Conceptualising-the-reconstruction-of-the-last-glaciation-stadial-of-the-Holderness-East-Yorkshire-draft6

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SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHICAL AND EARTH SCIENCES
UNDERGRADUATE DISSERTATION
2022384
Conceptualising the reconstruction of the last glaciation stadial of
Holderness East Yorkshire
2015-16
University of Glasgow
School of Geographical and Earth Sciences

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Content
Figure list ................................................................................................................................ 6
Lithofacies coding.................................................................................................................... 8
Abstract...................................................................................................................................9
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Field area background........................................................................................ 10
1.2 Site...................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Field work site..................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Problemstatement.............................................................................................. 15
1.4.1 Aim........................................................................................................... 15
1.4.2 Data type and analysis ................................................................................ 15
1.4.3 Key terms.................................................................................................. 15
Chapter 2: Literature review.................................................................................................... 16
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 16
2.2 Palaeoglaciology of Holderness ........................................................................... 16
2.3 Glacial limits in Yorkshire and evidence of glacial activity................................. 17
2.4 Till units.............................................................................................................. 19
2.5 Sediments and dating.......................................................................................... 21
2.6 Ice flow direction................................................................................................. 23
Chapter 3: Hypothesis formation ............................................................................................. 26
3.1 Hypothesis 1........................................................................................................ 26
3.2 Hypothesis 2........................................................................................................ 27
3.3 Hypothesis 3........................................................................................................ 27
Chapter 4: Palaeo-depositional environments ........................................................................... 28
4.1 Overview............................................................................................................. 28
4.2 Regional stratigraphy.......................................................................................... 28

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4.3 Basement till....................................................................................................... 29
4.4 Skipsea till........................................................................................................... 30
4.5 Withernsea till..................................................................................................... 31
4.6 Sewerby Gravels ................................................................................................. 32
Chapter 5: Research methods .................................................................................................. 33
5.1 Overviewof field methods................................................................................... 33
5.2 Stratigraphic log ................................................................................................. 34
5.3 Clast analysis ...................................................................................................... 34
5.4 Fabric analysis .................................................................................................... 35
5.5 Data analysis methods......................................................................................... 36
5.6 Limitations.......................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 6: Results .................................................................................................................. 37
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 37
6.2 Stratigraphic logs................................................................................................ 40
6.2.1 Conclusion ofstratigraphic logs................................................................ 42
6.3 Rose diagrams..................................................................................................... 44
6.3.1 Conclusion of Rose Diagrams ................................................................... 45
6.4 Sneed and Folk classes ........................................................................................ 46
6.4.1 Sewerby.................................................................................................... 46
6.4.2 Barmston.................................................................................................. 48
6.4.3 Atwick...................................................................................................... 50
6.4.4 Withernsea............................................................................................... 52
6.4.5 Conclusion of Sneed and Folk classes ....................................................... 54
Chapter 7: Discussion............................................................................................................. 54
7.1 Ice flow................................................................................................................ 54
7.2 Sediments............................................................................................................ 55
7.3 Evidence ofstadial glaciation on the Holderness coast........................................ 56

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Chapter 8: Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 57
8.1 Future research................................................................................................... 58
References............................................................................................................................. 59

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Figure list
Figure 1.1 Location map
Figure 1.2 Chronostratigraphic column
Figure 1.3 Holderness geological composition map
Figure 1.4 Site map
Figure 2.1 DEM model 1
Figure 2.2 DEM model 2
Figure 2.3 Stratigraphical logs of Dimlington Cliffs
Figure 2.4 Ice movement
Figure 2.5 Hypothetical models of ice reconstruction
Figure 2.6 Striations
Figure 2.7 Rose diagram from Sewerby
Figure 4.1 Basement till
Figure 4.2 Skipsea till
Figure 4.3: Withernsea till
Figure 4.4 Sewerby Gravels
Figure 5.1 Field sketch of the Skipsea till
Figure 5.2 Clast analysis
Figure 5.3 Fabric analysis
Figure 6.1 Stratigraphic logs
Figure 6.2 Sewerby Cliffs figure
Figure 6.3 Barmston Cliffs
Figure 6.4 Rose diagrams

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Table 6.5 Dip table
Figure 6.5 Sewerby Sneed and Folk classes
a. Roundness
b. Sneed and Folk
c. C40
Figure 6.6 Barmston Sneed and Folk classes
a. Roundness
b. Sneed and Folk
c. C40
Figure 6.7 Atwick Sneed and Folk classes
a. Roundness
b. Sneed and Folk
c. C40
Figure 6.8 Withernsea Sneed and Folk classes
a. Roundness
b. Sneed and Folk
c. C40

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Lithofacies coding
Dcs(r): Massive or crudely bedded gravels
Dmm: Basement till/Skipsea till/Withernsea till
Dmm(s): Matrix supported massive
Fl: Laminated Sediments
Gm: Open Framework
Gm/Sm: Flat-lying sheets of sand and pebble gravels
K: Chalk
Sh: Scattered Pebbles in diffusely laminated sediments

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Conceptualising the reconstruction of the last glaciation stadial of
Holderness East Yorkshire
Abstract
A sedimentological, geomorphological and stratigraphical investigation to conceptualise
the ice flow directions of the last glacial maximum (Late Devensian) in Holderness, East
Yorkshire, England. A juxtaposed (multi-phase) model of glaciation was favoured as the
most probable means of ice delivery into Holderness and represent the most plausible
mechanism for the development of sedimentary-landform assemblages identified across
Holderness. The conceptualisation of ice flow within East Yorkshire focuses on three main
hypotheses, all of which explain the direction in which quaternary ice travelled and the
debris left behind by the glacier in its present day landform. Data for these hypotheses
comprises rose diagrams, sphericity diagrams and stratigraphic logs, which aid glacial
research by clarifying key elements such as ice dynamics within Yorkshire and address the
glacial phenomena of the Holderness glaciation.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Hannah Mathers and Derek Fabel for this research opportunity.
Additionally, I would like to thank DONG Energy’s geophysical department for providing
me with a proof of glacial erratics on the Dogger Bank and the surrounding areas.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Field area background
The interpretive elements of previous regional assessments of the glacial history in
Holderness have been limited by a lack of understanding of ice stream flows and dating of
sediments. Recent addresses to these shortcomings by Eyles et al. (1994) show some
potential benefits of approaching a paleoenvironmental reconstruction from a viewpoint
that draws on contemporary analogues to justify interpretations. Description of the
sediment facies and, to a lesser extent, geomorphological patterns make up the bulk of
glacial research in the Holderness during the initial investigation of the site’s glacial
history. However, an interpretation of glacial sediment/landform associations regarding the
processes responsible for their development has often been hampered by contrasting
theories of dating sediments. Glacial sediments were deposited on the bedrock of
Cretaceous chalk (Boylan, 1967).
1.2 Site
Holderness is located on the eastern coast of North East England. It is bordered by both
topographic and marine barriers. To the north, the limit of the field area is demarcated by
the topographic heights of the North York Moors (54o07’N). The western boundary is also
marked by the Moors (0o30W). The Humber Estuary provides the southern limit (53o43’N
to 53o38’N). In essence, Holderness is a ‘natural region of Pleistocene deposits’ (Catt and
Penny 1966). Indeed, the region has historically been known as “Holderness” with respects
to the limits of the glacial diamicton and alluvium (Sheppard, 1902). Van de Noort and
Davies (1993) distinguished Holderness as the area eastwards of the 10m contour line on
1:50,000 OS maps, which is also covered by sheets 101 (Scarborough), 107 (Kingston
upon Hull) and 113 (Grimsby) of the 1:50,000 British Geological Survey Landranger Map
second series.
Use of the name Holderness as a geographical area has been superceded by the larger
regional county appellation of “Yorkshire” Bird (2010) and more recently by “East Riding
of Yorkshire”. These alterations in terminology were instigated by a re-organisation of
local council boundaries. It’s important to emphasise at this point that East Riding of

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Yorkshire as a geographical space does not conform to any physical or geographical
parameters. Therefore, in keeping with the tradition of previous glacial research in this
region of England, the term Holderness is used for the duration of this dissertation.
Figure 1.1 Location map of North West Europe showing the study area marked by a red
box. ROSE, J. 2015. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association (PGA) Volume
126, Issue 1. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 126, 1-5.

