The aims of the participants at the Paris Peace Conference.pdf

1 ● Peacemaking, peacekeeping—international relations, 1918–36
19
The aims of the participants
The aims of the Versailles Conference represented two fundamental
and perhaps irreconcilable approaches. On the one hand, there was
clearly a wish to develop a new order of international relations that
would secure a permanent peace based on a genuine spirit of
reconciliation and compromise. The goal in the words of one British
diplomat was not merely to liquidate the war but to found a new
order in Europe. We were preparing not only peace but permanent
peace. Contradicting this idealism and generosity of spirit was a
strong desire to punish those who had caused the conflict and to
extract maximum compensation for their victims. Ultimately, the
settlements were an awkward compromise between these conflicting
emotions. Idealism and revenge were somehow to be reconciled in
the same documents.
Discussion point:
What was different about
the Versailles Conference
compared to other peace
conferences.
Explain this in terms of the
outcomes.
What similarities and
differences can be seen
between the aims, goals and
methods of Versailles and
those of the Congress of
Vienna in 1815?
TOK link
Integrating ways of knowing–emotion and reason
TOK is ideally placed to encourage internationalism and aims to embody
many of the attributes in the learner profile that promote self-awareness,
reflection, critical thinking, empathy, and a sense of responsibility.
Emotions play a powerful role in determining thoughts and actions, and
in shaping the pursuit of knowledge. Reason is the way in which people
construct meaning and justify knowledge claims. How far do these
qualities inform the actions of the peacemakers who created the treaties
after the First World War?
Why were President Wilson’s Fourteen Points and other foreign
policy ideas regarded as idealistic? What aspects of human
nature did they seek to change?
1 Explain what you understand by the term “idealism”:
● Is idealism mainly to do with emotion, or is it connected with our
capacity for reason too?
● Can we ever know anything purely through our emotions?
● How do emotions interact with other ways of knowing such as
reason, sense perception and language?
● In what way can it be argued that idealism is both a positive and
negative quality?
2 Examine Wilson’s Fourteen Points and identify which specific points
most reflect idealism, rather than reason? How and why?
3 Consider each of these linking questions to TOK in relation to the
actions of Wilson and the other peacemakers in the post-war period:
● What part does emotion play in the acquisition of knowledge?
● Should emotion play a role in the evaluation of knowledge
claims?
● Does all knowledge require some kind of rational basis?
Make a chart
On 8 January 1918, President
Woodrow Wilson addressed
the United States Congress
outlining the Fourteen Points
as the American terms for
peace. Read through the
points, and make a summary
in chart form, as started below.
Divide the points up
—individually or in groups—to
report on compliance with the
objectives stated and the
proposed border agreements
and principles of self-
determination specified.
The 14 Points
1 Commitment to public
diplomacy and declaration of
agreements.
2 Freedom of navigation on
open seas (outside territorial
borders).
3 Free trade. Removal of trade
barriers.
4 Arms reduction.
Activity:
915261_IBCC_HISTORY_Ch01.indd 19 24/4/09 16:59:

20
The United States—Woodrow Wilson and the Fourteen Points
American goals were not expressed in traditional terms such as
territorial acquisitions, indemnities (compensation payments) or
restoring the balance of power. They were broadly expressed in the
Fourteen Points, which were designed to create a peaceful world by
removing what Wilson believed to be the reasons for war. President
Wilson’s goal was to establish democracy and self-determination
and so eliminate many of the causes of war. This was an idealistic
approach which often lacked specifics but which assumed the
inherently peaceful and rational nature of human society. This was
reflected be seen in one of Wilson’s most important goals: the
League of Nations, which would be a forum for the reasonable and
rational settlement of disputes.
Wilson’s specific aims involved some punishment of Germany as the
cause of the war and the establishment of a period of probation, after
which Germany could be admitted to the League of Nations.
Otherwise the Fourteen Points were the basis for negotiation with
the other powers and for Wilson’s goal of incorporating the
establishment of the League in the Versailles settlements. He did not
worry about details which might cause difficulty, as he felt that these
could be ironed out later through the spirit of co-operation which the
League would create.
The United Kingdom
British aims fell into two categories. The first could be described as
limited and representing traditional British foreign policy:
● the elimination of the German fleet as a threat to Great Britain
and her empire
● the end of the German Empire as a potential source of conflict
● the defeat of German plans to establish control of Europe
● a return to normal European relations and trade that would
restore the British economy and act as a bulwark against
Bolshevism.
Self-determination The principle
that countries should be established
according to the wishes of the people
concerned.
League of Nations An international
organization created in 1919. It was
designed to provide a method of
resolving international tensions in a
peaceful manner through the concept of
collective security.
Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924)
A distinguished academic, Woodrow Wilson
became president of Princeton University in 1902.
He was subsequently elected governor of New
Jersey and then president of the United States in
1912. As president he oversaw the passage of
many significant pieces of reform legislation which
were in line with his progressive principles. He was
re-elected for the presidency in 1916 and led the United States into the
First World War. He drafted the Fourteen Points as a programme to end
the war and design a better post-war world. As the principal architect of
the Versailles settlements, he promoted the idea of the League of
Nations. He was awarded the Nobel Peace prize in 1919. His efforts to
involve the United States in the League of Nations failed to pass the US
Senate and Wilson suffered a stroke which prevented him from
contributing to further debate into post-war US policy.

