SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCERS

SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCERS
AND THEIR EFFECT ON HIGH
INVOLVEMENT PRODUCTS
Methods of Business Research – Term Report
COMPILED BY:
SYED MUSTAFA ABBAS JAFRI – 14022
GHANASHA SULTANA BAIG - 12701
ABDUL BASIT – 14446
ZOHAD AHMED - 14163
TALHA MASOOD – 14070

Social Media Influencers and their effect on High Involvement Products
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 4
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 7
Social Media Influencers (SMIS)................................................................................................ 7
Definition................................................................................................................................. 7
Types of SMIs ......................................................................................................................... 7
Characteristics of SMIs ........................................................................................................... 7
Social Comparison Theory ...................................................................................................... 8
Social Learning Theory ........................................................................................................... 8
Influencer Marketing ............................................................................................................... 9
Source Credibility ..................................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 10
Source Credibility Model ...................................................................................................... 10
Expertise................................................................................................................................ 10
Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................................... 11
Attractiveness ........................................................................................................................ 12
Effectiveness Of Source Credibility Model........................................................................... 12
Other Competing Models Of Celebrity Endorsement........................................................... 13
Source Credibility Model And Social Media Influencers ..................................................... 13
Source Attractiveness................................................................................................................ 15
Definition............................................................................................................................... 15
Match – Up Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 15
Credibility & Attractiveness.................................................................................................. 16
Limitations............................................................................................................................. 17
Involvement............................................................................................................................... 18
Definition............................................................................................................................... 18
High - Involvement Products................................................................................................. 18
Difference B/W Product & Consumer Involvement ............................................................. 19
Celebrity Influence on Product Involvement......................................................................... 19
Brand Attitudes ......................................................................................................................... 20
Definition............................................................................................................................... 20

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Brand Attitude Impact on Brand Equity................................................................................ 20
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 21
Gaps in Literature...................................................................................................................... 23
METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 25
Research Paradigms .................................................................................................................. 25
Positivist Paradigm................................................................................................................ 25
Interpretivist/Constructivist Paradigm ...................................................................................... 25
Transformative Paradigm ...................................................................................................... 26
Pragmatic Paradigm............................................................................................................... 26
Mixed Methods Research...................................................................................................... 26
QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE...................................................................................... 28
Qualitative Research ................................................................................................................. 28
Focus Group .......................................................................................................................... 29
Methodology.......................................................................................................................... 29
Sampling................................................................................................................................ 29
Coding ................................................................................................................................... 30
Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 31
Findings ................................................................................................................................. 32
Moderating/Mediating Variables........................................................................................... 33
In-depth interviews................................................................................................................ 37
Quantitative Research ............................................................................................................... 39
Method................................................................................................................................... 39
Research Instrument .............................................................................................................. 40
Sample ................................................................................................................................... 40
Measures................................................................................................................................ 41
Factor and Reliability Analysis ............................................................................................. 42
Findings ................................................................................................................................. 44
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................... 45
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 46
LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH........................................... 47
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 48

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This research highlights 2 major objectives, the first was to highlight the consumer’s usage and
attitude towards passenger cars (Suzuki). The second was to understand the effectiveness of a SMI
based on their credibility and attractiveness. A mixed method research was followed which lead
to the findings that SMIs do affect a consumer’s purchase intention and when it comes to high
involvement products like cars, a SMI’s credibility is preferred over their attractiveness as a driver
for purchase intention.
This research will help managers to better allocate their marketing budget as this study highlight a
potential gap in the market where traditional celebrities are preferred over SMIs and companies
like Suzuki have failed to incorporate SMIs in their marketing mix. The introduction of SMIs into
the marketing mix would better adapt to the consumer’s transition from following traditional
celebrities to SMIs. This study would also help managers to select the ideal SMI for their brand.
A non-probability convenient sampling was used however, a probability sampling should be used
for future researches to reduce sampling error. A separate scale needs to be developed for SMIs
rather than that used for traditional celebrities. A number of moderating and mediating were not
considered in this research which where highlighted while conducting focus groups, future
research should incorporate these variables in order to better generalize these findings.

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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of our research is to analyze the effect brought onto high involvement goods due to
social media influencers hence our research and the literature review will pertain to discussing
what social media influencers are and describing the “effect” along with what high involvement
products are. Hence the product we have chosen are cars and therefore will be considering the
automobile industry of which an in-depth analysis will be provided later in time. For our research
we had identified certain constructs which include
1. Social Media Influencers
2. Credibility
3. Attractiveness
4. High Involvement
5. Brand Attitude
In our literature review we have explained the following constructs in detail along with connecting
the constructs using our conceptual framework. These constructs have been explained using
various reputable sources such as Research papers and Research Journals. The literature review
has been concluded with identifying the gaps for future researches. Attached below is our
conceptual framework.
The automobile industry of any country is to be considered the back bone of its country which is
responsible for driving all other factors of economic growth with it along with opening new growth
horizons for that country. However, countries with a smaller population size that Pakistan have
emerged as market leaders and innovators when it come to the automobile industry and its
manufacturing. Whilst any government will give importance to its automobile industry due to its
forward and backward linkages along with employment generation and innovation rate, this trend
is not being witnessed in Pakistan. In the German Chancellor's words, out of the seven jobs in
Germany, one of them belongs to the automotive sector. Enormous auto markets, for example, the
US and China constantly innovate maintain their edge in the automotive industry. In Asia,

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Malaysia is a brilliant illustration. With a populace of almost 31.5 million, when contrasted with
Pakistan's 200 million, the nation has a strong automotive industry. This has changed this little
nation from an insignificant auto constructing agent into a vehicle producing economy. The
creation of cars in Malaysia in 2017 was practically 0.5 million units. It is uplifting news that
Malaysia and Pakistan have entered a joint endeavor and Malaysia's Proton vehicles will before
long be manufactured in Pakistan.
As indicated by the discoveries, different automakers just offer 9% of Pakistan's vehicle showcase.
Toyota IMC has stood first with 35% of market share while Pak Suzuki and Honda Atlas Cars
keep up 29% and 27% predominance, separately. It has been additionally discovered that Toyota
Corolla remained the greatest champ with its 20% of market penetration. After Toyota Corolla,
Honda City and Honda Civic were found to have 12% and 11% market penetration. Pak Suzuki
vehicles were likewise positioned in top 10. As indicated by the survey report, Suzuki Cultus has
8% piece of the pie while now stopped Suzuki Mehran kept up a figure of 7%. Suzuki Wagon R
(4%) and Suzuki Swift (2%) additionally stayed mainstream vehicles during the earlier year. As
far as the local car industry, Toyota commanded with 35% piece of the overall industry. It is trailed
by Pak Suzuki at 28% and Honda at 27%. Other local automakers simply got a portion of 11%.
Honda Civic has been voted as the most prestigious Car of the Year, according to the survey report
of 2018. Toyota Fortuner has been set as the SUV of the Year.
Its an obvious fact that Toyota, Suzuki and Honda keep up predominance in Pakistan's automobile
industry. The three nearby carmakers sell the best number of new vehicles in the nation
consistently. It very well may be contended that the 'Big Three' nearby carmakers don't confront a
lot of rivalry and have obviously characterized market territories. Throughout the years, Pakistan
has accomplished considerable monetary development though with the steady joblessness rate and
an ascent in the dollar rate. Therefore, the purchase habits of people have increased alongside the
interest in autos, motorbikes and private vehicles. The interest ranges from extravagance transports
to modest vehicles. To satisfy these needs, Pakistan relies upon imported new and reconditioned
vehicles as vehicle are not produced in Pakistan yet collected as it were. An enormous number of
vehicles and automobile parts are imported each year, which incorporates reconditioned autos by
spending an immense amount of cash. While both imported and nearby items with better turbo
motors face difficulties due than the restricted accessibility of fuel with zero Mn substance and
high octane energizes, it is significant that Pakistan's automobile industry be held accountable for
this. It has seen significant development and is at standard with car businesses in industrialized
nations. Presently a long-haul arrangement is required to settle the Pakistani rupee and stop its fall
against the dollar. The auto division must be helped with diminishing its excessive import charge
in view of rupee devaluation as this is influencing the auto segment's cost-aggressiveness and
adversely influencing the purchaser's buying power.
Apart from all of this, Pakistan Suzuki has been one of the oldest manufacturers of automobiles
with their Mehran being a shining example only to be discontinued till 2017. Therefore, keeping
all of this in mind, the first purpose of our study is to find out about the usage and attitude of the
general populous over passenger cars. In this we will be analyzing why do people prefer using car
as to any other medium of transport and why is there a difference in the usage patterns of private