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The chronological geological column below (Figure 1.2) indicates the time in which
Holderness was glaciated. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) spans from 116Ka to
11.5Ka and is also known as the Quaternary geological era. This period of glaciation
covered much of the northern and southern hemispheres down to 50o latitude and resulted
in the occurrence of glacial ice across much of the United Kingdom, including the
Holderness coast (Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004).
Figure 1.2 A chronostratigraphic column describing the various stages of the Quaternary
era, and clearly defines the LGM towards Marine isotope stage 2. ROSE, J. 2015.
Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association (PGA) Volume 126, Issue 1. Proceedings of
the Geologists' Association, 126, 1-5.
1.3 Field work site
Field work was conducted along the Holderness coast in the following four locations;
Sewerby (1), Barmston (2), Atwick (3) and Withernsea (4). These sites were chosen
specifically because of their outcrops of different facies within the cliff side. Sewerby
(54.0939oN, 0.1808oE) is located within the northern region of Holderness and was chosen
for its outcrop of chalk bedrock and its raised beach (Figure 1.3). In addition to the
outcrops of Skipsea till which also appears in Barmston and Atwick the raised chalk
bedrock, Sewerby is the only current location for the Basement till outcrop due to the
erosion of Holderness. Barmston (54.0152o N, 0.2253oE) is located south of Sewerby and

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was chosen for its glacial-tecotonisation. Atwick (53.9407oN, 0.1877oE) was chosen for
the convergence of the Skipsea till and the Withernsea till. Finally, Withernsea (53.7285oN,
0.0382oE) is the most southerly location of the sites and was chosen to analyse the
stratigraphically youngest Withernsea till. It is of particular interest as it contains unique
sedimentary structures such as the folding of sediments. All four of the sites have been
recorded in the admiralty chart (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.3 Simplified Holderness geology map illustrating the presence of glacial till and
the bedrock layer of chalk that is exposed at Sewerby and at the western flanks of the
coastline (Carson, 2013).
.

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Figure 1.4 Site map.
Sewerby
Barmston
Withernsea
Atwick

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1.4 Problem statement
1.4.1 Aim
The aim of this research is to conceptualise different delivery methods of ice into the
Holderness coast using a range of different scenarios to explain various complications with
ice delivery methods into East Yorkshire.
This research will determine:
 Whether or not sediments are a key method of conceptualising ice flow direction.
 Whether or not multiple methods of ice delivery converged on the Holderness coast.
1.4.2 Data type and analysis
Data will be expressed in various forms for each method used:
 DIP DIP directions were used and analysed by rose diagrams (Figure 6.4).
 Azimuth table (Table 6.5) was used to plot the rose diagrams (Figure 6.4) and also to
provide the orientation value for the diagrams.
Measurements of clasts A, B and C axes were used to gather data regarding sedimentary
features that relate to ice flow direction.
Data was compiled into Excel spreadsheet and various other computer based models.
1.4.3 Key terms
Throughout this dissertation I will refer to various units of sediment as facies or as till
units. This terminology is used interchangeably. Also, FIS will be used as an acronym for
the Scandinavian ice sheet.

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Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 Introduction
The key issue in this research is the degree to which sediments have left behind a record of
glacial ice flow. Few studies shed light on this issue and much of the existing data is
obsolete or based on hypothetical models alone, rather than including field-based data. For
this reason, I have been careful to scrutinize my hypothesis since the results that I have
collected may not be relative due to movments within the cliff faces.
2.2 Palaeoglaciologyof Holderness
Source regions for the glacial ice in Holderness, particularly during the Quaternary stadial,
include the southern uplands in southern Scotland, the Chevoit Hills in Northumberland
and the plateaux of the Lake District moving east via the Tees Valley and Stainmore Gap
in County Durham. A review of the last stadial ice source regions is presented by Catt
(1999). Due to the complex nature of the erratic in-situ content of the regional diamicton
and the lithology in the two late Devensian diamects of Holderness, a definitive
assessment of till provenance has yet to be provided. The original assessment by (Marr,
1900) that the Lake District, Teesdale, the Cheviot Hills, southern Scotland and
Scandinavia were source areas, is widely accepted.
A composite glacial structure to the former glaciers of Holderness was suggested initially
by Carruthers (1953) to account for the now redundant concept of the tripartite subglacial
tills. A summary of the Holderness stratigraphy is expanded on later in this dissertation.
Essentially, there are three different units of diamicton: Basement till, Skipsea till and the
stratigraphically youngest Withernsea till. The predominant lithology of the Withernsea till
indicates an origin from the Lake District and along the Stainmore Gap; the same source
region as the diamicton presented in the Vale of York (Carruthers, 1953). Ice from the
Lake District was thought to have coincided with the ice stream from the southern uplands,
Scotland and Northumberland (Carruthers, 1953). Scottish and Northumberland ice was
already present along the east coast and was responsible for the deposition of a more
extensive Skipsea till (Wilson 1948; Carruthers, 1953; Catt 1978; Catt, 1991; Benn and
Evans, 1998). Therefore, the northern ice sheet from Scotland and Northumberland was

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believed to be the dominant agent in supplying sediment to Holderness (Davies et al. 2009).
That said, several authors have commented on an overlap between two glacier lobes that
they believe accounts for the stratigraphic relationship of the Skipsea till, the Withernsea
till and associated interbedded sands and gravels.
A possible impact by Scandinavian ice is discussed both by Lamplugh and Cole (1891)
and by Madgett and Catt (1978). The coincidence between the British and Scandinavian
ice has wider implications regarding the development of the last glaciation. Boulton et al.
(1977) discussed the possibility of the BIIS (British and Irish Ice Sheet) deflecting ice
southwards along the east coast of England due to the coincidence wiith Scandinavian ice.
This deflection or alteration in either ice-sheets’ mass balance are factors that should be
considered if coincidence did occur. The impact of the ice during the LGM of Britain is
still debated in current literature, though the universal consensus over the last decade is
that the British and Scandinavian ice sheets did not coalesce in the North Sea during
18,000Ka. This further highlights that palaeo-ice sheet models favor and reject coincidence
of the BIIS (Catt, 1991; Watanabe et al. 1992; Funnell, 1995; Peacock and Merritt, 1997;
Carr, 1999; Sejrup et al. 2000; Carr et al. 2006).
2.3 Glaciallimits in Yorkshire and evidence of glacialactivity
Busfield et al. (2015) examined the flow of ice into North Yorkshire in a lobe fashion,
chiefly by considering the type of till units that have been deposited. Evans et al. (2005)
examined the extent to which ice that was flowing south from Scotland, and east through
the Vale of York, influenced the Holderness ice flow dynamics. They also analysed data
collected by The British and Irish ice survey (BRITICE) by converting it into various GIS
databases. The databases consist of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and chronological
glacier maps. DEMs such as the one in (Figure 2.1) illustrate the extent of the LGM within
Yorkshire. As well as indicating end moraines, which appear grey, the DEM also marks
the topographic heights of the North York Moors. The topographic heights and the end
moraines are significant as they show that ice has not breached into the higher moorland
above the Vale of York (Evans et al. 2005) (Figure 2.1). Clarke et al. (2008) introduced a
DEM of the Holderness coast that infers that ice within the second advancement of the
LGM was part of a juxtaposed single stemmed glacial flow. The validity of this inference

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is questioned by Catt (1987) in its use of chronostratigraphic and microstratigraphic
evidence to support the research.
Figure 2.1 A DEM of the Vale of York showing glacial and end moraines that are
highlighted in grey on the model. Ice has excavated through the softer lithologies that are
present in the Vale of York. Topographic heights mark the past glacial extent (Evans et al.
2005).
Figure 2.2 A DEM of the Holderness coast illustrating the topographic heights of the
surrounding landscape. It is clear to see that glaciation has excavated sediment leaving
exposed bedrock in the western part of the model (Clarke et al. 2008).

