The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement led by thinkers in London and Paris who sought to use reason to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny. They targeted the Catholic Church and hereditary aristocracy, using logic and observation to argue for ideas like heliocentrism. However, the Church opposed changes that challenged its authority, leading to repression of new ideas. Over time, individualism, freedom, and change replaced traditional values, fueling resistance to absolutism and demands for political reform.

1. The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment
1818thth
Century IntellectualCentury Intellectual
MovementMovement

2. Intellectual MovementIntellectual Movement
 During the 18thDuring the 18th
century, certaincentury, certain
thinkers and writers,thinkers and writers,
primarily in Londonprimarily in London
and Paris,and Paris,
consideredconsidered
themselvesthemselves
enlightened and setenlightened and set
out to enlighten theirout to enlighten their
compatriots.compatriots.
Voltaire
Locke Diderot
Rousseau

3. Enlightenment ThinkersEnlightenment Thinkers
 These thinkersThese thinkers
believed thatbelieved that
human reasonhuman reason
could be used tocould be used to
combat ignorance,combat ignorance,
superstition, andsuperstition, and
tyranny and to buildtyranny and to build
a better world.a better world.

4. Enlightenment TargetsEnlightenment Targets
 Their principal targetsTheir principal targets
were religion (mostwere religion (most
notably the Catholicnotably the Catholic
Church in France)Church in France)
and the domination ofand the domination of
society by asociety by a
hereditaryhereditary
aristocracy.aristocracy.

5. Background in AntiquityBackground in Antiquity
 The application ofThe application of
Aristotelian logic byAristotelian logic by
Thomas Aquinas inThomas Aquinas in
the 13th century setthe 13th century set
the stage for thethe stage for the
Enlightenment.Enlightenment.

6. Used Logic to DefendUsed Logic to Defend
DogmaDogma
 Aristotle’s logicalAristotle’s logical
procedures were usedprocedures were used
to defend the dogmasto defend the dogmas
of Christianity.of Christianity.
 However, the tools ofHowever, the tools of
logic could not belogic could not be
confined to Churchconfined to Church
matters.matters.

7. The RenaissanceThe Renaissance
HumanistsHumanists
 In the 14th and 15thIn the 14th and 15th
centuries, "humanists“centuries, "humanists“
celebrated the humancelebrated the human
species and itsspecies and its
capacities.capacities.
 They argued they wereThey argued they were
worshipping God moreworshipping God more
appropriately than theappropriately than the
priests and monks whopriests and monks who
harped on original sinharped on original sin
and asked people toand asked people to
humble themselves.humble themselves.

8. Focused on Man’sFocused on Man’s
CreativityCreativity
 Some of them claimedSome of them claimed
that humans were likethat humans were like
God, created not onlyGod, created not only
in his image, but within his image, but with
a share of his creativea share of his creative
power. The painter,power. The painter,
the architect, thethe architect, the
musician, and themusician, and the
scholar, by exercisingscholar, by exercising
their intellectualtheir intellectual
powers, were fulfillingpowers, were fulfilling
divine purposes.divine purposes.

9. Challenged ChurchChallenged Church
AuthorityAuthority
 In the 16th century,In the 16th century,
various humanists hadvarious humanists had
begun to ask dangerousbegun to ask dangerous
questions.questions.
 François Rabelais, aFrançois Rabelais, a
French monk andFrench monk and
physician influenced byphysician influenced by
Protestantism,Protestantism,
challenged the Church'schallenged the Church's
authority,authority, ridiculingridiculing
many religious doctrinesmany religious doctrines
as absurd.as absurd.

10. The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution
 In 1632, GalileoIn 1632, Galileo
Galilei used logic,Galilei used logic,
reinforced withreinforced with
observation, toobservation, to
argue forargue for
Copernicus’ ideaCopernicus’ idea
that the earththat the earth
rotates on its axisrotates on its axis
around the sun.around the sun.

11. Church OppositionChurch Opposition
 The Church objectedThe Church objected
that the Bible clearlythat the Bible clearly
stated that the sunstated that the sun
moved through themoved through the
sky and denouncedsky and denounced
Galileo's teachings,Galileo's teachings,
forcing him to recantforcing him to recant
what he had writtenwhat he had written
and preventing himand preventing him
from teaching further.from teaching further.