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transport coupled with public transport along with the hassle faced by people who are against the
notion of using private transport. For this we have chosen Suzuki as one of the big there which
will be used in this study. About Suzuki, we will be covering why do people use Suzuki and what
are the current market perceptions about it and as to why people are motivated or demotivated to
buy a model car from Suzuki.
We will also be studying the effect of influencer marketing. This term and as the name suggest is
the new buzz of marketing as it is something that has taken birth in this generation due to the
advent and deep penetration of social media in our society. As these social media influencers get
popular so does their ‘influence’ to sway brand attitudes and perception about the products they
choose to associate themselves with. Brands across the world are getting together with these
influencers to promotes their products as in the case of Irfan junejo, arguably one of the most
famous influencers of Pakistan with having over 800k subscribers on YouTube to date, with him
approached by Pepsi along with Suzuki in the November of 2019. Due to the rising popularity of
social media influencer with the number increasing by the day one of our objective is again to
study the impact they can have on the receptiveness of a product in the general population based
on their credibility and attitudes. Other characteristics of SMI will also be aimed to be covered in
this research.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Social Media Influencers (SMIS)
Definition
Influencers are individuals who have more than average potential to impact others through
qualities such as frequency of communication, personal influence or size of—and significance
to—a social network. (Advisor, 2015). In other words, ‘a minority of people who influence an
extraordinary number of their peers’ (Watts, 2007). The virtual community has embraced
influencers as a fundamental part because they use numerous social media channels to share
stories, pictures, experiences and diverse opinions on various subjects, services and products
(Cecilia Lindh, 2017). The popularity of influencers has grown dramatically in recent years as they
offer synthesized information as well as functionality (Akritidis, 2011).
Types of SMIs
Social Media Influencers can be perceived as any of the various kinds of informers. According to
(Merwe, 2009), an SMI who has profound knowledge of a topic can be categorized as an opinion
leader. SMIs, because of their position, lead the community by looking for, choosing, editing,
producing and sharing content that is relevant and substantial to the community (Allué, 2013).
They are considered having online authority and expertise (Uzunoglu E., 2014) as they often
engage with their followers by providing them up-to-date information. (Liu, 2015)
On the other hand, (Lv, 2013) argue that SMIs should rather be identified as micro-celebrities- a
people who are talented, successful and attractive. They are “regular people” who have become
“online celebrities” by posting blogs on social media (Chen Lou, 2019). Bloggers regularly provide
opinions on specific topics and issues, such as fashion, sports or beauty; they exchange details
related to the focus (Huang, 2015). But interact with other Internet users to the degree that they
possibly share their feelings and disclose personal information (Berg, 1982); (Jacobs, 2000).
Consumers might confer the same level of trust on social media influencers as they have for their
friends, as suggested by a new Twitter study. (Swant, 2016)
Characteristics of SMIs
According to (Ioanid, 2015), characteristics that define SMIs are good credibility, high activity,
distinct brands, large followings, and great exposure. The number of followers and importance of
connections with followers determines the value of the SMI (Booth N., 2011). (Freberg K., 2011)
observed that audiences believed SMIs were talkative, smart, ambitious, productive, and poised.
By conducting in-depth interviews, (Gillin, 2008) found out that top-level public relations
practitioners believed that the traits of an effective SMI are participation level, post frequency by
followers, and name recognition.
SMIs’ fame and identity are grounded in essentials like admiration, association, aspiration or
recognition (Nouri, 2018). 82% of polls prove that statements by social media influencers are
apparently more dependable and convincing for followers –– it appears odds-on that consumers
follow their favorite influencers' endorsements (Talaverna, 2015). Younger people, or digital
natives, get prominently more influenced by social media influencers. (Atik, 2013)

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Contrary to celebrities, micro-influencers are popular to a relatively niche set of people and have
an honest-to-goodness style (Zietek, 2016). They know their fans, reply to them, and feel it’s a
necessity for boosting their popularity (Susie Khamis, 2017). This shatters the old-style
audience/performer, viewer/spectacle dichotomy (Marwick, 2016). Lucy Hart, head of influence
and advocacy at Mischief PR, explains why consumers pay attention to SMIs, "Consumers feel as
though they are friends with these influencers. Their videos, their snaps and their open-door policy
make consumers feel like they’re accessing authentic advice, tips, and recommendation from one
of their peers" (Harrington, 2016). Now let’s have a look at some theories proposed as a suitable
groundwork for understanding SMIs.
Social Comparison Theory
(Festinger, 1954)’s Social Comparison Theory (SCT) states that individuals have an instinct to
compare themselves to others just to see how their views and skills match up. When consumers
are uncertain about a matter or a purchase decision, they intentionally compare themselves with
people who they see as similar in order to validate their choice and brace their self-evaluation
(Kang J., 2011). SCT is found in both the physical and virtual world (Wu L., 2008) Tendency to
social comparison online (TSCO) is the degree to which an individual tends to compare his or her
opinions with others, and be influenced by others, particularly when shopping online (Shen, 2012).
TSCO takes place when consumers feel a connection with an online source and take the
information they offer, e.g. SMI recommendations, SMI posts, or consumer online reviews.
(Burke, 2017)
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory by (Bandura, 1963) is a theoretical framework that proposes the idea that
socialization agents such as celebrities, family, or peers (Kotze, 2001); (Clark, 2001) can predict
purchase behaviors (King, 1996) (Martin C. A., 2000). It illustrates that an individual derives
motivation and therefore displays favorable attitude towards socialization agents through either
direct or indirect social interaction (Subramanian, 1995); (Moschis, 1978). (Makgosa, 2010)
discovered that SCT can realistically explain the impact of celebrities on buying behaviors.
Aligned with this assertion, as active users of social media, SMIs have a high level of social
presence which greatly affects the audience’s behavior (Xu Xu (Rinka), 2018)
Since a consumer only adopts the beliefs and behaviors of people, they find engaging (Kelman,
1961). It can comprise information from an expert, online review, or SMIs (Baek, 2015).
(Djafarova E. R., 2017) claim that SMIs generally represent a reference group i.e., a group that
people think highly of when developing opinions and making product choices. Therefore, their
reviews not only play a crucial role in consumer purchase behavior but also provides them insights
into latest brands and products. It is hence argued that SMIs are social leaders who can influence
others to identify with their values and to desire a membership with their social group (Abrams,
1990)
The SMIs work to establish a sort of “celebrity” capital by acquiring as much attention as possible
and creating a reliable “personal brand” by social networks, which can later be used by businesses