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In addition to Figure 2.2, there is also a range of eskers and end moraines within the Vale
of York, which provide evidence of previous glacial activities in Yorkshire. In
collaboration with the DEM, these features illustrate the topographical changes within the
Holderness coast. Both DEMs (Figures 2.1 & 2.2) indicate depressions in the land as a
result of the excavation of the chalk bedrock, which suggest a more extensive western ice
limit than supposed by Clark et al. (2012).
2.4 Till units
Busfield et al. (2015) suggested that the Pleistocene lithostratigraphy in Holderness can be
divided into three units based on a variety of lithological properties, including colour,
mineral composition, matrix : clast ratio, particle size and quantity of clasts. These units
are known as the Basement till, the Skipsea till and the Withernsea till. Each unit is
interbedded with laminated or stratified silts and sands. Furthermore, Busfield et al. (2015)
stated that the lowermost Basement till is underlain by cretaceous chalk bedrock. Each unit
is named after its exploration location. Rose (2015) stated that the Basement till is overlain
by the Dimlington silts, and in turn by both the Skipsea till and the Withernsea till. Catt
(2007) suggested that there are fundamental problems with dating and correlating the
remains of past glaciers in Yorkshire. These problems relate directly to changing forms
within the cliff facies.
Busfield et al. (2015) examined the glacial deposits and landforms along the east coast of
England, specifically the extent to which glacial sediment can shape the dynamics of the
North Sea Lobe (NSL). They further stated that there were multiple re-advances of glacial
activity within Yorkshire, which is evidenced by the volume of sediment. Catt (2007)
pointed out that there is considerable research to suggest that Holderness was part of a
multi-phase glaciations. This indicates that sediment was deposited by a single surge
however, in a two-tiered ice sheet. This suggests that a single ice sheet with multiple tiers
came inwards from the North Sea. Catt (2007) concluded that till was deposited by
multiple ice streams originating in Scotland and North East England. That said, Busfield et
al. (2015) inferred that ice was deposited in the North Sea Lobe, which came from the
North Sea, rather than crossing the Vale of York. They also explained that there were

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multiple phases of glaciation from the late Pleistocene onwards, which are evidenced
within the various till sections.
Recently published information from Evans et al. (2010) as to the structures of till units
show that the Holderness cliffs are comprised of five facies. First, a chalk-rich facies made
up of chalk rubble and a mixed matrix; second, a local quaternary-rich facies made up of
locally altered material; third, a mudstone-rich facies containing deformed sediments and
visible within the cliffs at Sewerby; fourth, a clay-rich facies comprising of locally altered
superficial sediment; and fifth, a lias facies, comprised of locally organic carbon
depositions that have been deformed (Duarte et al. 2010).
Figure 2.3 Stratigraphical logs of Dimlington Cliffs illustrating the divisions of glacial till
with lithological coding on the right of the stratigraphic logs that can be identified on page
8 (Eyles et al. 1994).
The stratigraphic logs (Figure 2.3) help to describe the succession of the different facies of
Holderness. Eyles et al. (1994) emphasised the succession of glacial tills when considering
the cyclicity of glaciation in Holderness. In addition to this, they analysed key
characteristics of each till unit while Catt and Penny (1966) described variations within
sediments. It is important to note, however, that due to the erosional nature of Holderness,
each sediment log differs in its mineralogy. After identifying the characteristics of
Withernsea till, Eyles et al. (1994) further suggested that there are multiple heavy mineral
assemblages in the fine sands and silts. These are thought to have been shale-rich

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assemblages that fractured during the glaciation of Holderness. In contrast, the Skipsea till
is a combination of massive and laminated silts with organic layers dividing each till unit
(Eyles et al. 1994). The facies that divides the Withernsea till and the Skipsea till is
comprised of gravels and sands. This unit also contains micropaleontological features that
allow the sediment to be isotopically dated to 18.000Ka (Eyles et al. 1994). In addition, the
section is also made up of fine symmetrical ripples suggesting paleo-tidal or paleo-fluvial
activity. Analyses of paleo-currents were, however, inconclusive (Catt and Penny, 1966).
By comparison, the Skipsea till provides evidence of glacio-tectonism sediments having
been incorporated into the silts of the overlying Skipsea till. This evidence supports the
research of Eyles and Catt (1994) in that sediment had been “reworked” as a consequence
of multiple stages of glaciation in Holderness.
2.5 Sediments and dating
Sediments on the Holderness coast can be dated through various geochronological
methods. Busfield et al. (2015) and Catt (2007) both explained that Pleistocene deposits
from East Yorkshire and adjacent areas have been studied intensively for the past 150
years. The dating of sediment, however, has undergone multiple challenges, one of which
is data unreliability mainly due to the mass movement and erosion of Holderness.
Catt (2007) noted that there are numerous fundamental problems with dating and
correlating the remains of past glaciers in Yorkshire. He also suggested that Pleistocene
sediment successions can be attributed to multiple stratigraphical features than can be used
to characterise deposition age. The pre-Pleistocene succession that is used to date
sediments from the succession before glaciation in North Yorkshire is ladened with many
series of glacial, fluvial, aeolian and marine beach deposits. These deposits indicate a
changing climate, thus leading to a correlation between a succession of sediments. That
said, Catt (2007) explained that the problem with sediment dating is due to problems
exhibited by poor exposure faces of fragile and soft unconsolidated sediments.
In addition to Catt (2007), Busfield et al. (2015) used quantitative lithological and
palynological analyses of successive till units to identify differences in the ages of
different till units. Busfield et al. (2015) adopted a range of different geochemical methods
investigating ages of facies. The most widely accepted methods of dating are Marine

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Isotope Stages (MIS) and radiocarbon dating. Shackleton et al. (2003) explained that
oxygen isotope records are obtained by the analysis of planktonic foraminifera. Records
are analysed by the core sampling, which can subsequently be divided into stages
numbered from the top down (Shackleton et al. 2003). Shackleton et al. (2003) also
explained that the δ18O record is dominated by changes in oxygen isotopes composition.
Therefore, the depletion or enriching of oxygen isotopes forms the basis for dividing
sections of glaciological time. In the wider context of Shackleton's MIS research, Catt
(2007) explained that sediment deposits from the Devensian stage can be divided into three
isotopic stages (MIS2-4), which further suggests glacial and interglacial cycles between
glacial advances as well as readvances in the East Yorkshire region . Catt (2007) noted that
the use of MIS has clearly defined the relationship between age of till sections and ice
flows. Furthermore, he stated that an ice stream originating in southeastern Scotland and
travelling down the east coast was probably overridden by ice from the Lake District. This,
Catt argues, resulted in a two-tiered ice stream that was pushed around the North York
Moors and distributed ice down through the Vale of York. Inevitably, ice from the Lake
District deflected ice from Scotland through the Tees mouth and into the North Sea, which
was subsequently deflected from an ice dome on the Dogger bank and into Holderness
(Catt, 2007).

