilling method or drilling technique:
1. Rotation of the drill bit
2. Load or weight on the drill bit
3. A bit weight control system
4. A hoisting system
5. A flushing system
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In every drilling method it is necessary that the drill bit is
rotated ‐ and in all cases, the rotational energy is provided by
the rotation head of the drilling machine.
Rotation
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2. Weight (load) on the drill bit
• Mere rotation of the drill bit will not allow the drill bit to
fragment the rock and advance the borehole, it is essential
also that sufficient load is placed on the drill bit to force
the cutting elements against the rock being drilled.
• The load (force) applied to the drill bit is called ”bit load” or
”weight on bit” or “bit thrust” – all of these terms mean
the same thing.
• The load necessary to make a drill bit cut rock depends
upon many different factors but primarily it depends upon:
i. the type of drill bit that is being used and,
ii. the hardness of the formation being drilled
Bit thrust
Rotation
2. Weight (load) on the drill bit
• In every drilling operation, lengths of drill rod are added to the drillstring as the borehole
deepens.
• Since every piece of drill rod has mass (and therefore weight), the addition of drill rods to the
drillstring results in an ever increasing weight on bit due entirely to the weight of the
drillstring.
• When a borehole is shallow, the weight of the drillstring will supply only a part of the
necessary bit thrust and so the drill rig will have to provide the rest of the required thrust by its
hydraulic cylinders pushing down on the drill bit.
• As the borehole deepens, the drillstring weight will increase and so will supply an increasing
amount of the required bit load and the drill rig will have to supply less and less of the
required bit load.
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3. Bit weight control system
• Different types of drill rig hold back excess rod weight in different ways ‐ this is called the bit
weight control system and it is an extremely important feature of all drilling machines.
• If formation conditions require a reduction in bit load and bit load is not reduced, then a host
of problems can occur which can very seriously affect the efficiency of the operation and the
integrity of the borehole.
• It is extremely important therefore that the drilling machine allows the Driller to alter the
weight on bit as formation conditions change.
4. Hoisting system
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4. Hoisting system
• Drilling machines can hoist drill rods in two ways, depending upon the design of the drill rig:
i. with a hoist and wire rope or,
ii. using the main hydraulic cylinder together with the rotation head of the drill rig.
• Hoisting operations are extremely hazardous and time consuming and it is important that you
have a good understanding of the different ways in which different types of drilling machine
hoist drill rods.
5. Flushing system
• Drilling involves fragmenting rock and it is essential that the fragmented rock (drilled cutting) is
removed from the borehole as efficiently as possible.
• If the drilled cuttings are not removed from the borehole then a number of serious problems
will occur ‐ hole cleaning is therefore the most important function of the drilling fluid system.
• In drilling operations we use either water or air as a flushing medium – we call this the drilling
fluid.
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5. Flushing system
5. Flushing system
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5. Flushing system
• The heart of the flushing system is the circulation pump or the compressor, both of which
must be able to deliver sufficient volume of fluid at adequate pressure to ensure efficient hole
cleaning.
• Based on my experience, I believe that most “in‐hole” problems are a direct consequence of
inefficient hole cleaning and so, in this course, we devote a complete module to this important
topic.
The 5 features common to all drilling operations
• Rotation of the drill bit
• Thrust on the drill bit
• A bit weight control system
• A hoisting system
• A flushing system
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Rock breaking mechanisms
There are three distinct rock breaking mechanisms that we need to consider:
1. Crushing
2. Shearing
3. Abrading
1. Crushing
• A tricone bit (also called a rock bit), makes hole by crushing rock.
• Require very high load (typically 1,5 to 2 MT per centimetre of bit diameter) is applied to the
bit and the cutting elements of the drill bit penetrate and literally crush the rock as the bit
rotates.
• Require very low rotational speeds (typically 40 to 80 rpm) to cut efficiently.
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1. Crushing
1. Crushing
• In a down‐hole hammer, high‐pressure compressed
air is blown down the drillstring and as the air
enters the hammer it causes the piston inside the
hammer cylinder to reciprocate very rapidly.
• Each time the piston moves downwards it strikes
the top of the drill bit and transfers an energy wave
through the drill bit into the rock. This energy
causes the rock to fracture and fragment and so the
bit is made to advance.
• The drilled chips or cuttings are then blown up the
annulus to surface by the high pressure compressed
air as it escapes upwards to surface.
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2. Shearing / cutting
• Drag bits break rock by a shearing action. The cutting
elements used in these bits can be:
• tungsten carbide or,
• polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDC)
• Cutting elements are relatively large with a sharp edge
to maximise the rate of penetration.
2. Shearing / cutting
• Because drag bits shear rock rather than crush rock, they require much lower weight on bit
than a tricone drill bit requires.
• Typically, a drag bit will require only 0,5 to 0,75 MT per centimetre of bit diameter to penetrate
efficiently.
• Drag bits however require higher rotational speeds to cut than tricone drill bits require –
somewhere in the range of 100 – 250 rpm.
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Relationship between rotational speed and rate of penetration
for a drag bit
3. Abrasion/Grinding
• Diamond core bits, for example, cut rock through this mechanism.