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for advertisements and consumer outreach’. (Hearn, 2016) This is known as Influencer Marketing,
which we discuss next.
Influencer Marketing
Brands in many cases tap into paid electronic Word of Mouth to intensify brand messages through
SMIs, by a method called ‘Influencer marketing’ (Scott, 2015), which is the objective of this study.
The term eWOM means any positive or negative statement made about a product or a company,
which is accessible to numerous people and organizations through the Internet. (Hennig-Thurau,
2004). On social media platforms, eWOM concerning brands can be spread by persons who wish
to share brand-related information with others in their social networks (Chu, 2011) (Phua, 2017)
In prior research, utilizing influencers such as celebrities (Djafarova E. R., 2017); (Jin, 2014),
brand community members (Kim, 2014) and bloggers (Lee J. E., 2016) has shown to positively
impact consumers’ brand attitudes and purchase intentions. SMI marketing is a prevalent practice
by brands now to engage online consumers, (Nathaniel J. Evans, 2017) because it reaches large
segments of consumers in a rather short period of time compared to traditional commercial
campaigns (Phua, 2017). SMIs generate a variety of buzzwords and are deemed to be the most
cost-efficient and -effective marketing trend comparative to other marketing strategies (i.e.,
celebrity endorsement). (Harrison, 2017) (Patel, 2016); (Talaverna, 2015) On the contrary,
celebrity endorsement contributes more in raising brand awareness among consumers.
(Tapinfluence, 2017)
Majority of marketers know micro influencers as any YouTuber, Instagrammer, Snapchatter, or
blogger with a moderately small (less than 100,000) follower-base of actively engaged and focused
social media users” (Release, 2016). Influencer marketing stresses the use of SMIs to publish a
brand’s message to reach the target segment. Influencers use social media platforms such as
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube to drive latest promotions and product specifics for
online users. (Amber Gulamali, 2017) Consequently, marketers and brands invest in certain
influencers to generate and/or endorse their branded content to both the influencers’ own followers
and to the brands’ target customers (Yodel, 2017).
Influencer marketing essence is on using strategic leaders to push brand messages to a larger group
of consumers (Keller E. &., 2003). It is looked upon as more credible, trustworthy and well-
informed as compared to celebrity endorsement promotion strategy. This is because SMIs are
amicable and enjoy a strengthened bond with consumers (Xin Jean Lim, 2017). Brands are hence
ever more collaborating with SMIs, as part of their social media strategy, for targeting online
audiences. (Kumar, 2012). Lately, influencer marketing on Instagram has gained the most
acceptance from brands as people feel a connection to the SMI on the visual based platform
(Bevins, 2014). A recent study by Twitter mentioned that 49 percent of consumers rely on SMIs
when making a purchase decision (Swant, 2016).
Paid content created by SMIs is well thought-out to take a more organic, authentic, and interactive
path with possible customers than brand-generated ads (Talaverna, 2015).
Nearly 80% of online marketers agreed that SMIs are potential advocates who lift their online
dealings to a higher level (Forbes, 2017). Fresh influencer marketing reports also verified a
projected 50% of the brands set aside an uptick fund allocation for hiring SMIs to promote their

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brands (Forbes, 2017). Moreover, SMIs also display interesting results in both media reporting
and consumer persuasion (Booth N., 2011). Even though research on social media influencers is
still limited, (Godey, 2016) Return on Investments (ROI) is 11 times higher with influencer
marketing when compared to digital marketing, according to a Nielsen marketing survey
(Tapinfluence, 2017).
Source Credibility
The following chapter discusses in-depth the model of source credibility. The chapter discusses in
detail the dimensions that constitutes this theoretical model, how the model has been applied in
field of celebrity endorsement, limitations of the model, competing models and their shortcomings,
and relevance of the model to study of social media influencers.
By the end of this chapter reader would be able to understand the relevance and importance of
source credibility model to our current research interest and the rationale behind our decision to
opt for this model for our research.
Introduction
Source credibility can be defined as those positive attributes of a communicator that facilitates
understandability and acceptability of a message (Ohanian R. , 1991). Source credibility owes its
origin to the concept of ethos, philosophized by Aristotle, in his theory of persuasion called The
Rhetoric (Umeogu, 2012). Although, the first empirical studies hinting at impact of source
credibility can be traced back to early 1930s (Eisend M. , 2004), it was in 1951 that an actual
theoretical model of source credibility was presented by Hovland (McCracken, 1989).
Source Credibility Model
The initial source credibility model consisted of two dimensions: expertise and trustworthiness.
As per source credibility model, the communicator’s ability to persuade effectively depends on
their perceived level of expertise and trustworthiness (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Later researchers
also included source attractiveness as the third dimension in the model (Ohanian R. , 1991) (Choi,
Lee, & Kim, 2005).
Different researchers have adopted source credibility model differently; some have operationalized
credibility as a single variable (Yilmaz, Telci, Bodur, & Tutku, 2011), others have treated
trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness as separate variables, either including all three sub-
constructs (Ohanian R. , 1991) (Wang & Scheinbaum, 2017), only trustworthiness and expertise
(Lee, Lee, & Hansen, 2017), only expertise and attractiveness (Eisend & Langner, 2010), only
trustworthiness (Kamal, 2008), only expertise (Wen, Tan, & Chang, 2009) and only attractiveness
(Kahle & Homer, 1985).
Sections 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 discusses each sub-construct of the model separately.
Expertise
Expertise has been defined as “the extent to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of
valid assertion” (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). In other words, expertise or perceived expertise

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refers to consumer perceptions regarding the authenticity of source skills, knowledge and opinion
(Wang & Scheinbaum, 2017).
Factors affecting expertise
Few studies have identified the factors affecting perceived expertise of a source or an endorser.
Tripp, Jensen and Carlson discovered number of endorsements to be negatively correlated with
perceived expertise, once the number of endorsements exceeds two. (Tripp, Jensen, & Carlson,
1994). A recent study by Breves et al. established that influencer-brand fit positively affected
perceived level of expertise of the influencer (Breves, N, Abt, & Kunze, 2019). Another study
found that self-congruity (match between consumer self-image and advertised brand) positively
impacts all three dimensions of source credibility, including expertise (Yoon & Kim, Effects of
self-congruity and source credibility on consumer responses to coffeehouse advertising, 2016).
Effect of expertise on attitudes and behavioral intentions
Expertise, as a source characteristic have been validated by several studies. A meta-analysis of
endorsement literature ranked celebrity expertise as the third most important celebrity source effect
(Amos, Holmes, & Strutton, 2008). Homer and Kahle ruled expertise to be the most important
dimension of source credibility model (Homer & Kahle, 1990).
A celebrity with high level of expertise is assumed to be more persuasive (Erdogan B. Z., 1999).
Expertise of an endorser influences brand attitude positively (Eisend & Langner, 2010), as well as
purchase intention (Till & M, 2000).
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness has been defined as the extent to which the receiver of the message considers the
position held by communicator as honest, believable and dignified (Wang & Scheinbaum, 2017)
(Erdogan B. Z., 1999).
Factors affecting trustworthiness
Trustworthiness has been shown to be positively affected by self-congruity (Yoon & Kim, Effects
of self-congruity and source credibility on consumer responses to coffeehouse advertising, 2016),
influencer-brand fit (Breves, N, Abt, & Kunze, 2019) and celebrity performance (Koo, Ruihley, &
Dittmore, 2012).
Patzer (1983) tried to connect physical attractiveness with trustworthiness by suggesting physical
attractiveness as an aspect of likeability which falls under construct of trustworthiness (Praxmarer
& Rossiter, 2009). However, attractiveness has been largely treated as a dimension, distinctive
from trustworthiness, in persuasive communication literature.
Celebrity’s expertise has also been found to influence their perceived trustworthiness. Wang and
Scheinbaum discovered that celebrity’s expertise has a significant positive effect on
trustworthiness (Wang & Scheinbaum, 2017).
Effects of trustworthiness on attitudes and behavioral intentions
There have been mixed conclusions regarding the effect of trustworthiness on consumers’
perceptions, attitude and intentions. Some research has found no positive effect of trustworthiness