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2.6 Ice flow direction
Figure 2.4 Four diagrams illustrating different variations in ice movement in the LGM; A:
the movement of Scandinavian ice westwards, while Scottish ice is pushed south. B:
describes the predominance of Scottish ice with an unsure ice dome within the middle of
the North Sea. C: illustrates the potential for ice on the Dogger Bank, which spread
through the North Sea. D: shows an ice body within the middle of the North Sea,
influencing ice from both Scandinavia and Scotland (Busfield et al. 2015).
(Figure 2.4) is a hypothetical model for ice flow within the North Sea Basin (NSB). The
model is divided into different scenarios and presents four different ice delivery theories
(Busfield et al. 2015). Scenario A consists of southwards ice deflection from the NSL
caused by the overspill of Scandinavian ice (FIS) (Busfield et al. 2015). Scenario B
describes a piedomont-style (regeneration of glaciation) of the NSL without the interaction

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of the FIS (Busfield et al. 2015). Scenario C illustrates that southern flow patterns of ice
within the NSB lead to the formation of an ice dome as the ice was driven by both the
British ice sheet and the FIS. This dome distributed ice across the NSB. Finally, scenario
D presents a dome of ice that existed within Dogger Bank (DB). This body of ice deflected
ice coming from the Strathmore gap by pushing it towards Holderness, but again
deflecting off the North York Moors and bypassing the Holderness coast (Busfield et al.
2015). In addition, large glacial erratics, surveyed by DONG Energy, show the evidence
for quaternary glaciation. Furthermore, Fish and Whiteman (2001) noted that the cause of
the southwards ice flow (scenario D) has been debated for the past several decades and that
the results are still ambiguous largely due to the paucity of offshore evidence to support
the flow direction. Busfield et al. (2015) explained that repeated ice flow patterns, such as
the ones presented in (Figure 2.4), indicate conclusively that flow pattern reconstruction
consisted of several different glacial events.
In addition to the theories set out by Busfield et al. (2015), Fish and Whiteman (2001)
explored multiple scenarios of ice flow directions throughout eastern England and southern
Holderness.
Figure 2.5 Ice flow direction within South Yorkshire and patterns of glaciation, where
possible ice flows from the north sea and the Pennines influenced ice within Holderness
(Fish and Whiteman, 2001).
(Figure 2.5) illustrates multiple hypothetical models of ice reconstruction in eastern
England. There are two main theories of how ice flowed from Scotland, the NSB and FIS
into Yorkshire and eastern England, as well as the ice dome theory that was suggested by
Busfield et al. (2015). The ice dome theory suggests that ice had been pushed from Dogger

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Bank in the middle of the NSB and deflected into Yorkshire and thus eastern England.
That said, Fish and Whiteman (2001) suggested that ice was first flowing from the
Pennines through the central belt of England and subsequently through the Holderness
coast, albeit in later stages of the LGM. Ice from the Pennines then converged with
Scottish ice from the north that had been influenced by DB. This suggests that ice was
formed in multiple stages, processes which induced multiple re-advances of glaciation into
the Holderness coast. By contrast, Boulton et al. (1977) contended that Pennines ice
terminated in the Vale of York, a theory which is evidenced by the end moraines situated
in Tadcaster and Wetherby in North Yorkshire. These results are present in research
conducted by Clark et al. (2012) concerning the limitations of Pennines ice in Yorkshire.
Figure 2.6 Striations on in-situ clasts within the cliff sides of Withernsea, Holderness.
In addition to numerical methods, the observation of striation marks on the surface of some
clasts can be used to show the presence of ice (Figure 2.6). Striation marks of individual
clasts are not, however, respective of ice movement because of concerns over in-situ
deposits.

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Figure 2.7 A rose diagram from Sewerby illustrating the movement of ice in a westerly
direction (Thomson, 2003).
Thomson’s (2003) rose diagram from his glaciological assessment of the till section at
Sewerby suggests that ice came from the east and travelled in an easterly direction (Figure
2.7). In addition to the rose diagram, Thomson also used microfabric analysis of sediments
to understand the glacio-tectonic features within each facies.
Chapter 3: Hypothesis formation
It is challenging to form a single hypothesis when there is so much uncertainty concerning
the dating of sediments and the true sources of ice flow into Holderness. Thus, the
hypotheses I have establised are based on the discontinuity of literature and results and are
designed to consider a broad range of scenarios of ice flows into the Holderness coast.
3.1 Hypothesis 1
Is the NSL the most feasible method of ice delivery into the Holderness coast?
Hypothesis 1 was designed to draw on Catt and Penny’s (1966) idea that ice flowed into
North Yorkshire from the North Sea. This flow was later to be named the theory of the
North Sea Ice Lobe. BRITICE established that ice streams had been influenced by a
possible ice dome that was situated on Dogger Bank. This larger ice body that was
influenced by the FIS subsection displaced Scottish ice stream direction within the NSB,
thus pushing ice into East Yorkshire in a south westerly direction.

27
3.2 Hypothesis 2
What does the stratigraphy of the Holderness coast indicate about the probability of
multiple stadials of glaciation in the Quaternary era?
Hypothesis 2 seeks to describe the relationship between sediments and ice flows. Catt
(2007) proposed a multi-phase stadial in East Yorkshire that consisted of periods of
glaciation and periods of deglaciation. In conjunction with Catt’s theory of ice evolution in
the region, Figure 2.6 suggests that a multi-phase ice stream was caused by stratified and
laminated silts and sand, which suggests thawing and paleo-fluvial activity. Also with
reference to Catt’s theory, Shackleton et al. (2003) found that MIS results correlated with
the till units of Holderness.
3.3 Hypothesis 3
Are sediments the key to understand the glacial geochronology of the Holderness coast?
Hypothesis 3 emphasises sediment dating as a key factor in determining the age of ice
flows in the region. For several decades, geochronology and chronostratigraphy on the
Holderness coast have been problematic due to increased weathering and erosion. Despite
these problems, Shackleton et al. (2003) and Eyles et al. (1994) have used MIS and
radiocarbon dating with some success to determine the age of sediments. Research such as
this is important since the dating of sediments has allowed units of till to be
chronologically ordered.

28
Chapter 4: Palaeo-depositionalenvironments
4.1 Overview
The Holderness coast has traditionally been divided into three different till structures
(Rose, 2015). Each structure differs in its lithological properties, which include colour,
particle size, distribution of clasts and mineralogical content (Rose, 2015). The subsequent
section of this research presents field observations of stratigraphy, sedimentology and
structural geology, as well as short geomorphic summaries, from a selection of coastal
areas across Holderness. A litho-facies description is followed by interpretation of every
site visited. Site summaries are based on both the sedimentary data collected at the sites
and the local geomorphology, where the latter is summarised in the section related to the
specific site. The ages of each till structure have been described by Rose (2015) and have
been dated by various geochronological methods used by Shackleton et al. (2003).
4.2 Regional stratigraphy
Sewerby gravels are located 1km north east of Bridlington. Comprehensive descriptions of
the stratigraphical and sedimentological features are given by Catt and Penny (1966). More
recent reviews of fauna assemblages and depositional interpretations by Catt (2001a) and
Evans (1985) provide concise reviews of Pleistocene glacial research at Sewerby Cliffs.
The debate concerning the stratigraphic relationship of the diamicton to the Sewerby
member has been ongoing for over ninety years. Catt and Penny’s (1966) sketches of
Sewerby cliff stratigraphy are based on original excavations undertaken by Reid (1885). In
addition, Lewis (1999) stated that according to biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic
events, the Sewerby Gravels contain oxygen isotope stages 5e deposits underlying late
defensive sediment cores across the Holderness. Chalk rubble is attributed to the late
Devensian age in the majority of the literature (e.g. Rose, 2015).