• Diamond bits contain either synthetic or natural diamond as cutting elements – these cutting
elements are very small and require very high rotational speed to make them abrade or grind
away the rock.
Natural stone diamond bit
Natural diamonds Synthetic diamonds
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Summary
CRUSHING SHEARING ABRADING
LOW RPM
40‐100
MEDIUM RPM
100 ‐ 250
HIGH RPM
>1000
HIGH BIT WEIGHT MODERATE BIT WEIGHT LOW BIT WEIGHT
Classification of drilling methods
PERCUSSION DRILLING
METHOD
ROTARY DRILLING
METHOD
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLING METHOD
Rock is broken through a purely
percussive action
Rock is broken by rotation coupled
with bit load
Rock is broken by a combination of
percussion and rotation
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Drilling methods and drilling techniques
PERCUSSION DRILLING
METHOD
CABLE TOOL
ROTARY DRILLING METHOD
FULL‐HOLE ROTARY
DIAMOND CORE
DRILLING
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLING METHOD
TOP HOLE HAMMER
DOWN HOLE HAMMER
SONIC DRILLING
METHOD
Drilling methods and drilling techniques
PERCUSSION DRILLING
METHOD
CABLE TOOL
FULL‐HOLE ROTARY
DIAMOND CORE
DRILLING
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLING METHOD
TOP HOLE HAMMER
DOWN HOLE HAMMER
SONIC DRILLING
METHOD
Dual tube reverse circulation
techniques
DRILLING TECHNIQUES
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Drilling methods
“the purpose of an exploration borehole is to obtain a representative sample of
the formation as safely and efficiently as possible”.
Rotary drilling method
We can identify several different rotary drilling techniques but we will consider only two of these techniques:
1. Full‐hole rotary drilling and,
2. Diamond core drilling
PERCUSSION DRILLING
METHOD
CABLE TOOL
FULL‐HOLE ROTARY
DIAMOND CORE DRILLING
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLING METHOD
TOP HOLE HAMMER
DOWN HOLE HAMMER
SONIC DRILLING
METHOD
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Rotary drilling method – full‐hole rotary drilling
Rotary drilling method – diamond core drilling
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Full‐hole rotary drilling – blasthole drilling
Rotary drill rigs drilling 305 mm blastholes in a surface
mine.
Diamond core drilling
Diamond core drilling obtains a continuous cylindrical core sample from the entire length of the borehole
and so diamond core drilling is extensively used in mineral exploration and geotechnical investigation
projects.
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Diamond core drilling – general principles
• Bottom most part of the coring drillstring is the corebarrel that acts
as the receptacle for the core as the drill bit advances into the rock.
• Corebarrels vary in terms of their size, design and complexity.
• The capacity of a corebarrel is always a multiple of the length of the
drill rods that are being used.
• Drill rods are typically 3 meters or 6 meters in length and so
corebarrels will have a capacity of 3 meters or 6 meters of core
respectively. However, corebarrels of 1 meter or 1,5 meter lengths
are also commonly used.
Corebarrel
Drill rods
Diamond bit
Reaming shell
• With the drillstring “on bottom”, drilling will begin and as the bit
advances the core “feeds” into the corebarrel.
• Once the corebarrel is “full” it will be necessary to retrieve the
corebarrel, remove the core and then reinsert the corebarrel so that
the borehole can be further advanced.
• The borehole is therefore advanced in stages equal to the capacity
of the corebarrel.
Corebarrel
Drill rods
Diamond bit
Reaming shell
The corebarrel is the most important component of the
drillstring ‐ it determines the size of the core and, to a large
extent, the quality of the core sample.
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We are able to retrieve core from the borehole in 2 different ways:
1. using a conventional system,
2. using a wireline system and,
1. Conventional core retrieval system
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2. Wireline core retrieval system
Conventional corebarrels ‐ single‐tube corebarrel
• Simplest of all corebarrels and consists of a corebarrel
head, an outer‐tube, a reaming shell and a drill bit.
• The corebarrel head connects the outer tube to the drill
rods and so will be threaded with the same thread as the
thread on the conventional drill rods being used.
Corebarrel head
Outer-tube
Reaming shell
Drill bit
Corelifter
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Conventional corebarrels ‐ single‐tube corebarrel
Single‐tube corebarrels are very simple and rugged but they have
some significant disadvantages:
1. Drilling fluid is pumped down the drillstring and as the drill
fluid flows through the corebarrel it has to flow over the
core to the drill bit. The core is therefore continuously
exposed to the washing effect of the drilling fluid. If the
core sample is at all friable then it will be eroded and a poor
quality core sample will result.
2. It is also important to note that as the corebarrel rotates,
there will be a tendency for the core to also rotate and this
can cause severe core grinding  and again, a poor quality
core sample.
Drilling fluid flows
directly over the core as
it passes through the
corebarrel
Conventional corebarrels ‐ double‐tube corebarrel
• Overcomes the problem of water washing and core grinding.
Corebarrel head
Outer-tube
Core cage
Corelifter
Inner--tube
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Drilling fluid flows through the
drillstring and then through a series of
holes drilled in the corebarrel head,
and then downwards between the
inner and outer‐tubes.
As the borehole advances, the core
feeds into the inner‐tube and so is
protected from the washing of the
drilling fluid.