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on purchase intentions and consumer attitudes when analyzed as a separate variable (Ohanian R. ,
1991). Based on low and mixed results surrounding trustworthiness, Bergkvist et al. chose to not
include trustworthiness in their celebrity endorsement study (Bergkvist, Hjalmarson, & Mägi,
2016)
Other research have found trustworthiness to be more important dimension than expertise and
attractiveness in endorsement literature (Wang & Scheinbaum, 2017), (Amos, Holmes, & Strutton,
2008).
Attractiveness
As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, source attractiveness was initially treated as a
separate model (McCracken, 1989) in communication and marketing studies. However later
researchers included source attractiveness as a third dimension in larger source credibility model.
In this literature, source attractiveness is reviewed as a separate model in chapter 4.
Effectiveness Of Source Credibility Model
Meta-analysis of celebrity endorsement literature and detailed literature reviews have validated the
effectiveness of source credibility model. (Ohanian R. , 1991) in his review of source credibility
literature concluded that high credible sources are more persuasive than low-credibility sources.
Amos et al. in their meta-analysis of endorsement literature concluded the three dimensions of
source credibility model (attractiveness, trustworthiness and expertise) as most important in
influencing brand attitudes, attitudes towards ads and purchase intentions (Amos, Holmes, &
Strutton, 2008).
Limitations of the model
However, the most recent literature review of celebrity endorsement pointed the inconsistencies in
source effect literature (Bergkvist & Zhou, 2016). Some of these inconsistencies have been
highlighted when discussing each sub-construct of the model separately in sections 3.3 and 3.4.
However, these are being summarized and added to in the following paragraph.
Firstly, there has been mixed results for effect of endorser’s trustworthiness as mentioned in
section 3.4. Similarly, different researches have ranked each dimension of the model relative to
other dimensions separately: some have chosen expertise over trustworthiness (Homer & Kahle,
1990), while others have found trustworthiness to be more dominant (Amos, Holmes, & Strutton,
2008).
A ‘limitation’ of the source credibility model has been highlighted by (McCracken, 1989) that the
model focuses solely on the celebrity ignoring the product the celebrity is endorsing. This is to
say, that the model assumes that any celebrity who is credible will be effective for any advertising
message.
However, this does not amounts to limitation per se, but instead, highlights the fact that there are
variables that moderate the relationship between celebrity credibility and dependent variables like
brand attitude, ad attitude and purchase intention (Eisend M. , 2004).

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Moderating variables
The following moderating variables have been identified from the literature: purchase motives
(Lord & Putrevu, 2009), immediate and delayed condition (Eisend & Langner, 2010), involvement
and prior attitudes (Kumkale, Albarracin, & Seignourel, 2010), product type (Friedman &
Friedman, 1979) , celebrity-brand fit (Till & M, 2000) and time (Eisend M. , 2004).
Other Competing Models Of Celebrity Endorsement
The two other popular theoretical models explaining celebrity endorsements are meaning transfer
model and match-up/congruency model.
Meaning-transfer model
Considering the anomalies unexplained by source credibility model, (McCracken, 1989) presented
a new model of “meaning transfer” to explain the process of persuasion through endorsement. The
model holds that a celebrity represents a bundle of culturally assigned meanings or labels that gets
transferred to the brand they endorse (Amos, Holmes, & Strutton, 2008). The meaning transfer
model is an under-researched phenomenon in endorsement literature (Bergkvist & Zhou, 2016)
making it difficult to replicate at our level and therefore has not been adopted in our current
research.
Match-up/Congruency model
Another common theoretical framework in endorsement literature is the “match-up hypothesis” or
congruency model that includes dimensions of celebrity-brand match (Kamins M. A., 1990) and
celebrity-consumer match (Choi & Rifon, 2012). A recent study by Breves et al. established that
celebrity credibility mediated the effect of influencer-brand fit on brand attitudes and behavioral
intentions (Breves, N, Abt, & Kunze, 2019). Since source credibility explains the relationship
between influencer-brand fit and advertising effectiveness, this research chooses to adopt former
as the theoretical model and not match-up or congruency model.
Source Credibility Model And Social Media Influencers
Chapter 1 has richly discussed the latest phenomenon in world of advertising that are social media
influencer and social media marketing. This section will discuss perceptions of credibility held
regarding social media influencers (hereby refer to as SMIs) and will review papers that have
employed source credibility model to explain effectiveness of SMIs.
Perceptions of credibility of SMIs
SMIs have been said to be more credible and authentic than traditional celebrities (Djafarova &
Rushworth, 2017). However, the research regarding SMIs is currently at a novel stage. No
comprehensive model has been presented to understand SMI advertising effectiveness. (Lou &
Yuan, 2019)
Work of Elmira Djafarova and her colleague is commendable in this regard who conducted in-
depth interviews to identify dimensions of credibility of SMIs. They summarized their findings in
the image below (Djafarova & Trofimenko, Instafamous–credibility and self-presentation of
micro-celebrities on social media, 2019):

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Djafarova Online Source Credibility
Djafarova in in-depth interviews with 38 females interpreted that most of the respondents
considered physical attractiveness an important source characteristic for online celebrity. Within
attractiveness, dimensions of beauty, humor and uniqueness came out to be respondents’ favorites.
Regarding trustworthiness, Djafarova found a divided house; some respondents questioned the
trustworthiness of online celebrities as these celebrities were believed to be financially motivated
in endorsing products or giving opinions, most considered the influencers’ recommendations as
useful.
Djafarova identified expertise as a recurring theme from these interviews too, however the nature
of expertise, in case of Instagram influencers, was interpreted to be different. Rather than
qualifications or skills of influencer, it was the relevance of their experience that mattered.
Researcher, therefore, concluded competence instead of expertise as an important characteristic of
SMIs.
This qualitative research also found following factors that affects effectiveness of SMIs:
“consistency in communication, being approachable and friendly towards their subscribers, and
being active and engaging. inspirational images and engaging text/commentary…, appearing open
and honest, and engaging in conversations with their followers.”
Although Djafarova’s research presented slightly different sub-dimensions of trustworthiness,
attractiveness and expertise for SMIs, trustworthiness, attractiveness and expertise as constructs
themselves were concluded to be important source characteristics for SMIs which somewhat
validates the use of source credibility model to measure SMIs impact on consumer attitudes.
Source credibility model and previous SMI researches
The model has been employed by researchers to measure the impact of social media celebrities on
consumer attitudes and purchase intentions.

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In a study done on bloggers, it was discovered that the argument quality of bloggers affects
audience’s brand attitudes more when perceived trustworthiness of blogger is high (Kamal, 2008).
Another research analyzed that blogger expertise positively affects brand attitudes and purchase
intentions (Hayes & T, 2015).
A latest study concluded that influencer’s credibility (trustworthiness, attractiveness and perceived
similarity) enhanced trust on brands. Influencer’s expertise was not found to have this enhancing
brand trust effect, although expertise and attractiveness did positively impact brand awareness
directly and purchase intentions indirectly. Trustworthiness was surprisingly found to have
negative impact on brand awareness and purchase intention in this study (Lou & Yuan, 2019)
It is interesting to mention here an anomaly: a study published in Asian Journal of Business
Research on blogger’s effectiveness concluded that SMI’s credibility has insignificant correlation
with brand attitude and purchase intention (Lim, Radzol, Cheah, & Wong, 2017).
Considering rich qualitative research of Djafarova regarding social media influencer’s credibility
and above-mentioned quantitative researches that have established positive association between
SMI’s credibility and brand attitudes, we feel that employing the source credibility for our research
on effect of social media influencers on brand attitudes make logical sense.
Source Attractiveness
Definition
A source characteristic often used by advertisement agencies is source attractiveness, which
includes the concepts of similarity, familiarity, and likability to help determine the effects of
attractiveness on purchase intention. (McGuire, 1985). Likability is an affection for the source as
a result of physical appearance, personality, or other characteristics. Even when the source is not
an individual that the target audience is familiar with, target audiences often admire the
individual’s physical appearance, talent, and personality. (Ohanian, 1991). Marketers recognize
that receivers of persuasive communications are more likely to respond to people they find likable
or like themselves. Similarity and likability are the two source characteristics marketers seek when
choosing an endorser. Physical attractiveness has been a key topic of research for advertising
agencies and in social science (Berscheid, 1974). Most studies have shown that a physically
attractive source helps bring about attitude change or cause positive purchase intention. (Baker,
1977) (Caballero, 1984) (Chaiken, 1979) and one study also shed light on how in products that are
generally considered to be low involvement products and/or products that deal with daily hygiene,
source attractiveness served as both a driver for purchase intention and high brand recall. (Homer
L. R., 1985).
Match – Up Hypothesis
The "match-up hypothesis" suggests that endorsers are more effective when there is a "fit" between
the endorser and the product that is being endorsed. Most of the empirical work on the match-up
hypothesis has been focused on the physical attractiveness of the endorser and sheds light on how