29
4.3 Basementtill
According to Catt and Digby (1988), Basement till is dark olive grey in colour when moist
and a lighter olive grey when dry, with blue-grey glauconitic shelly rafts of possible
Bridlington crag (Figure 4.1). Basement till also contains water wore clasts of flint, chalk,
and carboniferous limestone and igneous clasts that are indicative of Scottish and
Scandinavian origin. Coastal exposures indicate a rather homogeneous matrix consisting of
25-35% fine sand, 15-20%, cource sand, 25-50% clay with pebbles and 10%.ccounting for
cobbles.
Figure 4.1 Basement till illustrating individual clasts with mixed lithology which are
orientated in a south-west direction.

30
4.4 Skipsea till
The Skipsea till (Figure 4.2) is dark greyish in colour; it is matrix supported but
occasionally laminated and rich in garnet and hornblende. It also has a high chalk content
compared to the overlying Withernsea till. The individual clasts are poorly sorted. The
mean percentage of particle size characteristics is between 28-50% coarse sand, 20-30%
fine sand, 5-15% medium to coarse sand, 20-50% silt and 15-45% clay, with a carbonate
composite of 5-20%.
Figure 4.2 Skipsea till located at Atwick with mixed lithology and a poorly sorted matrix.

31
4.5 Withernsea till
Withernsea till (Figure 4.3) is dark brown to red; it is a matrix supported. Regarding
sedimentological composition, subtle laminations occasionally make the lower contract of
Withernsea till with Skipsea till, while weathering is visible in the upper 5m, a factor
which is attributed to Holocene soil development. Displayed particle size characteristics
for the Withernsea till is between 15-25% fine sand, 10-20% medium to coarse sand, 20-
50% silt and 10-40% clay, with a carbonate content. The prominence of shale, siltstone,
limestone and igneous rocks such as granite are indicative of Lake District and Pennies ice
passing through the Stainmore Gap and the Tees Valley before transgressing the east coast
ice sheet. Triassic mudstone stringers are more prominent than in Skipsea till with source
regions around the Tees mouth.
Figure 4.3 Poorly sorted Withernsea till illustrating the colour, size and sphricity of clasts.

32
4.6 SewerbyGravels
Sewerby (Figure 4.4) is located in the northernmost region of the Holderness coast. The
site was selected because it contains both a Skipsea till and a Basement till (it is in fact the
only location that shows a Basement till).
Figure 4.4 Sewerby Gravels viewed from the top of the Skipsea till, which is comprised of
fossil fragments of brachiopods and gastropods.
N

33
Chapter 5: Researchmethods
5.1 Overview of field methods
Research was conducted using the following three methods: stratigraphic logging (Figure
6.1), clast analysis (Figure 5.2) and fabric analysis (Figure 5.3). I wanted to understand
how different sediments along the Holderness coast differed as I looked at each till unit.
This differentiation could be identified by class size, colour or sphericity. Each site
location consisted of multiple facies, for instance, site one (Sewerby) consisted of a
predominant facies of chalk and another facies of the Basement till and the Skipsea till.
During the research, it was important that I obtained samples from an individual section
with sampling restrictions. This sampling system was designed to minimise bias of clast
selection. Clean facies were also required to ensure that weathering, mass movement,
surficial re-working and change in orientation or sphericity of clasts were minimised. To
ensure that clasts are in-situ material, adequate time was also allocated to search for the
cleanest facies for the analysis. Some lithologies were elevated to the extent that reaching
them would have been hazardous. This was overcome by walking along the beach and
analysing each facies as they outcropped. Fifty random clasts within each of the cliff sides
were systematically dug out.
Clast selection was undertaken at random to prevent bias and to ensure that each clast was
a different shape and size. Selection was done by removing clasts in a horizontal strip
along a facies. Erratics were removed from the cliff side by excavating them with a trowel
and geological hammer. Clast sizes ranged from 3cm to 24cm and were recorded in a field
diary that was maintained throughout the duration of the research. I drew detailed sketches
in my notebook of distinct facies (Figure 5.1), which revealed a wide range of different
lithologies. Samples were taken out of the rock face and a note of the clast lithology, shape
and size was taken. This process was important as it allowed me to determine
transportation methods for individual clasts, as well as encouraging me to gather a wider
range of data. Once clasts had been analysed within the cliff face, they were extracted to
enable me to collect an A, B and C axis, as well as data on their sphericity (Figure 6.5).
Each data set provided a basis on which I could establish results with as little bias as
possible.

34
5.2 Stratigraphic log
Stratigraphic logs recorded each till unit (Figure 6.1) and the transition stages between
each unit. The stratigraphic log also recorded changes in the local sedimentation and
encompassed local stratigraphic and sediment changes to each till unit. A paper log sheet
was used to record the data, which was later digitised and will appear within the results
section of this dissertation (Figure 6.1). I used the logs to understand how each unit
differed at different sites and then matched similar units within each site visited. A
measuring tape and contour map were used to calculate the height and thickness of each
facies.
Figure 5.1 Field sketch of the Skipsea till located at Atwick. The sketch illustrates the poor
sorting of the till, the sub-angular chalk clast and smaller fragments of chalk and limestone.
The sketch also depicts striation marks of the larger clast in the middle. These striation
marks were drawn and photographed as they provide information on the presence of
glacial activity.
5.3 Clastanalysis
Clast analysis (Figure 5.2) enabled me to explore the different variety of lithologies within
each till section. Each till section had a variety of lithologies ranging from igneous to
metamorphosed clasts. This diversity was recorded in my field notebook and will be
N

35
referred to later. In addition, clast analysis was also used to understand and record whether
a clast is in-situ or ex-situ. Once clasts had been measured to determine their in-situ
orientation, they were extracted from the cliff and graded. In-situ orientation was measured
using a compass-clinometer, which provided me with the direction in which the clasts
were pointing; this is known as the dip direction. Once I had recorded the dip direction,
clasts were sketched, measured and recorded (Table 6.5 ). It is important to note that clasts
had to be carefully selected based on their size due to the limited amount of time that I
could spend excavating clasts from the cliff, which was a strenuous task.
Figure 5.2 Clast analysis: measuring and grading of clasts based on size and shape.
5.4 Fabric analysis
Because each till unit is different, the sediment contained therein also differs. The fabric
analysis method (Figure 5.3) was used to establish unique geological features within till
units. These features were photographed and sketched and enabled me to evaluate the local
effects of glaciation within the stratigraphic column. Hydrochloric acid was used to
analyse lithologies of a carbonate composition. Water was used to moisten sediment
surrounding an individual clast. I then used a geological hammer and trowel to excavate
the clasts. Once the clasts were excavated and analysed, I used the remaining sediment
from around the clasts to calculate the fining of sediments. This was achieved by
submerging sections of till that were already excavated in water, which enabled me to
estimate particle size. The fabric analysis method could have been refined using more

36
sketches and photographs. Also, more time could have been spent analysing the micro
sedimentary structures within the sediment to understand local and micro deformations as
a result of glacial activity.
Figure 5.3 Fabric analysis method illustrating the process of recording sediment features
within a facies.
5.5 Data analysis methods
Data analysis was performed by multiple software packages, including ArcGIS 10.3,
which was used to create a site map. Microsoft Excel 2010 was used to collate data and to
plot roundness and sphericity diagrams, as well as a C40 plot (Figure 6.5). Stereonet was
used to infer bedding of glacial till sections, and the orientation in which they are
positioned. Inkscape 0.91 was used to manipulate and enhance images for use in this
dissertation. GeoRose was used to create symmetrical and asymmetrical rose diagrams
(Figure 6.4). Asymmetrical rose diagrams provide a mirror image and therefore only give
an impression of long axis orientation. They are constructed by entering long axis
orientation in the direction of dip. This means that if a clast’s long axis is orientated at
270o-90o (aligned west-east) with a dip of 90o it is entered on to the rose diagram as a 90o
orientation. In this way, rose diagrams can visually communicate not only the long axis
orientations but also the direction of dips. I also used SedLog 3.1 software which allowed
me to digitise the stratigraphic logs and to make them legible and presentable for this