Drilling fluid flows past the inside of
the drill bit, across the face of the drill
bit and then up the annulus to surface.
The inner‐tube is connected to the
corebarrel head via a set of bearings.
The bearings allow the inner‐tube to
remain “stationary” while the outer‐
tube, reaming shell and drill bit are
rotated by the drillstring.
These corebarrels are therefore called
“stationary inner‐tube corebarrels”.
It is important that the bearings in the
corebarrel head are properly lubricated
and maintained.
If the bearings are not properly
lubricated or if they are worn, the inner‐
tube will spin with the outer‐tube and
core grinding can occur.
Since the inner‐tube is “stationary”, core
quality and therefore core recovery will
be significantly better than would be
possible with a single‐tube corebarrel.
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Conventional corebarrels ‐ triple‐tube corebarrel
Conventional corebarrels ‐ triple‐tube corebarrel
Outer-tube
Plastic linerInner-tubeReaming shell
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Wireline corebarrels
• A wireline corebarrel is a
double‐tube corebarrel and
consists of an outer‐tube
assembly and a retrievable
inner‐tube assembly.
• As the drill bit advances, the
core feeds into the inner‐
tube and when the inner‐
tube has been filled, the
entire inner‐tube assembly
is retrieved to surface
through the drillstring.
Outer‐tube assembly
Inner-tube
head
assembly
Inner-tube
Stop ring
Corelifter
Core cage
Locking coupling
Landing ring
Outer-tube
Stabiliser
Adaptor coupling
Inner‐tube assembly
The outer‐tube assembly consists of 5 major components:
Locking coupling: this is the upper‐most component and it
connects the drill rods to the outer‐tube assembly. The thread at
the top of the locking coupling will be selected to match the
thread of the wireline drill rods being used.
Adaptor coupling: connects the locking coupling to the outer‐
tube. The adaptor coupling is internally recessed to allow the
inner‐tube be be latched into position.
Landing ring: the landing ring seats inside the upper thread of
the outer ‐tube and acts as a seat for the inner‐tube.
Outer‐tube: thick walled tube to house the inner‐tube.
Stabiliser: fits inside the reaming shell and is designed to
provide stability to the inner‐tube while drilling.
Outer‐tube assembly
Locking coupling
Landing ring
Outer-tube
Stabiliser
Adaptor coupling
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The inner‐tube assembly consists of 5 major
components:
Inner‐tube head assembly: this provides a means of
latching the inner‐tube into position in the outer‐tube
so that the core can feed into the inner‐tube and it
provides a means of releasing the latches when the
inner‐tube assembly is retrieved to surface.
Inner‐tube: this is a thin walled steel tube into which
the core feeds as the drill bit advances.
Corecage, corelifter and stop ring : the inside of the
core cage is tapered – the outside of the corelifter is
similarly tapered and grips and holds the core when
the drillstring is lifted to break the core.
Inner-tube
head
assembly
Inner-tube
Stop ring
Corelifter
Core cage
Inner‐tube assembly
Latches – when in position in the outer‐tube assembly, the latches open outwards into a recess in the
adaptor coupling. The latches then rest against the underside of the locking coupling and this prevents the
inner‐tube assembly from being pushed upwards into the drill rods while drilling.
Latches in the open and
latched position.
Note that the latches rest
against the underside of
the locking coupling .
Locking coupling
Adaptor coupling
Recess machined
into the adaptor
coupling
Inner-tube assembly
descending through the
drillstring. Note the latches
about to open into the
machined recess
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Wireline overshot assembly
• The overshot assembly is lowered through the
drillstring on the end of a wire cable.
• The bottom‐most part of the overshot houses
a pair of lifting dogs. The lifting dogs have a
square shoulder that latch under the
spearhead point and allow the inner‐tube to
be pulled to surface.
Wireline overshot assembly
Lifting Dogs – note the square shoulder
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Edit Master text stylesRotary percussion drilling method
The term “rotary percussion” describes a drilling method where
percussive energy is used to crush the rock while the drill bit is being
rotated.
In this method, there is therefore both percussion and rotation,
hence the name “rotary percussion”.
Two rotary percussion drilling techniques:
• top‐hole hammer techniques and
• downhole hammer techniques.
Downhole
Hammer
Top-hole
Hammer
Edit Master text stylesRotary percussion drilling method
• In both techniques, the percussive energy is created by a piston that
is made to reciprocate very rapidly.
• On every down‐stroke of the piston it strikes either the drill bit
(downhole hammer) or the drillsteel (top‐hole hammer) and so
transfers percussive energy through the drill bit or the drillsteel, into
the rock.
• In both cases, the drill bit crushes the rock and so makes hole.
Downhole
Hammer
Top-hole
Hammer
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• Since the percussive energy has to travel all the way through the drillsteel to the drill bit, a great deal of
the energy is lost as the energy wave travels along the drillsteel. If the drillsteels are coupled together,
up to 6% of the energy can be lost at each coupling and so this drilling technique is limited to relatively
short, small diameter boreholes.
• Top‐hole hammer drilling techniques are therefore used mainly to drill small diameter blastholes in
mines and quarries – this technique is not used as an exploration method.