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physical attractiveness influences consumer attitude and purchase intention. The argument is that
attractive celebrities are more effective at endorsing products which are used to enhance one's
attractiveness (lead to higher brand attitude and purchase intention), for example, a celebrity who
is known to be physically attractive can be a good endorser for products such as hair gels and
beauty creams which claim to aid an individual’s physical appearance. (Kamins M. , 1989). Casual
observation suggests that marketing and advertising practitioners believe that using physically
attractive spokespeople is effective. In general, physically attractive individuals are viewed more
favorably on several personality traits such as social competence, intellectual competence, concern
for others and integrity. Given that attractive people are generally considered to possess a number
of favorable personality characteristics it is natural that advertisers are keen to associate their
products with attractive individuals to help create a positive brand image. (Busler, 2000) (Eagly,
1991). While some researchers are divided when it comes to the effect of source attractiveness on
purchase intention, almost all the researchers agree that source attractiveness has a positive impact
on the evaluation of the advertisement as where Baker and Churchill (1977) found that using
attractive models had a positive effect on the consumers evaluation of the ad the study could not
prove any such effect on purchase intention. (Baker, 1977). But both Petroshius and Crocker's and
Patzer's studies found that physically attractive models used in ads led to both a positive effect on
the consumer’s evaluation and recall of the ad and an increased purchase intention. (Petroshius,
1989) (Patzer, 1983).
The role of source attractiveness also plays a part when it comes to persuasion, the results of which
can be shown by studying salespersons. A study showed that salesperson who are attractive fare
better than those who are less attractive when it comes to persuading consumers to opt for a brand.
Studies showed that attractive salespersons who made it clear that their intention is to persuade the
consumer to buy a specific product got a positive response when compared to unattractive sales
persons where consumers believed that such sales persons tend to have hidden motives. (Mills,
1965) (Marc-André Reinhard, 2006). The same findings can then be generalized to a celebrity
endorser where consumers tend to view a brand more favorably when the celebrity endorsing the
brand is attractive, for which a company has to pick the ‘right’ celebrity for the brand as using a
celebrity in advertising is more likely to positively affect consumer’s brand attitudes and purchase
intention. (Schlecht, 2003). In this regard it is safe to say that when choosing a celebrity endorser
for a product that is either low involvement or beauty related, an attractive celebrity endorser will
almost always have a positive influence on the brand perception and purchase intention as when
a good-looking celebrity is used in an advertisement, respondent’s first impression will be positive
even before looking at the products. (Fern, 2016) (Amos C. H., 2015) (Atkin, 1983).
Credibility & Attractiveness
Coupled with source credibility model, the source attractiveness model helps to better understand
the fundamentals of effective celebrity endorsement. (Roger Seiler, 2017). In a world where
consumers are flooded with information the main focus of a brand manager would be to drive
positive brand value perception and purchase intention through effective advertising which is made
possible through better understanding of source attractiveness and other models, talking about

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products that target hygiene and beauty, attractive celebrity endorsers not only help positively
influence brand value but the key characteristics such physical attractiveness help the celebrity
endorser become a credible sources when it comes to these products and thus help the endorser
positively influence the purchase intention and differentiate the brand from competitor brands. The
‘Halo effect’ principal can be used to better describe this situation where the halo effect suggests
that people ranking highly on a specific perceived trait generate a halo that positively or negatively
influences judgement about another perceived trait of that product or person. (Erdogan B. , 1999)
uses an example where attractive people are perceived to be smarter. In this example, a beauty trait
spills over and affects perceptions of cognitive traits, hence beauty has a halo effect on intelligence.
High attractiveness is linked to good product functionality. (Chaiken, 1979) (Nisbett, 1977)
(Kamins M. A., 1990).
Limitations
There are certain limitations to this model as well where the image of the endorser or any ongoing
scandals that the endorser is involved in might change the results drastically where recent scandals
associated with celebrities such as Tiger Woods have resulted in the deterioration of the value of
brands affiliated with such spokespersons. (AGNIHOTRI, 2019). Celebrity endorsements also
prove to be ineffective when it comes to high involvement products as a celebrity endorser connect
with the viewers primarily through their attractiveness (McGuire, 1985), when it comes to high
involvement products, consumers tend to go for (Fleck, 2004) more credible sources like experts
or endorsers who are identified by their credibility badge (Silvera, 2004). We know that the
meanings that exist in celebrities are extraordinarily numerous and various, but we have yet to
devise an instrument that allows us to detect and survey these meanings which means that we
cannot truly gauge the influence of an attractive influencer on a certain brand and can merely
observe a cause and effect relationship, future research needs to be done using a mix of qualitative
and quantitative methods which sheds light on the broadness of the concept of the source
attractiveness model and helps to derive causality in a more empirical way. (McCRACKEN,
1989). A new perspective on the process of endorsement has been developed. It suggests that the
source attractiveness model with which endorsement is now understood by practitioner and scholar
are insufficient. The main drawback of this model is that it asks us to accept that it is the
attractiveness of the celebrity that make the endorsement work and while useful for certain
purposes, this approach prevents us from seeing that endorsers are in fact highly individualized
and complex bundles of cultural meaning. It also prevents us from observing that endorsement
consists in the transfer of these meanings from the endorser to the product, and from the product
to the final consumer. The meaning transfer model referred to here is intended to show that the
key of the celebrity endorsement is largely cultural in nature, and that the study of the celebrity
and endorsement is improved by a cultural perspective. (Debevec, 1984) (Joseph, 1982).

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Involvement
Definition
Over the last 30 year the concept of involvement has gained wide spread popularity in areas of
marketing a brand management. Initial interest was spurred after a research was conducted on how
consumers responded (involved) to a product after seeing a television advert about it (Krugman,
1965, 1966/1967). It is believed that consumers of high involvement product are said to be more
(762 WARRINGTON AND SHIM) motivated to research and explore product related information
from either primary but mostly secondary sources.
Moreover, what else is overserved is that consumer with high involvement once satisfied by the
product are said to develop more brand and store loyalty and in doing so, present important market
segment for marketeers to target. For example, high involvement apparel shoppers tend to be more
frequent and more loyal towards the store and brand they shop in (Shim & Kotsiopulos, 1993).
Designing market strategies aimed at high product involvement consumers can be said to increase
revenue and overall profitability
High - Involvement Products
High involvement products are those which involves a user to make more cognitive decisions,
making him develop a deeper understanding of the products which is done through assessing
several other variables associated with that product before purchase. It is often witnessed that high
involvement products include several motivators or multiple influencers who press a single buyer
into deciding such as real estate (Hans H. Bauer).
More over the same can be seen when we are out to purchase a car where we come across multiple
influencer motivating us to decide (Becker 06). If a car is needing to be purchased the opinions of
family member, close friends and even spouses will be considered. After this a list of brands will
be shortlisted at your end and after gathering enough primary and secondary information about
those brands you will finally decide one and opt for it. Hence, a high involvement purchase does
not involve only the buyer. It involves the public perception of the product and the brand as well.
(Hitesh Bhasin 2019). Products can be classified as high-involvement or low-involvement
depending on factors such as price, importance, the level of risk involved in a product’s purchase,
frequency of purchase, durability, and so forth.
To narrow down our perspectives, high involvement products are quite risky, are often self-
expressive and flamboyant in monetary regards. The buying behaviors that can be observed when
viewed to high involvement products are complex which often leads to its purchase. The
significances amongst brand perception in high involvement products are high (Kotler &
Armstrong, 2008).
Many factors are considered with a high involvement purchase. Firstly, research is conducted
before consumers invest in a product that in nature is risky and costly. Secondly, the reason for the