21
In addition, the United Kingdom
did not wish to get involved in
any alliance or guarantee in
Europe on behalf of any specific
country. This was a traditional
British policy, valuing freedom of
action. British interest did not
favour French territorial
ambitions in Europe beyond the
recovery of Alsace-Lorraine
which might create a French
threat to the balance of power.
Great Britain and France had
been rivals for centuries and only
a common adversary had
brought them together. The UK
saw no need to support France in
an attempt to dominate or control Europe; British interest lay in
maintaining the balance of power and intervening only when this
was threatened.
The second set of British aims were non-traditional and involved
seeking a declaration of German war guilt and the requirement for
Germany to pay extensive reparations far beyond the mere physical
damage caused by the war. These goals were a response to popular
emotions which had built up during the war about Germany as an
aggressor and destroyer. They also reflect campaign promises made by
Lloyd George in the December 1918 election.
France
French aims must be understood in the light of fears about future
security against Germany. Germany had been growing more powerful
than France since the mid-19th century and the gap was getting wider
as Germany possessed a larger population and greater industrial
potential. France was convinced that it would not be able to defend
itself if Germany returned to its pre-war strength. France had suffered
over two million dead and wounded during the war. Northern France
had been a major battle zone and had suffered enormous devastation
of land, industry and housing. French goals were therefore to place as
many restrictions on Germany as possible in order to reduce her power
in the long term. The French sought to weaken Germany through
clauses in the treaties which would require:
● extensive disarmament
● territorial reduction
● heavy reparations to weaken the German economy.
The French premier Georges Clemenceau wanted a partial
dismemberment of Germany in order to remove any threat to France.
In addition to recovering Alsace-Lorraine, he had ambitions to
control Luxembourg and Belgium; he also wanted to make the area
west of the Rhine a French puppet state. This would be a buffer
against future German attacks. Finally, he wished to acquire the Saar
region in western Germany as financial compensation for German
Reparations Payments made by a
defeated country to the victorious
countries as compensation for
war damages and punishment for
aggression.
Georges Clemenceau (1841–1929)
Georges Clemenceau was premier of France at the
time of the Versailles peace negotiations. A strong
right-wing nationalist, he served as a cabinet
minister in the French government from 1902
until his appointment as premier in 1917. He
opposed any talk of a peace settlement short of
absolute victory and arrested politicians who wanted to
negotiate peace in 1917. At Versailles he insisted on a harsh treaty of
peace that would permanently cripple German power through territorial
losses and economic penalties. He was unsuccessful as he clashed with
Wilson and Lloyd-George, who wished to be more conciliatory. France did
recover Alsace-Lorraine but failed in her attempts to seriously weaken
Germany. Clemenceau’s failures led to his loss of the 1920 election, after
which he retired from politics.