The piston of the rockdrill strikes the top of the shank adaptor and transmits an energy wave
through the drillstring to the drill bit and the rock.
As the energy wave travels through the drillstring, energy is lost.
Top‐hole hammer drilling
Edit Master text stylesDownhole hammer – general principles
• Essentially a downhole hammer consists of an outer cylinder inside
of which a piston is made to reciprocate.
• High pressure compressed air is blown down the drillstring and into
the hammer. As the air passes through the hammer the piston is
made to reciprocate repeatedly and on every down stroke it strikes
the top of the drill bit. The energy of the piston is transferred
through the drill bit to the rock and causes rock breakage.
• Since the hammering action is directly onto the drill bit the
efficiency of energy transfer is much greater than in a top‐hole
hammer.
• Downhole hammers are therefore able to drill much larger
diameter and deeper boreholes than are possible with a top‐hole
hammer.
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Edit Master text stylesDownhole hammer – general principles
High pressure compressed air is blown through the
hammer. The air causes the piston to reciprocate
very rapidly and then the air is blown through the
centre of the drill bit and out through flushing holes
in the face of the drill bit.
The air then blows the drilled cuttings to surface.
Edit Master text stylesDownhole hammer drilling ‐ limitations
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Edit Master text stylesDual‐tube reverse circulation drilling techniques
PERCUSSION DRILLING
METHOD
CABLE TOOL
FULL‐HOLE ROTARY
DIAMOND CORE
DRILLING
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLING METHOD
TOP HOLE HAMMER
DOWN HOLE HAMMER
SONIC DRILLING
METHOD
Dual‐tube reverse circulation
techniques
Edit Master text stylesCirculation systems
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Edit Master text stylesCirculation systems
• Air has to be introduced into the annular space
between the inner and the outer tubes of the
drill rods. This is achieved through the use of an
air swivel that is mounted below the rotation
head.
• Cuttings generated travel upwards through the
inner‐tube and they have to travel through the
rotation head into the sample hose (discharge
hose) to the sample collection system.
• Rotation head must therefore have a hollow
spindle and is therefore somewhat more
complex than a standard top drive rotation head
Sample flow path
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• High pressure compressed air travels downwards
in the annular space between the inner and
outer tubes. The air enters the hammer and
causes the piston to reciprocate and so the drill
bit makes hole.
• The air exhausts through a series of ports above
the head of the drill bit, it then flows inwards,
across the face of the bit and into a series of
sample holes in the face of the drill bit.
• The air then travels upwards through the inner‐
tube to surface.
Face sampling hammers
Edit Master text stylesFace sampling hammers
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• The use of face sampling hammers ensures the
cuttings are removed from the bottom of the
hole very rapidly thereby reducing secondary
grinding and improving rates of penetration.
• Many of these “face sampling” hammers are
extremely efficient and produce production rates
similar to those of a conventional downhole
hammer.
• This also ensures that large chip samples are
obtained.
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• All face sampling hammers are fitted with a “shroud” that fits immediately above the drill bit. The
shroud is slightly smaller in diameter than the drill bit and effectively provides an annular seal to force
cutting inwards and upwards into the sample tube of the hammer.
• Reverse circulation systems are designed so that the drill rod is only slightly smaller in diameter than the
hole being drilled. The drill rod therefore acts like a rotating casing to aid hole stability and creates a
backpressure in the annulus between the drill rod and the borehole wall to assist in forcing the sample
to be blown up the inner‐tube rather than up the annulus.
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• The mass of sample generated when drilling a full hole is very great ‐ a 114mm borehole for example
generates approximately 30 kilograms of cutting per meter (depending upon the density of the
formation) and so it is impossible for the geologist to manage the total mass of sample collected.
• A sample splitter must therefore be used to “split” the sample into a smaller mass that is economical to
transport and assay. It is obviously essential however, that the split sample produced is representative of
the total sample.
• Several different types of sample splitter are used and in all cases it is essential that the splitter is exactly
vertical and that it is kept free of any clogging or blocking.
Sampling systems
Edit Master text stylesSampling systems
A Riffle splitter A rotary cone splitter
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• The earliest sample splitting system that was used was the riffle
splitter. that consists of a series of matching chutes (riffles)
arranged opposite to one another.
• In theory, when a batch of sample is dropped onto the chutes
exactly half of the sample will flow through one set of chutes and
the other half will flow through the other chutes. One half can
then be discarded and the retained sample again split by passing
through a second set of chutes.
• In this way, the sample would have been split in half and then in
half again – the retained sample will therefore be 25 % of the
mass of the original sample.
• If the sample is again split through a third tier of chutes, then the
retained sample will be 12 ½ % of the original and if again split the
retained sample will be 6 ¼ % of the original sample.
• This smaller sample can then be sent to the laboratory for assay.
Sampling systems
• The cone splitter works by dropping sample through a 120mm
hole over the point of a cone in an ‘hourglass effect’. This
provides an even flow of sample over the cone.
• Beneath the bottom of the cone are 2 segment shaped chutes
that direct a percentage of the sample to the assay bags.
• These chutes are adjustable to take between 3 and 12 percent
of the total sample. One is used as the assay sample, the other
for a duplicate sample.
• The waste material falls through a central chute to be
discarded.