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purchase of a is often revisited in the case for a high-involvement purchase. People by nature are
risk averse. High involvement products are usually advertised in a great depth and explanatory
terms for the TG to really understand what that product is all about. They must educate and
reassure. On the other hand, high involvement products usually enjoy a strong brand loyalty.
Lastly, in high involvement products it is safe to say that with a product of such nature brand recall
is less. (Cyberlectures, 2008).
We may observe a different response to different product pertaining to their involvement (e.g.
Laurent and Kapferer, 1985). For example, product involvement may revolve around situational
needs which may refer to needing the correct product for a situation (Houston and Rothschild,
1977) or when we relate to a product in terms of our persona and the products offering with its
goodwill (Laurent and Kapferer, 1985). Hence due to product categories its simpler for consumer
involvement to be observed and aids researchers to classify product involvement by breaking it
into its processes and the cognitive features of the consumers.
Difference B/W Product & Consumer Involvement
Rothschild (1979) defines involvement as a state which is achieved through motivation sourced
through arousal and attractiveness of the product (e.g. situation; the product; the communications)
and internal factors (e.g. ego; central values). In lighter terms a consumer may become involved
with a product if it serves to one’s interest and help achieve what the consumer plans to use to
product for with a considerable benchmark of targets (Engel et al.,1993).
The involvement construct is based on a hierarchical conceptualization in that general
involvement with certain activities, interests, or issues lead to involvement with related products
and services (Day et al., 1995). Product involvement narrows down towards the product in general
and observes the interest and enthusiasm a consumer has towards that products (Goldsmith and
Emmert, 1991).
There is an established positive correlation when it comes to product involvement with awareness
and general know how to the brands and product, how important a product is said to be perceived,
brand perceptions and preferences, advertisement perceptions, and the perceived risk in owning
that product (Antil, 1984; Auty and Elliott, 1998; Dholakia, 2001; Howard and Sheth, 1969;
Quester, 1998; Zaichkowsky, 1985b; Zhao, 2003).
Celebrity Influence on Product Involvement
Celebrities have a positive correlation to brand and product perception when they appear in low
involvement product. If we take a step further to increase the number of celebs then the positive
connotation attached to product perception is also said to increase because different markets are
attacked using the ads in which these celebs appear (Hus & McDonald, 2002).
When we have more than one celebrity in low involvement products/services the influence which
is achieved in the product perception is due to those celebs (Kahle & Homer, 1985). However, the

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story on the other side is quite different as it cannot be said that increasing the number of celebs in
the case of high involvement products will yield any result in consumer perception. It can easily
be said that there is no change on how consumers view products in case of multiple celebrity’s
present. As for high involvement product or service the crux of the advertisement is not the celeb
but the argument being proposed in the favor of that product which will influence consumer
perception and create involvement. Hence consumer attitude is influenced by the argument rather
than the celebrity an advert (Kahle & Homer, 1985).
Consumer perception observes no change in both cases of a single or multiple celeb in high
involvement product ads so for advertiser and marketers of high involvement product or service
the argument which they articulate in favor of their product must take great importance that the
celebrity they choose to endorse.
Brand Attitudes
Definition
Marketers and researchers have shown a great interest over the notion as to why people get attached
to the brands and why people respond to certain brands, the way they do (Chaplin, 2005).
Attachment serves as a construct that describes the attachment of a consumer to a product, it is a
very important one at it as it shown the lifetime profitability and helps in predicting future sales
along with the success of that brand (Thomson, 2006). Along the same time marketeers have
attached attitudes and strength as key identifiers to consumer behavior. Attitude is defined as the
positive or negative emotion invoked at during the presence of product and through that (in the
current context, a brand) is evaluated. Brand attitude strength is evaluated based on how positive
or negative it poses to be and hence it is levied against the certainty to which it is held or to the
point where those positive or negative point of views are considered valid. If the though process
has been put through a lot of effort then it can be said that the brand attitude is strong (Petty,
2006), most likely because it may serve some personal benefit. The amount of thought that is put
into an object through effort and the confidence one has towards that object promotes brand
attitude. The strength of brand attitude predicts many areas of relevance to a firm such the likes of
brand consideration, intention to purchase, purchase behavior, and brand choice (Priester, 2004).
Brand Attitude Impact on Brand Equity
it can be said that if brand image is positive coupled with strong brand attitude then it is to lead to
an improved brand equity. However, this has only been assumed to be true for so long by
marketeers and empirical data proving this statement is inconsistent with this theory. What can be
said that different brand attitudes when coupled together end up significantly improving brand
image which in turn drastically improves the probability that a person may pay a premium price
for a product which in turn ends up improving brand equity. It can be then established that brand
image directly influences brand equity however a forming of a positive brand attitude have showed
to only have an indirect impact on brand equity even though it can be said that there is a direct

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relation between brand attitude and brand equity however there lacks enough empirical evidence
to conclude that or establish a variable which may like to a direct relationship. On the other hand,
there is also inconsistent literature to prove the otherwise that brand attitude does not have a direct
relationship with brand equity. Brand attitude is a type of brand association, and therefore, should
also indirectly influence brand equity through the brand image construct. The only way brand
attitude is directly linked to brand equity Is using another construct which brand image is as
discussed above and hence knowing this huge impact in equity is only witnessed when brand image
is in the picture. This is consistent with (Keller K. L., 1993), who stated that brand image is a part
of brand attitude. Thus, while brand attitude might be positive, when combined with other retrieved
relevant associations, an image that is not positive or otherwise conducive to biased brand purchase
behavior may have been created. Knowing this, it can be said that brand image is a better predictor
of brand equity than that of brand attitude. The argument for brand image is more valid as image
provoke certain feelings into the consumers and that these images may evoke brand equity better
than brand attitude alone. This provides support for the inclusion of brand attitude as one of the
elements of brand image that help drive up brand equity.
Conceptual Framework
The previous chapters discussed each construct of the research separately. This chapter will bring
these constructs together in a conceptual framework, the basis of which is deduced from the
literature reviewed above.
As discussed in chapter 3 and chapter 4, celebrity endorser’s credibility and attractiveness have
been established as valid predictors of endorsement effectiveness. Many researches (cited above)
have concluded a positive relationship between source credibility and/or source attractiveness on
consumer’s attitude towards the brand and have identified variables that moderate this relationship.

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Although extensive research has already been conducted on the topic of celebrity endorsement,
the focus of most of these researches has been traditional celebrities. With the advent of social
media, a new class of celebrities – social media influencers have emerged. Chapter 1 discusses this
class of celebrity in detail, their types, characteristics and their effectiveness when used as a
marketing tool.
The distinctiveness of social media influencers from traditional celebrities warrants a fresh
research intro celebrity endorsement phenomenon. Although the marketing world has been quick
to jump on the bandwagon of influencer marketing, evident by the fact that the influencer
marketing industry is all set to reach a whopping $15 billion by 2022 (Business Insider, 2019), the
same cannot be said about the research fraternity’s fascination with the concept of influencer
marketing.
The research on effectiveness of social media influencer marketing is at a novel stage. Chapter 1
and section 3.8 of chapter 3 reviews the current available literature on social media influencer’s
effectiveness. Most of the researchers have employed already available models of traditional
celebrity endorsements (source credibility, source attractiveness, match-up hypothesis, meaning-
transfer models) to measure the effects of social media influencers on brand attitudes. Many of
these researches, as discussed in chapter 1 and section 3.8 of chapter 3, have found positive
association between social media influencer’s credibility and/or attractiveness on consumer
attitudes towards the brand.
Based on the literature reviewed on traditional celebrities as well as social media
celebrities/influencers, the following conceptual framework and hypotheses have been developed:
Figure: Conceptual Framework
H1: In case of high involvement product, social media influencer’s attractiveness will have a
positive influence on consumer attitude towards the endorsed brand.