12. The Advance of ScienceThe Advance of Science
 However, theHowever, the
Church could notChurch could not
prevent theprevent the
advance of scienceadvance of science
– although most of– although most of
those advancesthose advances
would take place inwould take place in
Protestant northernProtestant northern
Europe out of theEurope out of the
reach of the popereach of the pope
and his Inquisition.and his Inquisition.

13. Anti-DogmatismAnti-Dogmatism
 Michel de MontaigneMichel de Montaigne
asked a singleasked a single
question over andquestion over and
over again in hisover again in his
Essays:Essays: "What do I"What do I
know?"know?"
 He realized that weHe realized that we
have no right tohave no right to
impose on othersimpose on others
dogmas which rest ondogmas which rest on
cultural habit rathercultural habit rather
than absolute truth.than absolute truth.

14. Moral RelativismMoral Relativism
 Influenced by non-Influenced by non-
Christian cultures inChristian cultures in
places as far off asplaces as far off as
Brazil, MontaigneBrazil, Montaigne
argued that moralsargued that morals
may be to somemay be to some
degree relative.degree relative.

15. Cannibalism v.Cannibalism v.
PersecutionPersecution
 Who are Europeans toWho are Europeans to
insist that Brazilianinsist that Brazilian
cannibals, who merelycannibals, who merely
consume dead humanconsume dead human
flesh instead of wastingflesh instead of wasting
it, are morally inferior toit, are morally inferior to
Europeans whoEuropeans who
persecute and oppresspersecute and oppress
those of whom theythose of whom they
disapprove?disapprove?

16. SkepticismSkepticism
 René Descartes, inRené Descartes, in
the 17th century,the 17th century,
attempted to useattempted to use
reason to shore up hisreason to shore up his
faith.faith.
 He tried to begin withHe tried to begin with
a blank slate, with thea blank slate, with the
bare minimum ofbare minimum of
knowledge: theknowledge: the
knowledge of his ownknowledge of his own
existence – "I think,existence – "I think,
therefore I am."therefore I am."

17. RepressionRepression
 The 17th centuryThe 17th century
was torn by witch-was torn by witch-
hunts,hunts,
wars of religion,wars of religion,
and imperialand imperial
conquest.conquest.

18. Religious IntoleranceReligious Intolerance
 Protestants andProtestants and
CatholicsCatholics
denounced eachdenounced each
other as followersother as followers
of Satan andof Satan and
people could bepeople could be
imprisoned forimprisoned for
attending the wrongattending the wrong
church or for notchurch or for not
attending any.attending any.

19. CensorshipCensorship
 All publications,All publications,
whether pamphletswhether pamphlets
or scholarlyor scholarly
volumes, werevolumes, were
subject to priorsubject to prior
censorship by bothcensorship by both
church and state.church and state.

20. SlaverySlavery
 Slavery was widelySlavery was widely
practiced, especiallypracticed, especially
in the colonialin the colonial
plantations of theplantations of the
WesternWestern
Hemisphere, and itsHemisphere, and its
cruelties frequentlycruelties frequently
defended by leadingdefended by leading
religious figures..religious figures..

21. DespotismDespotism
 The despotismThe despotism
[absolutism] of monarchs[absolutism] of monarchs
exercising far greaterexercising far greater
powers than any medievalpowers than any medieval
king was supported by theking was supported by the
doctrine of the "divine rightdoctrine of the "divine right
of kings," and scriptureof kings," and scripture
quoted to show thatquoted to show that
revolution was detested byrevolution was detested by
God.God.

22. Economic ChangeEconomic Change
 During the lateDuring the late
Middle Ages,Middle Ages,
peasantspeasants
had begun to movehad begun to move
from rural estatesfrom rural estates
to the towns into the towns in
search of increasedsearch of increased
freedom andfreedom and
prosperity.prosperity.