Sampling systems
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Safety aspects of drilling
Legal aspects of drilling
• The legal hierarchy
• Laws applicable to exploration drilling
• The Mine Health and Safety Act
• Legal liability
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Course 9: Legal aspects of exploration drilling (SA Law) V4.040918 85
The legal hierarchy
The Constitution
The Bill of Rights
Statutory Law
National Laws (Acts of Parliament)
Provincial
Legally Required Standards (SANS)
Mandatory COP's
Municipal By Laws
Common Law
• The supreme and most important statute is the
Constitution of South Africa as it provides the legal
foundation upon which the country operates and it
forms the basis of all public life.
• No other law may conflict with the Constitution, nor
may the Government or any Government official do
anything to violate the Constitution.
• Our current constitution is South Africa's fifth and it
was drawn up by the Parliament that was elected in
1994 and was promulgated by President Nelson
Mandela on 10th December 1996.
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
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The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
Chapter 2 of the Constitution of South Africa is
the “Bill of Rights” that details all of the
fundamental human rights to which every
South African must be afforded, for example:
• The right to life
• The right to human dignity
• The right to equality before the law
and,
• The right to be treated without
discrimination
• Exploration drilling activities are regulated by many different statutory instruments.
• Some of these Acts are:
• The Minerals & Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA)
• The Mine Health & Safety Act 29 of 1996 (MHSA)
• The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998
• The Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997
• The Compensation for Occupational Injuries & Diseases Act 130 of 1993 (COIDA)
• The National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA)
• The National Environmental Management: Water Act 59 of 2008
The legal hierarchy
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Our legal system is based on two types of law:
Statutory law
Written law, made by the government of the country or some body with the authority to pass laws. These
are Acts of Parliament, provincial by‐laws or municipal by‐laws.
Common law
Based on decisions made by judges or the courts ‐ these decisions create a precedent that can be used to
guide future decisions in similar cases.
Employers therefore have both a common law duty to ensure that their employees are safe but also
responsibilities imposed by statutory law.
Common law and statutory law
• Employers therefore must be aware not only of their duties and responsibilities under statutory law but
also under common law.
• Every person has the expectation that he or she will be able to carry out his or her work and then
return home safe and healthy every day. It is therefore the fundamental duty of every employer to
ensure that his employees are able to work in a safe environment and in a manner that does not
endanger their health – this is a common law right and obligation.
• Similarly, it is the duty of every employee to take care of himself and his fellow workers when in the
workplace.
The legal hierarchy
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In many industries employers do not provide a safe and healthy workplace and so trade unions and other
non‐governmental organizations (NGO’s) lobby Government to enact new laws or to change existing laws
to better regulate activities in these industries, particularly with regard to health and safety.
The South African mining industry is an excellent example of how external pressure forced changes in
legislation. Faced with incredibly high fatality rates, the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) began to
pressurise Government in the late 1980’s to improve the health and safety of mineworkers.
This pressure ultimately resulted in the Leon Commission of Enquiry which in turn resulted in the
promulgation of the new Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 (MHSA).
The legal hierarchy
All work and work related activities that are carried out in South Africa have to comply with the
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (OHSA).
OHSA has as its objective the following:
1. To provide for the health and safety of persons at work and for the health and safety of persons in
connection with the use of plant and machinery;
2. The protection of persons other than persons at work against hazards to health and safety arising
out of or in connection with the activities of persons at work;
3. To establish an advisory council for occupational health and safety.
The Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 is written to regulate work undertaken in shops, offices,
factories, warehouses and construction sites – it does not directly regulate mining or drilling activities there
are parts of the Act however that have an implication on drilling and mining activities.
Occpational Health and Safety Act
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The MPRDA regulates how exploration, prospecting and mining activities are managed from a permitting
perspective. i.e. how prospecting permits are issued, how mining authorisations are issued etc.
The Minerals & Petroleum Resources Development Act
(MPRDA)
The MPRDA is of great importance to exploration drilling activities because the Act defines what
“prospecting” is………….
The MPRDA defines “prospecting” as follows:
PROSPECTING is intentionally searching for any mineral by means of any method –
• which disturbs the surface or subsurface of the earth, including any portion of the earth that is
under the sea or under other water; or
• in or on any residue stockpile or residue deposit, in order to establish the existence of any mineral
and to determine the extent and economic value thereof; or
• in the sea or other water on land.
(MPRDA)
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The MPRDA goes further and defines a “mineral” as follows:
A MINERAL is,
any substance, excluding water, but including sand, stone, rock, gravel and clay, as well as soil, other than
top soil –
whether that substance is in solid, liquid or gaseous form;
that occurs naturally in or on the earth, in or under water or in tailings; and,
that has been formed by or subjected to a geological process.
(MPRDA)
From these 2 definitions it is very clear that any activity aimed at finding a mineral that disturbs the surface
of the earth is “prospecting” and so requires a permit to be issued by the Department of Mineral Resources
(DMR).
(MPRDA)
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• In order to get a full appreciation of the origins of the Mine Health and Safety Act, we must go back a
little bit in our history to 1911 when the Mines and Works Act No 12 was promulgated.
