1. Structure of LanguageStructure of Language
• phonemes:phonemes: basic speech soundsbasic speech sounds
• morphemesmorphemes: smallest unit of language that: smallest unit of language that
contains meaningcontains meaning
• surface structuresurface structure: the words and phrases: the words and phrases
comprising a particular sentencecomprising a particular sentence
• deep structuredeep structure: the underlying meaning of: the underlying meaning of
a sentencea sentence
2. Rules of LanguageRules of Language
• grammargrammar: a system of rules that enable us: a system of rules that enable us
to speak and understandto speak and understand
• semanticssemantics: rules we use to derive meaning: rules we use to derive meaning
from morphemesfrom morphemes
• syntaxsyntax: rules we use to order words into: rules we use to order words into
sentencessentences
3. Mental ImageryMental Imagery
• AnAn imageimage is a mental representation of ais a mental representation of a
sensory experience.sensory experience.
• We use imagery as an aid inWe use imagery as an aid in
conceptualizing and solving problems.conceptualizing and solving problems.
• Images allow us to use concrete forms toImages allow us to use concrete forms to
represent complex and abstract ideas.represent complex and abstract ideas.
4. ConceptsConcepts
• conceptconcept: A mental category for classifying: A mental category for classifying
objects, people, or experiences.objects, people, or experiences.
• prototypeprototype: A mental model containing the: A mental model containing the
most typical features of a concept.most typical features of a concept.
• idealized cognitive model:idealized cognitive model: Our conceptionsOur conceptions
of events as we expect to typically findof events as we expect to typically find
them.them.
5. Problem SolvingProblem Solving
problem representation: interpreting orproblem representation: interpreting or
defining the problemdefining the problem
select a solution strategy that best suits theselect a solution strategy that best suits the
problemproblem
6. Possible Solution StrategiesPossible Solution Strategies
• trial and errortrial and error
• information retrievalinformation retrieval: recovery of: recovery of
information from LTM is all that isinformation from LTM is all that is
necessarynecessary
• algorithmalgorithm: systematical evaluation of all: systematical evaluation of all
possible solutions to a problempossible solutions to a problem
• heuristicsheuristics: rules of thumb strategies for: rules of thumb strategies for
problem solvingproblem solving
7. HeuristicsHeuristics
• hill climbinghill climbing: each step moves: each step moves
progressively toward the final goalprogressively toward the final goal
• subgoalssubgoals: creation of intermediate and: creation of intermediate and
more manageable goalsmore manageable goals
• means-end analysismeans-end analysis: reducing discrepancy: reducing discrepancy
between current and desired statesbetween current and desired states
8. HeuristicsHeuristics
• working backwardsworking backwards: moving from the: moving from the
desired state to the current statedesired state to the current state
• availabilityavailability: basing our judgments on the: basing our judgments on the
availability of information in our memoriesavailability of information in our memories
• representativenessrepresentativeness: judging the likelihood: judging the likelihood
of things in terms of how well they seem toof things in terms of how well they seem to
represent particular prototypesrepresent particular prototypes
9. Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving
• an individual’s level of motivationan individual’s level of motivation
• set:set: The tendency to perceive and toThe tendency to perceive and to
approach problems in certain ways.approach problems in certain ways.
• functional fixedness:functional fixedness: The tendency toThe tendency to
perceive only a limited number of uses forperceive only a limited number of uses for
an object.an object.
10. Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving
• confirmation bias:confirmation bias: The tendency to lookThe tendency to look
for evidence in support of a belief and tofor evidence in support of a belief and to
ignore evidence that would disprove aignore evidence that would disprove a
belief.belief.
11. Improving Problem Solving AbilityImproving Problem Solving Ability
• tacit of elimination:tacit of elimination: Possible solutions arePossible solutions are
evaluated according to appropriate criteriaevaluated according to appropriate criteria
and discarded as they fail to provide aand discarded as they fail to provide a
solution.solution.
• visualization:visualization: Concepts are drawn,Concepts are drawn,
diagrammed, or charted so that they can bediagrammed, or charted so that they can be
better understood.better understood.