23. Political ChangePolitical Change
 As trade and communicationAs trade and communication
improved during theimproved during the
Renaissance, the ordinaryRenaissance, the ordinary
town-dweller began totown-dweller began to
realize that things need notrealize that things need not
always go on as they had foralways go on as they had for
centuries. People could writecenturies. People could write
new charters, form newnew charters, form new
governments, pass newgovernments, pass new
laws, begin new businesses.laws, begin new businesses.

24. Social ChangeSocial Change
 A new class ofA new class of
merchants broughtmerchants brought
back wealth fromback wealth from
Asia and theAsia and the
Americas, partiallyAmericas, partially
displacing the olddisplacing the old
aristocracy whosearistocracy whose
power had beenpower had been
rooted in therooted in the
ownership of land.ownership of land.

25. Agents of ChangeAgents of Change
 These merchants had theirThese merchants had their
own ideas about the sort ofown ideas about the sort of
world they wanted to inhabit,world they wanted to inhabit,
and they became majorand they became major
agents of change, in the arts,agents of change, in the arts,
in government, and in thein government, and in the
economy.economy.
– They were naturallyThey were naturally
convinced that their earningsconvinced that their earnings
were the result of theirwere the result of their
individual merit and hardindividual merit and hard
work, unlike the inheritedwork, unlike the inherited
wealth of aristocrats.wealth of aristocrats.
– The ability of individual effortThe ability of individual effort
to transform the worldto transform the world
became a European dogma,became a European dogma,
lasting to this day.lasting to this day.

26. Obstacles to ChangeObstacles to Change
 The chief obstaclesThe chief obstacles
to the reshaping ofto the reshaping of
Europe wereEurope were
absolutist kings andabsolutist kings and
dogmatic churches.dogmatic churches.

27. New Core ValuesNew Core Values
 The general trend wasThe general trend was
clear: individualism,clear: individualism,
freedom, and changefreedom, and change
replaced community,replaced community,
authority, and traditionauthority, and tradition
as core Europeanas core European
values.values.

28. ResistanceResistance
 Europeans wereEuropeans were
changing, butchanging, but
Europe'sEurope's
institutions were notinstitutions were not
keeping pace withkeeping pace with
that change.that change.
 The Church insistedThe Church insisted
that it was the onlythat it was the only
source of truth andsource of truth and
that all who livedthat all who lived
outside its boundsoutside its bounds
were damned.were damned.

29. Middle ClassMiddle Class
ResentmentResentment
 The middle classes--The middle classes--
thethe bourgeoisiebourgeoisie----
were painfully awarewere painfully aware
that they were payingthat they were paying
taxes to support ataxes to support a
fabulously expensivefabulously expensive
aristocracy whicharistocracy which
contributed nothing ofcontributed nothing of
value to society.value to society.

30. Impoverished MassesImpoverished Masses
 They were to findThey were to find
ready allies in Franceready allies in France
among theamong the
impoverished massesimpoverished masses
who realized that theywho realized that they
were paying higher andwere paying higher and
higher taxes to supporthigher taxes to support
the lifestyle of the idlethe lifestyle of the idle
rich at Versailles.rich at Versailles.

31. Role of the AristocratsRole of the Aristocrats
 Interestingly, it wasInterestingly, it was
among those very idleamong those very idle
aristocrats that thearistocrats that the
French EnlightenmentFrench Enlightenment
philosophers were tophilosophers were to
find some of theirfind some of their
earliest and mostearliest and most
enthusiastic followers.enthusiastic followers.

32. Voltaire’s View ofVoltaire’s View of
AristocracyAristocracy
 Voltaire movedVoltaire moved
easily in aristocraticeasily in aristocratic
circles, dining atcircles, dining at
their tables, takingtheir tables, taking
a titled mistress,a titled mistress,
corresponding withcorresponding with
monarchs.monarchs.

33. Opposition to TyrannyOpposition to Tyranny
 He opposed tyranny andHe opposed tyranny and
dogma, but he had no notiondogma, but he had no notion
of reinventing democracy.of reinventing democracy.
– He had far too little faith in theHe had far too little faith in the
ordinary person for that.ordinary person for that.
– He thought that educated andHe thought that educated and
sophisticated people could,sophisticated people could,
through the exercise of theirthrough the exercise of their
reason, see that the world couldreason, see that the world could
and should be greatlyand should be greatly
improved.improved.