• This Act was promulgated to regulate mining activities and it formalised the racial segregation of
responsibility in mines. The Act distinguished between white and black workers ‐ black workers had no
representation in matters of safety and they had no right to leave a dangerous place unless given
permission by a miner.
• This legislation remained in force in South Africa until 1956 when it was repealed and replaced by the
Mines and Works Act 27 of 1956. This new legislation did little to reduce the fatality rate in the mines
and so a number of organisations but primarily the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) began
campaigning in the 1980’s for increased health and safety awareness in mines.
• As a result of this pressure on Government, the Mines and Works Act of 1956 was repealed and
replaced by the Minerals act of 1991.
Origins of the Mine Health and Safety Act
• There was still no meaningful reduction in the number of fatalities and in an effort to address the
problem, the Leon Commission of Inquiry was set up in 1994 to investigate health and safety on mines
and to make recommendations to improve health and safety.
• The Commission estimated that more than 1 million mine workers were killed or seriously injured in
South African mines between 1900 and 1993 and the work of the commission resulted in the
promulgation of the Mine Health and Safety Act that was enacted in 1996.
• The Act has received worldwide praise and support.
Origins of the Mine Health and Safety Act
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Structure of the Mine Health and Safety Act
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996
Chapter 1
Section
1
Chapter 2
Section
2‐24
Chapter 3
Section
25‐40
Chapter 4
Section
41‐46
Chapter 5
Section
47‐74
Chapter 6
Section
75‐81
Chapter 7
Section
82‐95
Chapter 8
Section
96‐106
The Act is composed of 8 chapters and a total of 106 sections, each chapter is devoted to a particular
aspect of health and safety on mines:
Structure of the Mine Health and Safety Act
Chapter Title Sections
1 Objects of the Act 1
2 Health and safety at mines 2 - 24
3 Health and safety representatives and committee 25 – 40
4 Tripartite institutions 41 – 46
5 Inspectorate of mine health and safety 47 – 74
6 Minister’s powers 75 – 81
7 Legal proceedings and offences 82 – 95
8 General provisions 96 - 106
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Edit Master text stylesSection 102: Definitions – “mine”
From this definition it is very
clear that any exploration
borehole is deemed to be “a
mine” and so this means that
all exploration drilling
activities fall within the Mine
Health and Safety Act and so
have to fully comply with the
Act.
• It is very clear also that since water is not defined as a mineral that waterwell drilling operations are not
regulated by the MHSA but rather by OHSA.
• A person drilling a waterwell on private property therefore has only to comply with OHSA.
• If however, the waterwell is drilled on land that is covered by a prospecting permit or a mining
authorisation then, that waterwell is considered to be “a mine” and so the drilling and waterwell
construction operations must comply fully with the requirements of the MHSA.
The Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996
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Edit Master text stylesSection 102: Definitions – “owner”
The Act recognises three
distinct conditions, the first
condition is pretty logical, the
“owner” is the holder of the
prospecting permit or mining
authorisation.
Typically, but not always, this is
a mining company such as;
Anglo American, Rio Tinto or
South 32 for example.
The second condition takes
account of situations where the
prospecting or mining is being
done “illegally” i.e. no
prospecting permit or mining
authorisation has been issued
but prospecting or mining
activities are being carried out.
In this case the owner is
deemed to be the person for
whom the drilling or mining is
being done.
It is important to note that a
contractor working on the
project escapes responsibility.
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The third condition takes
account of situations where the
mine is no longer being worked
or where the “owner” has died.
This provision ensures that no
one escapes their
responsibilities – even if the
mine is no longer being
operated, the last person who
operated the mine is deemed
the owner and so is responsible
for ensuring that all the
requirements of the Act are
met.
Even if the “last person who
operated the mine” has passed
on, then the person who
inherits the mine (the successor
in title), becomes the “owner”
and so assumes full
responsibility in terms of the
Even if the “last person who
operated the mine” has passed
on, then the person who
inherits the mine (the successor
in title), becomes the “owner”
and so assumes full
responsibility for the “owner” in
terms of the Act.
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This provision ensures that no one escapes their responsibilities – even if the mine is no longer being
operated, the last person who operated the mine is deemed the owner and so is responsible for ensuring
that all the requirements of the Act are met.
Even if the “last person who operated the mine” has passed on, then the person who inherits the mine
(the successor in title), becomes the “owner” and so assumes full responsibility in terms of the Act.
Abandoned and unrehabilitated
mines are an extremely serious
environmental and safety
problem in South Africa (and
other parts of the world also) ‐
many mines were worked for
many years, huge value was
derived from them but when
they became uneconomical to
mine, the “owners” merely
walked away and left an
environmental disaster for the
current generation to manage.
Edit Master text stylesSection 102: Definitions – “employer”
Essentially this definition tells
us that the “owner” and the
“employer” are one and the
same.
As we progress through our examination of the Ac ,you will see why this definition is so important – for
now, all I want you to do is to remember that whenever you see the words “owner” or “employer”, that
they mean the same thing.
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Edit Master text stylesSection 102: Definitions – “employee”
This definition recognises two conditions; the first is people who are directly employed by the mining
company and so receive salaries or wages from the mining company.
The second condition covers indirect employees; contractors, consultants or other people who “work” at
the mine but who are not directly employed by the mine.