37
dissertation (Figure 6.1). All of the software mentioned here has facilitated the analysis
and presentation of data for this research.
5.6 Limitations
My research was limited by the mass movement of material at all four sites; the cliff sides
of the Holderness coast are the fastest eroding sections of coast in the United Kingdom at
1-2m per year (Quinn et al. 2009). Erosion of this nature also makes it challenging to
locate a clean cliff face from which to extract suitable in-situ material. The weather was
also an issue as storm surges and heavy rain prevented research from being undertaken on
one day of the field campaign. Time was restricted due to there being only five hours
between high water and low water tides, which prevented longer research endeavours. The
issue of the weather could have been abated by forecasting severe conditions and planning
accordingly. Finally, due to the hazardous nature of the cliff edge, certain sections in
Sewerby and Withernsea made it difficult to collect stratigraphic information, but this was
resolved by following the natural orientation of the cliff further down the beach to a safer
location.
Chapter 6: Results
6.1 Introduction
Each site presents a different data set, including a stratigraphic log (Figure 6.1), a rose
diagram (Figure 6.4), a roundness graph and a sphericity graph (Figure 6.5). Results from
all of sites will be examined in a north to south sequence. Sewerby is the northernmost site
so will be considered first. The stratigraphic log from Sewerby (Figure 6.1) illustrates the
presence of a Basement till, which is an overlay with scattering chalk rubble. The
Basement till is dark in colour and is the shallowest unit of glacial till on the Holderness
coast (Figure 4.1). The unit is comprised of local fragments of rock such as carboniferous
limestone, flints and chalk, but also incorporates igneous clasts of exposure indicating that
the unit is a homogeneous matrix consisting of 15-20% fine sand, 25-35% silt, 20-50%
clay and 10% pebbles and cobbles. Chalk rubble is overlain by the Basement till, which

38
consists of large portions of chalk that have been fragmented (Figure 6.2). This is typically
poorly sorted and mineralogically immature. The poorly sorted nature of the chalk rubble
indicates the presence of glacial activity as the glacier has fractured the chalk bedrock and
amalgamated this into a layer of rubble. The chalk rubble is superimposed onto the
bedrock of chalk. The chalk unit also has noted fossils, such as gastropods, bivalves and
brachiopods. This is indicative of pre-glaciation, as fossil bedded chalk is indicative of
both warmer and intra-glacial periods.

39
Figure 6.1: Stratigraphic Log which gives a detailed analysis of each site’s lithological differences. Lithofacies codes are provided on page 8.

40
6.2 Stratigraphic logs
Each log (Figure 6.1) provides a detailed explication of how sediment was deposited on
the Holderness coast. Rather than examining each stratigraphic log individually, they have
been studied as a collective dataset to tease out similarities, which will help to determine
how glacial sediment was deposited.
The first deposit to consider is the Basement till, which is only observed in Sewerby record
due to extensive weathering and erosion elsewhere. While observing the chalk units at
Sewerby, it is clear that the chalk bedrock has been excavated by glacial activity. The
chalk unit is only visible at Sewerby and not along the remainder of the Holderness coast.
Finely laminated silts and sands are apparent throughout the entire coastline. The
intrabuilding of silts and sand between the Skipsea till (Figure 6.1) and the Withernsea till
(Figure 6.1) suggests a period of warming, which implies that the Skipsea till had been
deposited by the first phase of glaciation, followed by the Withernsea till, which may have
been deposited by a second phase of advancing glacial ice into East Yorkshire. Between
these two lithologies, there is a layer of stratified sands and silts that are <1cm thick and
contain glaciotectonic-deformed sediment. This suggests that lithologies had been altered
and deformed within the convergence of the advancing ice into East Yorkshire.
The laminations within the logs (Figure 6.1) also encompass darker organic material. The
majority of this laminated sediment is found within the Barmston stratigraphic log (Figure
6.1). Lamination of the Skipsea till is also present in Barmston and further suggests that
there has been a glacial re-advance. Glaciotectonic-deformed sediment is also present
within the Sewerby cliff section and shows folding of micro sediments such as smaller
fragments of folded quartz grains approximately 1mm in size. Furthermore, the Barmston
and Atwick stratigraphic logs (Figure 6.1) appear to have a significant deformation of
sediments. For example, the Barmston log (Figure 6.1) indicates the presence of cross-
bedded fine grain sediment, which has been interbedded with layers of Skipsea till. The
log from Atwick (Figure 6.1) indicates the orientation of flat-lying sheets of gravels and
sand, which also appear in the Barmston log. Some of the recognised local facies consist of
locally laminated till sections, which are indicative of fluvial processes. The cross-bedding
that is present within the Barmston log (Figure 6.1) is interbedded with a mudstone facies
and shows a sequential deformation that is either due to glacio-tectonic processes or fluvial

41
processes. Ripple features within the till sections cannot be assessed for a possible
palaeocurrent as they are are fragile and cannot be measured precisely in-situ.
In addition, the Basement till is only visible to the north of Holderness where it can be
seen underneath the bedrock of chalk. Its location suggests that it predates the cretaceous
chalk, a theory that is supported by the fossilised remains there, which indicate a period of
intra-glacial activity in the form of either a lagoon or beach. Fossils were also observed
within clasts that have been imprinted with brachiopods shells. The presence of
foraminifera, however, infers that an arctic-like environment was most probable, rather
than complete cooling. The considerable overlaps in silts and sands contain sediment that
has a plung/dip of 5o NNE. This indicates that sediment was deposited in a north-north-east
fashion as the ice was travelling in the south westerly direction. Considerable overlaps
between sediments are overlayed by Skipsea tills in Sewerby and Barmston, as well as the
overlaying of the Skipsea till by the Withernsea till towards the south of Holderness. In
addition to the stratigraphic logs, (Figures 6.2 & 6.3) illustrate the similarities and
discontinuity in the stratigraphic log between Sewerby and Barmston.
Figure 6.2 Sewerby Cliffs and the division of stratyigraphic sections according to interest.

42
Figure 6.3 Barmston Cliffs and the division of stratigraphic sections according to interest.
6.2.1 Conclusionof stratigraphic logs
The stratigraphic logs show that till beds have been layered on top of one another and have
been interbedded with gravels, silts and clays that have then been laminated (Figure 6.1).
These laminated sections occur throughout the stratigraphical logs and suggest a warmer
environment between the deposition of Skipsea till and the Withernsea till. The outcrop of
Basement till that underlaying the hidden chalk beach is indicative of an interglacial stadial
before the deposition of the other till units. What’s more, the microfauna within the
laminated sediments suggests the presence of marine muds, which are comprised of
microfossils of an arctic variety. The till section of Holderness suggests that there were
multiple readvances of ice, though it is probable that only a single flow of ice was
responsible for the direction of the ice, as clasts within the till layers, such as ones found
within the Barmston log, which plung north-east-east. The outcrop geometry of both the
Skipsea and Withernsea till units suggests that a sea till was made up of glacial sediment.
In conjunction with the sediment logs, (Figures 6.2 & 6.3) establish key surface processes
and landforms.

43
The Sewerby Cliffs are also known as a raised beach which is elevated higher than the
present beach and states that the beach has either been raised by geomorphic processes or
glacial processes. The Basement till appears later in the chrono-stratigraphical column,
thus illustrating that the Basement till is younger than the Skipsea till. The Basement till is
MIS 5a, whereas the chalk cliffs are from MIS 5 (Figure 1.2). Use of a stratigraphical log
(Figure 6.1) enables the basic reconstruction of a paleoenvironment from the dating of
sediments, which are extracted from the contents of each facies.