34. Rousseau v. VoltaireRousseau v. Voltaire
 Voltaire’s chief adversaryVoltaire’s chief adversary
was Jean-Jacqueswas Jean-Jacques
Rousseau.Rousseau.
 Rousseau opposed theRousseau opposed the
theater which was Voltaire'stheater which was Voltaire's
lifeblood, shunned thelifeblood, shunned the
aristocracy which Voltairearistocracy which Voltaire
courted, and argued forcourted, and argued for
something dangerously likesomething dangerously like
democratic revolution.democratic revolution.

35.  Whereas Voltaire argued that equality wasWhereas Voltaire argued that equality was
impossible, Rousseau argued that inequality wasimpossible, Rousseau argued that inequality was
unnatural.unnatural.
 Whereas Voltaire charmed with his wit, RousseauWhereas Voltaire charmed with his wit, Rousseau
always claimed to be right.always claimed to be right.
 Whereas Voltaire insisted on the supremacy of theWhereas Voltaire insisted on the supremacy of the
intellect, Rousseau emphasized the emotions.intellect, Rousseau emphasized the emotions.
 And whereas Voltaire repeated the same handfulAnd whereas Voltaire repeated the same handful
of core Enlightenment ideas, Rousseau sparked offof core Enlightenment ideas, Rousseau sparked off
original thoughts in all directions: ideas aboutoriginal thoughts in all directions: ideas about
education, the family, government, the arts, andeducation, the family, government, the arts, and
Rousseau v. Voltaire (2)Rousseau v. Voltaire (2)

36.  For all their personal differences, Rousseau andFor all their personal differences, Rousseau and
Voltaire shared more values than they liked toVoltaire shared more values than they liked to
acknowledge.acknowledge.
 They viewed absolute monarchy as dangerousThey viewed absolute monarchy as dangerous
and evil and rejected orthodox Christianity.and evil and rejected orthodox Christianity.
 Rousseau was almost as much a skeptic asRousseau was almost as much a skeptic as
Voltaire: the minimalist faith both shared wasVoltaire: the minimalist faith both shared was
called "deism" and it was eventually tocalled "deism" and it was eventually to
transform European religion and have powerfultransform European religion and have powerful
influences on other aspects of society as well.influences on other aspects of society as well.
Rousseau v. Voltaire (3)Rousseau v. Voltaire (3)

37. Enlightenment in EnglandEnlightenment in England
 Great Britain developed its ownGreat Britain developed its own
Enlightenment, fostered by thinkersEnlightenment, fostered by thinkers
like John Locke and David Hume.like John Locke and David Hume.
– England had deposed and decapitatedEngland had deposed and decapitated
its king in the 17th century. Althoughits king in the 17th century. Although
the monarchy had eventually beenthe monarchy had eventually been
restored, this experience created arestored, this experience created a
certain openness toward change.certain openness toward change.
– English Protestantism struggled toEnglish Protestantism struggled to
express itself in ways that widened theexpress itself in ways that widened the
limits of freedom of speech and press.limits of freedom of speech and press.
Radical Quakers and UnitariansRadical Quakers and Unitarians
challenged old dogmas.challenged old dogmas.

38. England v. FranceEngland v. France
 The English and FrenchThe English and French
Enlightenments exchangedEnlightenments exchanged
influences through manyinfluences through many
channels.channels.
– Because England had gotten itsBecause England had gotten its
revolution out of the way early, itrevolution out of the way early, it
was able to proceed morewas able to proceed more
smoothly down the road tosmoothly down the road to
democracy.democracy.
– But English liberty was dynamiteBut English liberty was dynamite
when transported to France,when transported to France,
where resistance by church andwhere resistance by church and
state was fierce.state was fierce.