In an exploration drilling operation, a survey technician who conducts a directional survey of a borehole is
deemed to be an “employee” of the mine.
Why is this so important?
We will see shortly that the Act requires that the “employer” must ensure the health and safety of all
employees – this means direct and indirect employees.
Edit Master text stylesSection 86: Negligent act or omission
This section states that a
person who, through
negligence, endangers the
health of safety or causes
serious injury or serious
illness to a person at a mine is
guilty of an offence.
It is important that we have a
good understanding of what
“negligence” is.
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Edit Master text stylesSection 86: Negligent act or omission
Two conditions are specified; firstly “any person” whether an employee, visitor or community member
who causes illness of injury to anyone at a mine through his / her negligence, is guilty of an offence and
so that person may be liable to prosecution in terms of the Act.
The second condition stipulates that any person, other than an employee or the employer, who
endangers the health or safety of a person at a through his / her negligence, is guilty of an offence and so
that person may be liable to prosecution in terms of the Act.
Edit Master text stylesSection 91: Failure to comply with this Act
This section is all encompassing
– it says that anyone, including
an employer, who contravenes
any aspect of the Act is guilty of
an offence.
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• The Mine Health and Safety Act places very great responsibility for health and safety on certain people;
the CEO, Managers, and persons to assist all have very onerous responsibilities to ensure that people
on mines work in conditions that promote health and safety.
• These three positions are what are termed “legal appointments” and there are many other positions to
which people are legally appointed.
Legal appointments
Legal Appointments required by the MHSA
Appointment Reference
Person to assist the CEO MHSA Section 2A (1)
Manager MHSA Section 3 .1.a
Assistant person MHSA Section 4.1
Subordinate Manager Minerals Act Reg 2.6.1
Safety Officer Minerals Act Reg 2.17.1
Person to assist Minerals Act Reg 2.9.2
Safety Officer - acting Minerals Act Reg 2.17.6
Chief Safety Officer Minerals Act Reg 2.17.4
Health and Safety Representative
Minerals Act Reg 2.18.1
MHSA Reg 6.9
SHE Committee Members
MHSA Reg 6.10
MHSA Section 34
Legal appointments
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The MHSA provides for three levels of responsibility:
1. The employer: he is ultimately responsible for the health and safety of employees and for ensuring that
the MHSA is complied with.
2. Legal appointees: the employer cannot perform all of the duties imposed on it by the Act and so the
Act allows the employer to legally appoint certain persons to be responsible for certain duties, eg.
• CEO Section 2A(1)
• Manager 3. 1 (a)
3. Employees: every employee is responsible for his own health and safety and for the health and safety
of persons who may be affected by his activities.
Responsibility for health and safety
The Mine Health and Safety Act requires that all employees are competent, especially people who carry a
legal appointment.
Competency as defined in Chapter 1, Section(4B) of the Minerals Act Regulations (Page 256)
“competent person” means a person who—
(i) is qualified by virtue of his knowledge, training, skills and experience to organise work and its
performance;
(ii) is familiar with the provisions of the Act and the regulations which apply to the work to be
performed; and
(iii) has been trained to recognise any potential or actual danger to health or safety in the
performance of the work; or
(b) is in possession of the appropriate certificate of competency where such certificate is required by these
regulations;
Competency
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Criminal liability
A person who fails to comply with provisions of either a statute or common law duty.
Important elements of criminal liability are:
• It is always the State versus a person (or company).
• The trial is about whether the accused is guilty of the charges against him.
• The purpose of the trial is to punish the guilty person. Criminal liability comes from 2 sources:
• Legislation (statutes) e.g. Mine Health and Safety Act
• Common law eg. murder, culpable homicide
Liability
Schedule 8 details the Maximum fines or period of imprisonment that can be imposed for offences.
Penalties
Section under which convicted Maximum fine and term of
imprisonment
2, 2A, 3, 5, 6, 7(1), 10, 11 R 1 Million or 5 years
15, 16, 21 (1), (3) or (4), 24 R 500 000 or 5 years
22, 52, 53, 62, 66(3), 70, 71, 84, 85 R 200 000 or 2 years
87, 88, 89, 90 R 50 000 or 6 months
55B R 1 Million
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Civil liability
If the person's negligence causes loss or injury to another person that other person could sue for
compensation in a civil court.
Important elements of civil liability are:
• It is always one private person versus another.
• The trial is about whether the defendant is liable (for negligence).
• The purpose of the trial is compensation to the plaintiff.
• Civil liability essentially has one source i.e. common law. There are endless different types of civil
common law liability.
Liability
Vicarious liability
Important legal concept for the supervisor! This principle is sometimes known as the Master ‐ Servant
principle.
In summary, this principle involves the following:
• The supervisor would have people under his control.
• The supervisor must use that power of control to ensure that his sub‐ordinates act as reasonable
people.
• If a sub‐ordinate commits a wrongdoing, it is because the supervisor failed to exercise his control as a
reasonable supervisor would.
• This failure of exercising control is as serious a wrongdoing as that committed by the sub‐ordinate,
and on this basis the supervisor would be punished by being held responsible for the sub‐ordinate's
wrongdoing.
Liability
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Vicarious liability continued
Vicarious Liability applies to both the civil and criminal law spheres.