44
6.3 Rose diagrams
Sewerby Barmston
Atwick Withernsea
Figure 6.4
Each rose diagram shown above in (Figure 6.4) was drawn from the bottom facies at site
(Sewerby= Skipsea till, Barmston= Skipsea till, Atwick= Skipsea till and Withernsea=
Withernsea till). Each diagram depicts the orientation of fifty clasts within the similar
facies. The orientation of the clasts provides information as to the direction in which
sediment has been deposited. Clasts are orientated in a sequential fashion in terms of when
they were deposited. As the clasts within each site are orientated towards the North Sea,
this suggests that ice was moving in a westerly direction. For example, the rose diagram
from Sewerby shows that clasts were orientated and dipping towards the south east, which
indicates that ice was travelling towards the north west. Whereas clasts from Barmston,

45
Atwick and Withernsea were dipping towards the north east, which indicates that ice was
moving in a south-west-west direction.
Sewerby Barmston Atwick Withernsea
Median Dip 20 28 20 22
Median
Azimuth
120 80 90 80
Table 6.5 Dip table
Table 6.5 shows the median dip values of clasts from each site. This ranges from 20o-28o.
In addition to the orientation of clasts, the dip values of the clasts are also important as
they indicate the sequential and systematic pattern of deposition. The moderate to high dip
values suggest that the clasts were deposited as a part of a glacial marine environment and
inferred the presence of a tripartite subglacial or lodgment till that has been deposited
under the glacier. A moderate to weak azimuth also indicates the presence of a glacial
marine environment. By collaborating this data it is plausible to suggest the existence of a
glacial-fluvial environment.
6.3.1 Conclusionof Rose Diagrams
The computer generated asymmetrical rose diagrams suggest that ice was moving from the
North Sea in a landward direction (SW-W). The clast azimuth and dip angles suggest a
glacial-fluvial environment. This is supported by the results from the stratigraphical logs,
which show glacial beach/fluvial sands and silts in between and incorporated into till units.

46
6.4 Sneedand Folk classes
6.4.1 Sewerby
The clasts at Sewerby have a mean roundness of 4.75. This indicates that the sediment was
formed as part of a glacial-fluvial environment. This data is evidenced by (Figure 6.5) in
the roundness percentage graph (Figure 6.5.a1), which shows that 66% of the clasts were
well rounded and 24% were rounded. The peculiar roundness of clasts indicates that
sediment was transported by a fluvial source. In addition to this, the C40 index (Figure
6.5.c1) of 48.2% and the mean sphericity 0.63 suggest the presence of a glacial-fluvial
environment. Both the C40 and the mean sphericity are shown in the Ternary diagrams.

47
a1: indicatingthe variationin clastroundness. b1: SneedandFolk clast variation.
c1: C40 diagram showing the differences in axes of clasts.
Figure 6.5

48
6.4.2 Barmston
In addition to the Sewerby data, the results from Barmston (Figure 6.6) reveal a slight
change in environment from a glacial-fluvial environment to a glacialmarine environment.
This change can be inferred from the roundness of clasts, which is 42% well rounded and
34% subrounded (Figure 6.6.a1). These results indicate reduced transportation of
sediments, thus leading to a higher proportion of sub-rounded rather than predominantly
well-rounded clasts in relation to other sites. In conjunction with this, the C40 index
(Figure 6.6.c1) is 46.7% and the mean sphericity is 0.64 which indicates the clasts were
deposited in a fluvial environment as the sphericity of the clasts is well rounded. Whereas,
the C40 suggest that a lodgement till or tripartite subglacial is more probable than a beach
deposit. This discontinuity maybe due to geomorphic changes within the cliff faces.

49
Figure 6.6
Count Percent
Well Rounded 21 42
Rounded 10 20
Sub Rounded 17 34
Sub Angular 2 4
Angular 0 0
Total 50 100
Roundness percentages
0
10
20
30
40
50
Well
Rounded
Rounded Sub
Rounded
Sub
Angular
Angular
Numberofclasts(#)
Roundnessof clasts
Clasts
Count Percent
Platy 11 22
Bladed 10 20
Compact-Bladed 8 16
Compact 6 12
Very-Bladed 6 12
Compact-Platy 4 8
Elongate 2 4
Very-Platy 2 4
Compact-Elongate 1 2
Very-Elongate 0 0
Total 50 100
Sneed & Folk classes
0
10
20
30
40
50
Numberofclasts(#)
Sneed & Folk
Clasts

50
6.4.3 Atwick
The results from Atwick indicate a similar environment to Barmston in that the
environment is interchangeable and cannot be conclusively separated from a glacial beach
or glacial river. 40% of the clasts at Atwick are classed as rounded (Figure 6.7.a1),
suggesting that clasts have shifted from well-rounded to rounded, which indicates that
clasts have been transported less. Sphericity is virtually the same at Atwick as at Barmston
since the mean sphericity is 0.63 and the C40 index (Figure 6.7.c1) is 46.5%. Both the
sphericity index and the C40 results (Figure 6.7) are comparable to that of a beach/fluvial-
glacial environment.

51
Figure 6.7
Count Percent
Platy 9 18
Bladed 9 18
Elongate 7 14
Compact-Bladed 6 12
Compact 5 10
Very-Bladed 4 8
Compact-Platy 3 6
Very-Platy 3 6
Very-Elongate 0 0
Total 50 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
Numberofclasts(#)
Sneed & Folk
Clasts
Count Percent
Well Rounded 17 34
Rounded 20 40
Sub Rounded 10 20
Sub Angular 3 6
Angular 0 0
Total 50 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
Well
Rounded
Rounded Sub
Rounded
Sub
Angular
Angular
Numberofclasts(#)
Roundnessof clasts
Clasts

52
6.4.4 Withernsea
The results from Withernsea were extracted from the Withernsea till (Figure 6.8). The
results show that 44% of the clasts are well rounded (Figure 6.8.a1), which is comparable
to the Barmston clasts where 42% were well-rounded. The C40 index (Figure 6.8.c1) of 49%
and sphericity result of 0.62 are comparable to those of Barmston and Atwick. That said,
both the C40 index and sphericity of Sewerby infer a glacial beach, whereas Barmston,
Atwick and Withernsea infer aglacial fluvial/beach environment, which explains the
similarity in data sets.

53
Figure 6.8
Count Percent
Well Rounded 22 44
Rounded 20 40
Sub Rounded 8 16
Sub Angular 0 0
Angular 0 0
Total 50 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
Well
Rounded
Rounded Sub
Rounded
Sub
Angular
Angular
NumberofClasts(#)
Roundnessof clasts
Clasts
Count Percent
Bladed 12 24
Platy 8 16
Elongate 8 16
Very-Bladed 8 16
Compact-Bladed 5 10
Very-Platy 4 8
Compact 1 2
Compact-Platy 1 2
Very-Elongate 0 0
Total 50 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
Bladed
Platy
Elongate
Very-Bladed
Compact-…
Very-Platy
Compact-…
Compact
Compact-Platy
Very-Elongate
Numberofclasts(#)
Sneed & Folk
Clasts