22
destruction. Above all, France wanted to have a firm alliance with
the United Kingdom and the United States written into the peace
settlements as a guarantee against further German aggression. France
wanted concrete measures and was not interested in the vague
guarantees offered by the League of Nations.
Italy
Italy’s aims were simply to achieve the territorial gains that had been
promised in the Treaty of London. These included annexation of the
Dalmatian coast, Trieste and South Tyrol. These regions were not
necessarily populated by Italians but Italy had been promised them in
return for entry into the First World War and expected the deal to be
honoured. Broader concepts such as self-determination were not
looked on favourably if these interfered with Italy's own territorial or
economic goals. Italy was insistent on these aims and walked out of
the conference when its rights to these territories were denied.
Japan
Japan wanted recognition for its dominant position in China as well
as possession of the former German territories in China and the
Pacific. The Japanese were not in sympathy with self-determination
but wished to acquire a larger empire for reasons of security and
economic strength. Japan felt entitled to the former German
possessions as it had captured them and saw them as a reward for
contributing to the war effort. Another consideration was that Japan
wished to take its place among the major powers. Acquiring an
empire seemed to be a prerequisite to being respected as a major
power in the world. In addition, Japan sought recognition through a
statement recognizing racial equality in the peace settlements.
Source analysis
The following documents relate to the aims of the participants in the
Paris Peace Conference.
Source A
Woodrow Wilson had already revealed, in the Fourteen
Points, what he wanted to see emerge out of the war—a
Europe whose nationalities would rule themselves as open,
democratic societies. Before the end of the war he had
declared that the peace should show “no discrimination
between those to whom we wish to be just and those to
whom we do not wish to be just. It must be justice that
plays no favourites …” But any Germans who thought that
Wilson’s “justice” meant that they would be treated
generously were in for a shock. In the President’s eyes
Germany had been wicked, and “justice” demanded that
Germany be punished.
Source: Howarth, T. 1993. Twentieth Century World History: The
world since 1900. London, UK. Longman. p. 39.
Question
Woodrow Wilson had often spoken about “peace
without victory”. Is this reflected in the document?
What may have caused him to change his mind?
Source B
British aims
Great Britain: a satisfied power?
In contrast to France, Britain, even before the great powers
met in Paris, had already achieved many of its aims: the
German fleet had surrendered, German trade rivalry was no
longer a threat and Germany’s colonial empire was
liquidated, while the German armies in Western Europe had
been driven back into the Reich. Britain’s territorial
ambitions lay in the Middle East, not Europe. In January

23
1919 Lloyd George envisaged the preservation of a peaceful
united Germany as a barrier against Bolshevism. Above all
he wanted to avoid long-term British commitments on the
continent of Europe and prevent the annexations of German
minorities by the Poles or the French creating fresh areas of
bitterness, which would sow the seeds of a new war.
Inevitably, then, these objectives were fundamentally
opposed to the French policy of securing definite guarantees
against the German military revival either by negotiating a
long-term Anglo-American military alliance or by a partial
dismemberment of the German empire.
The logic of British policy pointed in the direction of a peace
of reconciliation rather than revenge, but in two key areas,
reparations and the question of German war guilt, Britain
adopted a more intransigent line. Lloyd George and
Clemenceau agreed in December 1918 that the Kaiser
should be tried by an international tribunal for war crimes.
Under pressure from the Dominions, who also wanted a
share of reparations, the British Delegation at Paris was
authorized to endeavour to secure from Germany the
greatest possible indemnity she can pay consistently with
the well being of the British Empire and the peace of the
world without involving an army of occupation in Germany
for its collection.
Source: Williamson, D. 2003. War and Peace: International
relations 1919–39. 2nd edn. Tunbridge Wells, UK. Hodder Murray.
p. 24.
Question
Why could British aims be seen as moderate?
Source C
French aims
Although the leaders of the three great Allied powers
believed Germany was to blame for the war, they
disagreed about what to do with her in defeat. The French
Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, and the French
people knew what they wanted to write into the treaty of
peace—revenge, compensation for all they had suffered,
and guarantees that a similar war would never happen
again. For four years they had believed that the only good
German was a dead German. Now they felt that the only
safe Germany would be a crippled Germany, stripped of
her wealth and most of her armed forces, and separated
from France either by the creation of a new state between
them or making sure that what remained of the German
army stayed well away from the French border. In the east,
a line of new states able to defend themselves would take
care of any future German ambitions in that direction.
p. 23.
Questions
1 Identify French aims at the Versailles Conference.
2 How are these to be accomplished?
Source D
Italian and Japanese aims
The aims of both Japan and Italy were concentrated on
maximizing their war-time gains. Vittorio Orlando, the
Italian Prime Minister, was anxious to convince the voters
that Italy had done well out of the war, and concentrated
initially on attempting to hold the Entente to their promises
made in the Treaty of London, as well as demanding the
port of Fiume in the Adriatic. Japan wanted recognition of
its territorial gains. The Japanese Government also pushed
hard, but ultimately unsuccessfully, to have a racial
equality clause included in the Covenant of the League of
Nations. It hoped that this would protect Japanese
immigrants in America.
Japan’s gains in the war
The war has presented Japan with opportunities to
increase its power in China and the Pacific region at a time
when the energies of the European Powers were absorbed
in Europe. The Japanese declared war on Germany on 23
August. The British had originally intended that the
Japanese navy should merely help with convoy duties in
the Pacific, but the Japanese refused to be relegated to a
minor role and, much to the alarm of Britain, Australia and
the USA, proceeded to seize German territory in the
Chinese province of Shantung as well as the German
Pacific islands. In January 1915 the Japanese pushed their
luck further and presented China with the Twenty-One
Demands, which not only included the recognition of the
Japanese claims to Shantung and southern Manchuria but
also proposed that the Chinese government should appoint
Japanese advisers. This last demand would have turned
China into a Japanese protectorate and was only dropped
after strong British and American objections. However, the
rest of the demands were accepted by China in May 1915.
p. 25.
Questions
1 Identify the aims of Japan and Italy.
2 Who would oppose these claims?