39. Enlightenment in AmericaEnlightenment in America
 Meanwhile, across the Atlantic,Meanwhile, across the Atlantic,
many of the intellectual leadersmany of the intellectual leaders
of the American colonies wereof the American colonies were
drawn to the Enlightenment.drawn to the Enlightenment.
– Jefferson, Washington, Franklin,Jefferson, Washington, Franklin,
and Paine were powerfullyand Paine were powerfully
influenced by Enlightenmentinfluenced by Enlightenment
thought.thought.
– The God who underwrites theThe God who underwrites the
concept of equality in theconcept of equality in the
Declaration of Independence is theDeclaration of Independence is the
same deist God Rousseausame deist God Rousseau
worshipped.worshipped.

40. American RevolutionAmerican Revolution
 The language of natural law, ofThe language of natural law, of
inherent freedoms, of self-inherent freedoms, of self-
determination which seeped sodetermination which seeped so
deeply into the American graindeeply into the American grain
was the language of thewas the language of the
Enlightenment.Enlightenment.
 Separated geographically fromSeparated geographically from
most of the aristocrats againstmost of the aristocrats against
whom they were rebelling, theirwhom they were rebelling, their
revolution was to be far lessrevolution was to be far less
corrosive than that in France.corrosive than that in France.

41. Struggle in EuropeStruggle in Europe
 Voltaire and his allies in FranceVoltaire and his allies in France
struggled to assert the values ofstruggled to assert the values of
freedom and tolerance in afreedom and tolerance in a
culture where the twin fortressesculture where the twin fortresses
of monarchy and Churchof monarchy and Church
opposed almost everything theyopposed almost everything they
stood for.stood for.
– To oppose the monarchy openlyTo oppose the monarchy openly
would be fatal.would be fatal.
– The Church was an easier target:The Church was an easier target:
Protestantism had made religiousProtestantism had made religious
controversy familiar. Voltaire couldcontroversy familiar. Voltaire could
skillfully cite one Christian againstskillfully cite one Christian against
another to make his arguments.another to make his arguments.

42. PhilosophsPhilosophs
 Voltaire was joined by aVoltaire was joined by a
band of rebellious thinkersband of rebellious thinkers
known as theknown as the philosophes:philosophes:
Charles de Montesquieu,Charles de Montesquieu,
Pierre Bayle, JeanPierre Bayle, Jean
d'Alembert, and many lesserd'Alembert, and many lesser
lights.lights.
 Because Denis DiderotBecause Denis Diderot
commissioned many of themcommissioned many of them
to write for his influentialto write for his influential
Encyclopedia,Encyclopedia, they are alsothey are also
known as "theknown as "the
Encyclopedists."Encyclopedists."

43. Heritage of theHeritage of the
EnlightenmentEnlightenment
 Today the Enlightenment isToday the Enlightenment is
often viewed as a historicaloften viewed as a historical
anomaly – a brief momentanomaly – a brief moment
when a number of thinkerswhen a number of thinkers
infatuated with reason vainlyinfatuated with reason vainly
supposed that the perfectsupposed that the perfect
society could be built onsociety could be built on
common sense and tolerance,common sense and tolerance,
a fantasy which collapseda fantasy which collapsed
amid the Terror of the Frenchamid the Terror of the French
Revolution and the triumphalRevolution and the triumphal
sweep of Romanticism.sweep of Romanticism.

44. Heritage of the EnlightenmentHeritage of the Enlightenment
(2)(2)
 Religious thinkers repeatedlyReligious thinkers repeatedly
proclaim the Enlightenmentproclaim the Enlightenment
dead.dead.
 Marxists denounce it forMarxists denounce it for
promoting the ideals andpromoting the ideals and
power of the bourgeoisie atpower of the bourgeoisie at
the expense of the workingthe expense of the working
classes.classes.
 Postcolonial critics reject itsPostcolonial critics reject its
idealization of specificallyidealization of specifically
European notions as universalEuropean notions as universal
truths.truths.

45. Heritage of the EnlightenmentHeritage of the Enlightenment
(3)(3)
 Yet in many ways, theYet in many ways, the
Enlightenment hasEnlightenment has
never been more alive.never been more alive.
 It formed theIt formed the
consensus ofconsensus of
international ideals byinternational ideals by
which modern stateswhich modern states
are judged.are judged.
– Human rightsHuman rights
– Religious toleranceReligious tolerance
– Self-governmentSelf-government