54
6.4.5 Conclusionof Sneedand Folk classes
The roundness graphs, as well as the Sneed and Folk graphs and the ternary diagrams from
Sewerby all suggest a beach environment. Barmston, Atwick and Withernsea suggest a
beach glacial fluvial environment. The results from the roundness graphs and the Sneed
and Folk graphs (Figure 6.5) can be compared with the stratigraphic logs (Figure 6.1), all
of which suggest a beach/fluvial or subglacial environment. Therefore the attempts to
environmentally discriminate are conclusive of the fact that the results of the research
suggest a glacial-fluvial/beach environment and the deposition of a tripartite subglacial till.
The deposition of a tripartite subglacial till provides evidence to suggest that it may have
been formed within the re-advancing of the glacial ice into Holderness, by the presence of
gravels between facies.
Chapter 7: Discussion
7.1 Ice flow
Busfield et al. (2015) introduced the theory of a NSL through their findings on glacial
erratics in the North Sea Basin. These erratics enabled Busfield et al. (2015) to infer the
presence of ice within the North Sea Basin. In conjunction with this theory, Thomson
(2003) used rose diagrams to explain the movement of ice through the Holderness coast
(Figure 2.7). The rose diagrams in (Figure 6.4) support the theories of Busfield et al. (2015)
and Thomson (2003) in that they show the direction of ice flow as south-southwest, which
explains how ice moved into Holderness by travelling in a similar direction.
In addition to the rose diagrams in (Figure 6.4), Thomson (2003) provides rose diagrams
from clasts from the Holderness coast. While Thomson (2003) sampled more extensively
within Holderness, the general directions shown in the diagrams are equivalent to those in
Figure 6.4 and suggest that ice was flowing west-southwest. Ice flow directions in
Yorkshire occurred in the form of the NSL, as ice was deflected by a possible ice dome
which was situated on the Dogger Bank. In addition to Thomson’s (2003) rose
diagrams(Figure 2.7), Fish and Whiteman’s (2001) hypothetical model of two different
scenarios indicates a degree of uncertainty about ice flow directions (Figure 2.5). Busfield
et al. (2015) and Fish et al. (2001) suggests that Holderness was re-glaciated at multiple

55
stages within the LGM. This is also inferred from the results of the stratigraphical logs
(Figure 6.1).
Multiple theories of ice delivery have been propounded over the past several decades,
though a single ice delivery method seems the most probable, due to the evidence gathered
from the analysed results of the rose diagrams, which show a west-southwest movement of
ice. This leads to the validation of hypothesis 1, namely that ice has moved through
Yorkshire in a single ice-stream throughout the LGM.
7.2 Sediments
The distribution of sediments within Holderness provided by Eyles et al. (1994) can be
compared to the results found in (Figure 6.1). Both stratigraphic logs infer the presence of
three different till units (Withernsea, Skipsea and Basement).
According to the stratigraphic log (Figure 6.1) of Holderness produced in this report, and
the data obtained from Eyles et al. (1994), it can be observed that layers of till are divided
into stratified layers of silts and sand. This stratification of sediments indicates a warmer
environment between the deposition of both the Skipsea till unit and the Withernsea unit.
Gravel on top of each of the stratigraphic logs, as shown in (Figure 6.1), indicates both
fluvial and beach environments, a theory that is supported by the presence of fine sand (1-
3mm) and unsorted shells, which also suggests a thawing of the entire Holderness coast.
The dip and azimuth data evidence the glacial-marine or beach environment of deposition,
which is confirmed by both Busfield et al. (2015) and Duarte et al. (2010). That said, the
presence of arctic-like foraminifera, which was mentioned earlier in the literature review,
suggests a dry and polar like environment. Such environment is indicative of a tripartite
subglacial till that was formed within the re-advancing of glacial ice into Holderness.
The results from the rose diagrams, and from the Sneed and Folk diagrams (Figure 6.5),
suggest a glacial-fluvial environment of deposition. This is supported by the results of the
roundness tests from each site, which show the movement of sediments and the resulting
rounding of sediments within the till. Sediments from the Holderness coast are the defining
element in delivering the key elements of Holderness glaciation in the LGM, and enable

56
the conceptualisation of Holderness glaciation. In addition to this, sediment is believed to
be the most accurate way to define events that occurred 20,000Ka ago (Eyles et al. 1994).
7.3 Evidence of stadialglaciationon the Holderness coast
The Holderness coast has been subject to various forms of glaciation over the course of its
formation, including the deposition of the Basement till before Quaternary glaciation and
the possible convergence of ice from various ice streams.
Stratigraphical logs shown in Figures 2.3 and 6.1 suggest that rather than a convergence of
ice on the Holderness coast, a two stadial glaciation was more likely to have occurred. The
stratigraphical logs indicate a period of warming in the form of gravels that have been
deposited between both the Skipsea till section and the Withernsea till. The presence of
gravels suggests that a change in the environment has occurred and explains the presence
of fluvial material between glacial tills. In addition to the stratigraphic logs, Figures 2.1
and 2.2 (DEMs) suggest that ice flowed in two streams through Yorkshire and converged
lower down in the United Kingdom, but not on the Holderness coast. This is confirmed by
the lack of glacial sediment on the topographic heights of the Holderness coast.
Finally, cross ripples within sediments at Barmston suggest that ice flowed from the
northeast in a south-west direction.That said, the gap in the stratigraphic log between the
Skipsea till and the Withernsea till indicates a warmer arctic-like environment that was
free of ice, which can be explained by the organic layer between the two facies since fauna
is likely to have decayed before the Withernsea till was deposited. This data suggests that
the Holderness coast was glaciated on multiple occasions within the quaternary era, and
further suggests that the succession of each facies is correct.

57
Chapter 8: Conclusion
Data from the Holderness coast provides a unique insight into paleoglaciology and forms
the basis for reconstructing glacial phenomena from the LGM in the British Isles. The data
that has been presented in this dissertation is useful for paleoclimatic reconstructions of
Holderness from the late Devensian era. In addition, glaciological features that are
evidenced within the Holderness coast can be used to explain complex glacio-tectonic
activity dating back thousands of years ago.
Elements of previous regional assessments of glacial history in Holderness have been
limited or hindered by incomplete chronology and regional phenomena such as the Dogger
Bank’s ice dome theory. This study researched the various reasons that can be applied to
conceptualising the last glacial stadial of the Holderness coast by examining multiple
theories of ice delivery. These theories have stemmed from the larger issue of ice in the
North Sea. Research of Dogger Bank will need to be conclusive before a deeper
understanding of ice dynamics within Yorkshire is achieved.
Ice flow within the Holderness coast has been the key issue examined in this dissertation.
In evaluation of hypothesis 1 and the evidence gathered, I conclude that ice flowed into the
Holderness coast in a lobe like fashion. This is shown clearly by the evidence of clast
orientation provided by the rose diagrams (Figure 6.4).
The sediments of the Holderness coast provide evidence that the region was glaciated
multiple times within the Quaternary, but they also emphasise the geochronology of each
facies by evidencing age differences between each till sections.
The presence of gravel layers between glacial till, as shown in the stratigraphic logs,
provides evidence that supports double stadial glaciation within the LGM, rather than a
single stadial. In conclusion, ice flowed through the Holderness coast in a lobe like fashion
in a west-southwest direction. Based on the deposition of the Skipsea till, and on the
Withernsea till orientation, this flow occurred twice within the Quaternary era.

58
8.1 Future research
Further studies in this field might explore ice directions from Dogger Bank to determine
the relation between the British and Irish ice sheet and the Scandinavian ice sheet.
Sampling from both BRITICE and DONG Energy has discovered the presence of glacial
erratics, suggesting the presence of ice either from an ice stream or from IRD (Ice Rafted
Detritus). The particular size of these erratics, however, has been proven to be too large to
be carried by IRDs. As well as ruling out IRDs, the sampling suggests the presence of an
ice dome. At the time of writing, a study of flow direction on Dogger Bank has yet to be
carried out. Future research into the paleo-flows of ice in the North Sea should consider
whether or not ice was flowing from Scotland and Scandinavia and then converging with
an ice dome in the middle of the North Sea. Catt (2007) stated that a “well-attested” ice
stream from southeastern Scotland moved in a southerly direction. Catt (2007) theory has
yet to be clarified as evidence form Dogger Bank erratics will confirm ice flow direction
within the North Sea. This data will also be useful to understand the effects of continental
ice sheets such as BRITICE and FIS have on regional glaciation.

59
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