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H2: In case of high involvement product, social media influencer’s trustworthiness will have a
positive influence on consumer attitude towards the endorsed brand.
H3: In case of high involvement product, social media influencer’s expertise will have a positive
influence on consumer attitude towards the endorsed brand.
Based on Elaboration Likelihood Model that suggests information is processed through central
processing route in case of high-involvement situations, and the finding that source expertise may
serve as a central persuasion cue more than peripheral cue (Homer & Kahle, 1990) leads us to our
fourth hypothesis:
H4: In case of high involvement product, social media influencer’s expertise will have a greater
positive influence on consumer attitude towards the endorsed brand, than trustworthiness and
attractiveness.
Gaps in Literature
Although there are studies available on effect of social media influencer’s credibility and
attractiveness on brand attitudes, none of these researches have been conducted particularly in
context of a high-involvement product.
Chapter 5 of this literature review highlights the effects of involvement on attitude formation and
information processing. Process of information by consumers and subsequent formation of
attitudes differ for high-involvement products and low-involvement products. In-fact, level of
involvement has been found to moderate the effect on brand attitudes of endorsement by traditional
celebrities (Erdogan B. Z., 1999). Hence, studying the effects of social media influencer’s
credibility and attractiveness particularly in case of high-involvement product seems worthwhile.
Secondly, the current available researches have studied the effect of influencer endorsements either
using a quantitative method of analysis or qualitative method of research. None of the researches
we reviewed had employed both qualitative and quantitative to study in-depth the effects of
influencer endorsement on brand attitude. Hence, this study will fill this gap in the literature by
quantitatively measuring the relationship between social media influencer’s attractiveness and
credibility on attitude towards the brand and complementing this by qualitatively investigating the
reasons behind this relationship.
Lastly, the research on celebrity endorsement in Pakistani context is scant. In-fact, search of key-
words “influencer marketing Pakistan,” “social media influencer Pakistan” on google scholar
yielded a no relevant search result. Although, celebrity endorsements have been studied on
Pakistani population, but no such study was found for social media influencers.
A research titled “Lessons from the Rich and Famous: A cross-cultural comparison of celebrity
endorsement in advertising” established that the use of celebrity endorsers and the meanings they
convey may vary across cultures. Also, consumer perceptions of celebrities may depend on cultural
context (Choi, Lee, & Kim, 2005).

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In light of the above study, we feel studying social media influencers effect on brand attitudes
particularly in Pakistani cultural context will add value to existing literature.

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METHODOLOGY
Research Paradigms
The word has its aetiology in Greek where it means pattern. In educational research the term
paradigm is used to describe a researcher’s ‘worldview’ (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). It reflects
the researcher’s beliefs and the way he sees the world and his interpretations and actions in the
world. A paradigm comprises four elements, namely, epistemology, ontology, methodology and
axiology.
• Epistemology is concerned with the theory of knowledge, justification and the rationality
of belief.
• Ontology is the study about the essence and existence of things
• Methodology is the systematic and theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a
particular field of study.
• Axiology considers the study of principles and values.
Positivist Paradigm
Positivism is sometimes referred to as 'scientific method' or 'science research', is "based on the
rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke,
August Comte, and Emmanuel Kant" (Mertens, 2005, p.8) and "reflects a deterministic 3
philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes" (Creswell, 2003, p.7).
Proponents of positivist paradigm say that only factual knowledge gained through observations is
trustworthy. It depends on quantifiable data that leads to statistical analysis. Positivist usually
adopts deductive approach of research and is independent from human interests.
Interpretivist/Constructivist Paradigm
Interpretivist/constructivist approaches to research have the intention of understanding "the world
of human experience" (Cohen & Manion, 1994, p.36), suggesting that "reality is socially
constructed" (Mertens, 2005, p.12). It allows researcher to interpret the elements of his study and
it integrates human interests into study. It is important for the researcher to acknowledge the
differences between people. The access to reality is only through social constructs.

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Transformative Paradigm
The research that involves ideas and discoveries that rationally change the understanding of an
existing concept. It focuses on marginalized groups and focus on their experiences and the causes
that lead to marginalization.
Pragmatic Paradigm
Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality. Pragmatist researchers
focus on the 'what' and 'how' of the research problem (Creswell, 2003, p.11). We used pragmatism
as our research approach. This paradigm relates to intervention, action, and constructive
knowledge (Goldkuhl, 2012). Furthermore, it is an emerging research paradigm where practical
consequences and the effects of concepts and behaviors are vital components of meaning and truth.
It combines the use of qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. (Shaw, 2010). This
method is increasingly being used in the health and education sectors to come up with evidence to
support best practices. Since our topic demanded extensive data to support or reject our
hypotheses, this paradigm is what proved best for our research and since we followed the
pragmatist paradigm, we followed a mixed method of research. The mixed method of research
centers around research questions that call for real-life contextual understandings. It utilizes
thorough quantitative and qualitative research, involves multiple sources and types of data,
efficiently coordinates and triangulates various kinds of information to boost the qualities and limit
the shortcomings of each type of data, and develops and integrates conceptual and theoretical
frameworks into the into the advancement of research questions (Johnson, 2019). Hence, our
analysis is based on both qualitative and quantitative data. We conducted focus groups and
interviews, and surveys to gather qualitative and quantitative data respectively.
Mixed Methods Research
In this method of researcher, a researcher combines quantitative and qualitative aspects of a
research to devise a research finding that couldn’t be found by using only one of the above.
Quantitative data includes data that can be measured and scored (e.g. surveys, experiments) and
the analysis of this type of data is usually done statistically.
Qualitative data consists of open-ended information that the researcher usually gathers through
interviews, focus groups and observations. The analysis of the qualitative data (words, text or
behaviors) typically follows the path of aggregating it into categories of information and presenting
the diversity of ideas gathered during data collection.

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One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed methods research is the
possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods, data sources and researchers)
to examine the same phenomenon. Triangulation allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon
more accurately by approaching it from different vantage points using different methods and
techniques. Successful triangulation requires careful analysis of the type of information provided
by each method, including its strengths and weaknesses. (Ltd, 2019)
Research Process:
Our research process started with a literature review, which required us to study 200 articles. This
helped us build a conceptual framework, which served as a background for our focus groups and
interviews. The qualitative part of our research methodology further enabled us to come up with
an extensive questionnaire, which was used to conduct a survey. The survey makes up our
quantitative research. In the end, the qualitative and quantitative findings lead us to our analysis
which completes our research process.
Literature
Review
Conceptual
Framework
Focus
Group 1
Focus
Group 2
Focus
Group 3
Interview
Survey Analysis Report
Qualitative
Quantitative

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QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE
Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies are essential. But their logics of inquiry are quite
separate and impact design, data collection, analysis, and reporting. (Sonia M. Ospina, 2017)
Quantitative research measures phenomena by eliciting numbers and percentages that, at least
within the limitations of a given sample, have the status of ‘facts’. Quantitative studies can be
suitably defined as a set of ‘what?’ questions (e.g. what number or percentage of people prefer
Coke to Pepsi, or what number of people in a group of population have had noodles in the past
week). (Barnham, Perceptual foundations, 2015)
Qualitative market research, on the other hand, is used when more ‘in depth’ knowledge of
participants’ attitudes, behavior and motivations is needed. (Barnham, Perceptual foundations,
2015) Qualitative studies illustrate the processes and meanings related to a phenomenon and
provide insights that are often not easy to gain with numeric data. (Sonia M. Ospina, 2017)
Qualitative Research
The features characterizing qualitative research are:
(1) integrating an all-inclusive view of the study context;
(2) substituting standardized instrumentation with the researcher as the key instrument, to take
respondents’ worldviews;
(3) making use of words, and forms of representation other than numbers, for analysis of themes,
gaps, and patterns; and
(4) delivering an explanation of the phenomenon relating to the theoretical assumptions used.
(Sonia M. Ospina, 2017)
Qualitative research is generally synonymous to the use of methods that comprise, at least, in-
depth interview and group-moderation techniques; researchers who possess the skill and expertise
to cover the procedures used and the interpretations derived; a particular objective to answer
‘why?’ and ‘how?’ questions. Qualitative researchers frequently argue that their methodology
(smaller samples but added depth) gives what can be termed as ‘better mental facts’. These are
believed to be found at a more subconscious level, and which can be grasped only through
prolonged discussion and analysis. Therefore, qualitative research is distinguished by ‘getting
under the surface’ of rational participant’s responses to another and deeper layer. For instance,
when we ask a respondent about an experience, like shopping, we know that it is handy to use
open-ended questions. They allow respondents to tell ‘what the experience is like’. The word ‘like’
is noteworthy here – we are implicitly asking them to make their own comparisons (and
distinctions) – in other words, what respondents really think. (Barnham, Perceptual foundations,
2015)
The main questions are planned prior to the interview. Follow-up questions are entirely new
questions induced by the respondent’s preceding answer (Moerman, 2010). We cannot leave it up
to the participants to tell us wherever they are inclined. They typically have a very blurred