Thus:
• if an employee violates any provision of a statute, or commits a criminal common law offence, the
supervisor could be held criminally liable; and/or
• if a third party suffered loss or damage due to the employee's negligence, he could lodge a civil claim
against the supervisor.
Liability
Economic aspects of drilling
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Economic aspects of drilling
• The relationship between the geologist and the contractor
• How a contractor makes profit
• Types of contracts
• What can the geologist do to allow the contractor to make profit
All exploration drilling is based on a contract, therefore you need to know about…..
Course 6: Economic aspects of exploration drilling V4.190619 124 © Colin Rice Exploration and Training (Pty) Ltd
The relationship between the mining company and the drilling
contractor
CONTRACT
CONTRACTORMINING COMPANY
• HAS A FIXED BUDGET
• WANTS TO MAXIMISE METRES
• WOULD LIKE LOWEST COST PER METRE
• HAS HIGH CAPITAL INVESTMENT
• WANTS TO MAXIMISE PROFIT
• WOULD LIKE HIGHEST PRICE PER METRE
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The relationship between the mining company and the drilling
contractor
• Often the drilling contract does not allow both parties to achieve their objectives:
• the scope of the contract changes as the project progresses
• drilling costs are higher than budgeted
• Both of these situations are avoidable if the project requirements are fully understood and all of these
requirements are fully specified in the tender specification. If the tender specification (or scope of
work) does not include all possible elements of cost then there will be situations where work has to be
done but there are no rates for the work. This will make management of the contract very difficult for
the geologist.
Two principles of business
Principle 1
“If a contractor is not making a profit, he cannot perform on site”
Principle 2
“Profit is the reward for risk”
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Characteristics of a good contract
The drilling contract must be equitable.
This is the most important characteristic of a good drilling contract – the contract must be fair.
• There is risk involved in any drilling operation and so the tender specification (scope of work) must fully
identify all of the risks associated with the project. If geological conditions are expected to be
particularly bad or if it is expected the the boreholes will deviate significantly, or if artesian water is
expected or if community issues are expected to disrupt operations for example, then all of these risks
must be identified and made clear in the tender document so that the contractor can take them into
account when he calculates his costs to drill.
• If risks are not identified, there will be conflict when the contractor claims for the additional costs that
he has to incur.
• The drilling contract must then clearly address how the risks identified are to be shared between the
contractor and the mine.
The drilling contract must be as simple and unambiguous as possible.
• Tender documents and contracts are unfortunately sometimes very lengthy and complex documents
and this can lead to confusion and conflict.
• Even if the drilling contract is large and complex every effort should be made to keep the technical
terminology as simple as possible and where necessary, the terminology used must be clearly defined.
• If this is done then the application of different rates to different operations will be easy to understand
and there will be no ambiguity or conflict.
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The drilling contract must reward the contractor for drilling and specified services only.
• While it is important that the contractor is fairly rewarded for his work and risk, it is equally as
important that the contractor is not unfairly rewarded.
• Drilling contractors are employed to drill and so it is important that the contractor only makes profit
when he is doing what he was contracted to do ‐ in other words, he should only make profit when he is
drilling or providing other services specified in the contract.
• The contract should therefore be structured so that the contractor is unable to make abnormal profit
while standing or while performing operations peripheral to making hole unless these operations are
specified in the contract or if circumstances are abnormal.
How does a contractor make profit
• A tender document will require that the contractor submit a “schedule of rates” for the work specified
in the scope of work and in order for the contractor to be able to prepare a schedules of rates, he will
need to calculate what his costs are.
• Irrespective of the structure of the contract, all contractors will use similar processes to determine their
cost of drilling and what they will charge for their work.
• Contractors have two different types of cost: Fixed Costs and Variable Costs.
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FIXED COSTS are costs that the contractor will incur whether he is drilling or not – we can think of
these as his “standing costs” and they will include:
• Salaries and wages: he has to pay his staff whether they are working or not
• Rentals and office costs: he has to pay rentals and water and power bills
• Insurance costs: he must pay for insurance for his equipment and people
• Equipment finance costs, insurance costs etc.
Variable costs will vary with the size of the borehole and with the drilling method being used – for example,
HQ drill rods, corebarrels, bits and reaming shells are more costly than similar NQ equipment and so we
would expect the cost to drill a metre of HQ core will be greater than the cost to drill a metre of NQ core.
VARIABLE COSTS are costs that the contractor will incur only when he is actually drilling and will
include:
• Drill rig and equipment maintenance
• Fuels & oils
• Bits and reaming shells
• Corebarrels and corebarrel consumables
• Drill rods
• Drilling fluids
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Fixed cost per metre
• Once the contractor has determined his fixed costs per month, he will then estimate how many metres
he will drill per month and he will divide the fixed cost by the number of metres to determine his “fixed
cost per metre”.
• In arriving at the number of metres that he expects to drill in a month he will take into account the size
of the boreholes, he will consider the rock hardness and the available hours to drill and any other
factors that will affect his productivity.
Variable costs per metre
• Costs per metre will for each of the holes sizes that the contractor will drill.
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Foundations for a Geological Career Day 3

Foundations for a Geological Career Day 3

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