24
General issues for consideration
On top of their specific aims, all the powers represented at the
Versailles Conference were expected to deal with a number of general
questions.
The treatment of Germany
This included issues involving Germany's colonies, her borders,
disarmament, reparations and war guilt and the prosecution of
individuals for war crimes.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire
This had collapsed and a new political map was emerging in Eastern
and Central Europe. How should the boundaries of these states be
determined? How could provision be made for self-determination?
The Ottoman Empire
What to do with the Middle East? How would the territory be divided
up? How to resolve the conflict between Arabs and Jews?
Russia
How could the dangers posed by the spread of Bolshevism be
addressed and prevented?
Non-European states
Representatives from various non-European states—including
Vietnam, China and Japan—made representations for an end to
colonialism and/or recognition of racial equality. These were largely
ignored but the issues had to be addressed at some time in the
conference.
General ideas for change
The Fourteen Points had suggested that the Versailles Conference
should champion a higher level of conduct that applied not only to
international relations but also to politics, economics and social
issues. The sacrifices made during the war had led many individuals
to expect something better to emerge. Overall, it could be seen that
Woodrow Wilson presented aims of an idealistic, long-term nature.
These relied on the idea of human beings as being inherently
peaceful, rational individuals who would work towards a peaceful
world if given the opportunity.
This was in sharp contrast to the traditional attitudes of European
diplomacy, which stated that peace was an unlikely occurrence and
that one should always be prepared for the possibility of conflict.
Rather than vague new ideas like collective security and the
League of Nations, Europeans wanted specific alliances and
agreements that would address the real issues that would
undoubtedly arise in the future. This might be seen as a more cynical
or pragmatic view, based on historical experience.
Wilson and others, however, condemned the old diplomatic practices
as having been responsible for war and asked the world to strive for a
1 The aims of the European
powers and Woodrow
Wilson —as reflected in the
Fourteen Points—were in
sharp philosophical
contrast. What were the
most important differences
between them?
2 Add a column to the chart
created for the activity on
p. 19 and head it “Aims of
the European Powers”.
Identify the aims of the
major powers when they
arrived in Paris. Use the
chart to identify potential
points of friction or
conflict.
Activity:

25
new level of understanding and co-operation. Could humans
embrace more altruistic principles or would they continue to rely on
traditional power relationships and force? Should one trust the
goodwill of others or buy a secure set of locks?
German aims
Germany asked for an armistice in October 1918, based on the terms
of Wilson’s Fourteen Points and his speech of January 1917, the
theme of which was “peace without victory”. In this speech, Wilson
expressed the view that reconciliation of the opposing sides would be
necessary to prevent the outbreak of further wars.
Germany had not been defeated or invaded at the time that the
armistice was requested and therefore could have expected some
form of compromise peace under which neither side dominated.
Germany would have expected to attend the peace negotiations as
had happened at Vienna in 1815, following the Napoleonic wars.
While some form of sanctions or territorial concessions might be
expected, Germany would not have expected to be humiliated and
severely punished. Kaiser Wilhelm II had abdicated and Germany
had established a democratic republic. The Germans felt that this
would help them gain sympathy especially from Wilson, who
favoured democracy as a guarantee of peace.
How does the experience of
war affect a nation's
approach to the peace
process?
What did Germany hope
would be the outcome of the
peace settlement?
The terms of the Paris peace treaties, 1919–23
The terms of the Paris peace treaties are extensive and very detailed. The
most important of the treaties is the one with Germany, which contained
a number of controversial terms such as the war guilt clause, the
territorial changes and the disarmament clauses. The other treaties dealt
with the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires—breaking them up into
new states and territories. The Sèvres treaty, which dealt with the
Ottoman Empire, had its terms changed at Lausanne in 1923. It is
important to note this and the reasons why.
The terms of the Paris peace treaties are subject to enormous debate.
They are condemned as being either too harsh or too lenient, for
hypocrisy in making deals which violated Wilsonian principles, for being
naïve and unrealistic and for being the cause of the Second World War. A
sound knowledge of the most important terms is crucial if one is to be
able to participate effectively in the various controversies about the
individual terms or the nature and impact of the peace settlements as a
whole. Furthermore, comparing the terms to the aims of the participants
will also give some insight into how the treaties were received in both
the victorious and defeated countries.

The aims of the participants at the Paris Peace Conference.pdf

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The aims of the participants at the Paris Peace Conference.pdf