Marketing Assignment

1. Measuring Technological Progress
Sociologists, anthropologists, and other researchers have developed different ways to
measure and understand technological progress. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski, who testified that in
the evolution of civilization technological progress has been the driving and compelling force.
Leslie Alvin white (1900-1975) on other hand, has focused on the aspect of harnessing and
controlling of energy. Finally, Alvin Toffler (1928-2016) presented a concept of future shock.
Contrary with other thinker’s views, he emphasis on the fact that, “future shock is responsible for
modern day social problems.”
Sociologist Gerhard Lenski (1924–2015) believed that technological progress has been the
driving force in the evolution of civilization. According to Lenski, technological progress and
civilization are closely related. In fact, the key to human progress is information. The more we
know about harnessing and using natural resources, the more we can advance human society.
Lenski recognized four stages of communication, as follows:
 Stage 1 is the passing of genes from one generation to the next. We might call this
biological communication.
 Stage 2 is sentience, or the ability to feel, perceive, or experience objectively. As we
begin to develop awareness and understanding of the world around us, we adapt better to
the environment of Earth. We’re able to share our experience.

2.  In Stage 3, we become capable of logic. We apply observation and fact-based analysis to
the world. For example, if we see dark clouds in the sky, we recognize that rain is
probably on the way.
 In Stage 4, we master language, writing, and the ability to create symbols. This stage is
the foundation of civilization.
Lenski also proposed four levels of technological development, as follows:
 At the hunter-gatherer level, we physically work to reduce food insecurity.
 At the next level, we obtain part of the food supply from horticulture (growing plants).
 At the next level, we engage in organized agriculture. Food surplus allows complex
social orders to rise. We experience social class inequality and a complex division of
labor. We pursue technological advances in arts, crafts, architecture, and civil
engineering.
 Finally comes the Industrial Revolution. At this level, food-based economies are
replaced. We experience a new kind of social class inequality along with revolutionary
advances in the means of production.
Leslie White
Anthropologist Leslie Alvin White (1900–1975) focused on harnessing and controlling energy.
White believed that controlling energy is the primary purpose and function of any culture.
White identified five stages of human development, as follows:
 Stage 1: Energy comes from human muscle power.

3.  Stage 2: Humans harness the energy of domesticated animals. We raise and herd
livestock for food energy. We use other animals, especially the horse, as transport as well
as mounts for warriors and hunters.
 Stage 3: We engage in the agricultural revolution, which provides surplus food energy to
extend the value of Stage 2.
 Stage 4: Especially as expressed in the Industrial Revolution, we harness the power of
natural resources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
 Stage 5: We harness and rely on nuclear energy. (White was perhaps too optimistic about
our ability to harness nuclear energy, given its dangerous drawbacks.)
White developed a formula that remains useful:
P = E*T
In this formula, “E” is a measure of energy consumed. “T” is a measure of the efficiency of
technical factors that utilize this energy. “P” is what we get when calculate these two measures.
For example, when we compare early steam engines to steam-powered turbines, the efficiency of
turbines increases the value “P.” In White’s words, “culture evolves as the amount of energy
harnessed per capita per year is increased . . . or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of
putting the energy to work is increased.”
Alvin Toffler
Alvin Toffler (1928–2016) was a journalist, social critic, and futurist. Toffler stands out among
the thinkers associated with the postindustrial era. That’s because he was able to reach a large
audience.

4. The following quote gives an idea of Toffler’s view of our current era:
“To survive, to avert what we have termed future shock, the individual must become infinitely
more adaptable and capable than ever before. We must search out totally new ways to anchor
ourselves, for all the old roots—religion, nation, community, family, or profession—are now
shaking under the hurricane impact of the accelerative thrust. It is no longer resources that limit
decisions; it is the decision that makes the resources.”
Toffler is best known for the concept of future shock. He defined this as the personal perception
of “too much change in too short a period of time.” Toffler argued that human societies are
undergoing enormous social and technological structural change. We live in an unprecedented
era in which industrial society is changing to a “super-industrial” society. In Toffler’s view,
many find the speed of change overwhelming. Millions of people feel disconnected. We live
lives characterized by “shattering stress and disorientation.” In other words, we’re “future
shocked.”
According to Toffler, we’re drowning in information overload. (Toffler invented this term.) In
Toffler’s view, future shock is responsible for most modern-day social problems.
Toffler identified three stages in the development of society, as follows:
 Stage 1 is the agrarian stage. This stage began with the invention of agriculture during
the Neolithic period (New Stone Age). Toffler associated the agricultural revolution with
the move from “barbarity” to “civilization.”
 Stage 2 is the industrial stage. This stage began in England with the Industrial
Revolution. According to Toffler, important advances during this period included
machine tools and the steam engine.

5.  Stage 3 is the postindustrial stage. This started in the second half of the twentieth
century. Stage 3 is marked by the inventions of automated manufacturing, robotics, and
the computer. This stage is also associated with the growth of the service sector. During
this stage, the need for “brainwork” has increased, while the need for manual labor (such
as factory work) has decreased.