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understanding of the why question. The probes are used to get more, specific or clearer answers
(Bailey, 2014). The term ‘probing techniques’ refers to all behavior, such as prompts, probes and
follow-up questions, after the initial scripted questions (Moerman, 2010). The questioning process
would deliver solid data only if it progresses in the least controlled way possible, in the manner of
a relaxed and impartial conversation (Bailey, 2014).
Focus Group
Focus groups are organized group discussions, conducted to understand the attitudes, beliefs,
practices and values of participants related to a certain topic. The talk generated in focus groups is
often a mixture of personal opinions and existing collective narratives, which are shaped by the
social and cultural contexts of participants’ lives. Hence, they can probably highlight group norms
and processes. Moreover, focus groups present various layers of meaning, including personal and
public information; convergence and divergence in usage and attitude; an insight into people’s
lives and situations.
The content of focus group data is analyzed to get insight on personal views and conduct. Thematic
analysis is a process for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data. A theme
captures something important about the data in connection with the research question. Information
can be obtained by focusing on complementary and argumentative interactions as participants are
(re)producing accounts of their everyday experiences, while at the same time making sense of
them. (Ahmed, 2017)
Methodology
We conducted three focus groups and one in-depth interview as part of our qualitative research.
Because the average number of focus groups necessary to reach 80% saturation is 2.7 (range two
to three groups). Signifying that two to three focus groups will likely capture at least 80% of themes
in a topic—including those most broadly shared—in a study with a relatively homogeneous
population using a semi-structured guide. (Greg Guest E. N., 2016)
For two focus groups we attempted to recruit eight individuals, a number representing the modal
recommendation in the literature for group size (Greg Guest E. N., 2017). Only one group had six
participants, so the mean was 7.33 individuals per group. (Greg Guest E. N., 2016)
We did not introduce any information learned in previous focus groups as one naturally would in
inductive qualitative research. This was done to treat each focus group as a ‘‘new’’ and unique
event to enable the methods’ objectivity of analysis. (Greg Guest E. N., 2016)
Each session took around 75 minutes. Before every focus group, information about the purpose of
the session was given and the rules to be kept in mind regarding the discussion process were
clarified. All sessions were audio recorded, and the voice recordings of data were later transcribed.
(Halime Yıldırım, 2018)
Sampling
The sampling strategy was administered by recruiting respondents who would add on to theory
formation. Theoretical sampling or Purposive sampling deals with selecting a sample which is
meaningful empirically and comprises specific characteristics which help the development of an

P a g e 30 | 58
argument. It can be thought of as selecting cases to study based on their relevance to research
questions, analytical framework, practice, and importantly the argument or explanation being
developed. (Chapter 12: Qualitative Data, Analysis and Design) Our selection criteria were
undergraduate students at Institute of Business Administration, Karachi (Main Campus), who drive
their own car and were free in break time when focus groups were scheduled.
Thus, participants were possibly motivated to take part in the research and have a chance to share
their experiences. In such type of research, the association between the sample and the broader
population is not always demographic representation: samples are recruited deliberately for the
contribution that they can make to evolving theory, which can be recontextualized in multiple
diverse settings, constituting to theory-based generalization. (Ahmed, 2017)
Coding
We never get valuable details just by ‘collecting the facts’. Interpretation is crucial, i.e. the motives
and the mental mechanisms which regulate conduct in given circumstances (Bailey, 2014). The
collected data is assembled, categorized, and thematically sorted through Coding, for the
construction of meaning. (Michael Williams, 2019)
Coding is a principal data organizing procedure in qualitative research. A code largely refers to a
word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, relevant, essence-capturing, and
suggestive attribute for a piece of language-based or visual data. We used a progressive three-step
schema; First, Second and Third level coding based on the formula “from codes and categories to
theory”. (Saldana, 2009)
Open coding is the first level of coding. In open coding, we identified different concepts and
themes for categorization. The first level of data was prepared by creating primary broad thematic
domains for data grouping.
Axial coding is the second level of coding. It further refines, aligns, and classifies the themes.
Axial coding finds relationships between open codes, for developing core codes. Major (core)
codes emerge as categories of the most closely interrelated (or overlapping) open codes for which
supportive evidence is strong. The categories that are confirmed from axial coding act as the axis
point or hub in axial coding.
For refining theme and categorization, we used “line-by-line” coding. In this, each textual line of
an interview or document is examined with the goal of keeping focus on the text. We did not want
to impose our pre-existing conceptual framework onto the data, but rather to let new themes
emerge from it.
Selective coding is the third level of coding. It enabled us to select and incorporate the categories
of organized data from axial coding in interconnected and meaning-filled expressions. It is at a
higher level of abstraction, through activities that lead to an explanation or formulation of the
theory. This approach to data framing allowed us to work constantly toward thematic specificity
and, in turn, theory creation. Then we move towards developing theory and eventually making
sense of it. (Michael Williams, 2019)

P a g e 31 | 58
Creation of Theory and Meaning
After each transcript was coded, we compared emerging themes. All coding inconsistencies were
resolved through discussion to create a consensus-coded file, and the codes were revised to add
new codes or reflect changes to code definitions. (Greg Guest E. N., 2016)
Analysis
We already had a conceptual framework on Social Media Influencers and we basically formulated
our qualitative research around it. The themes we found out either matched the conceptual
framework, contradicted it, or added to it (Gilgun, 2005). We used deductive approach for this
purpose, which is aimed at testing hypothesis and eventually answering the research question. The
data that was collected was used to uncover the degree to which the hypotheses were supported.
(Persson, 2017)
Selective
Code: Themes
Axial Codes:
Categories
Limitations of
having a car
Factors
affecting
purchase
Factors
affecting usage
Adds to traffic
Key
inhibitors of
having a car
Open Codes
Fuel cost
Hectic in traffic
Driving can be tough
Availability of spare parts
Ease of repair & maintenance
mmainmmainmainmaintenan
Available budget
Car is a status symbol
Societal pressure
Driving is tough
Poor infrastructure
Having a driver
Traffic issues
Adds to traffic
Distance to travel

P a g e 32 | 58
Our research was on consumer usage and attitude related to Automobile: do people prefer their
own cars over public transport, do they like driving or not, brands they prefer such as Suzuki,
Honda, etc. So, we used an exploratory (inductive) approach that would provide a greater amount
of statements that could be used for the analysis. Inductive approach focuses on generating theory
from collected data. These studies allow the researcher to delve into a phenomenon and develop a
deeper understanding. (Persson, 2017)
Findings
SMI Effectiveness
19 out of 22 respondents considered SMIs influence their purchase intention, consciously or sub-
consciously.
They believe a SMI could change their opinion about a particular brand.
Only one respondent believed SMI lacked the celebrity power required for influencing.
High brand recalls due to SMIs.
Excerpts: “That’s how marketing works, I mean you use social media. Everybody knows k Fawad
Khan ka shampoo is not better than ours, he uses the same shampoo. But you still use Fawad Khan
ka shampoo.”
“I agree with that but the thing is if someone is making 10 vlogs and 1 of them is about a car, you’d
trust them more because you trusted the other 9 vlogs. So there’s this sum of .. built credibility that
they have from the content they’re already making”
High Involvement
All respondents considered a car a high-involvement product.
High-involvement situation encouraged opinion-seeking from expert friends and other sources.
6 participants said that they would invest around 15-25 lacs on their first car.
Excerpts: "You don’t buy cars everyday, right? Car is not an FMCG." "You’re making a big
investment."
“It’s holds a special value, I would keep it with care.”
“Regardless of the nature of the person, when you’re making such a huge investment on an asset,
you are automatically inclined to take advices."
SMI Expertise
Expert SMIs were interpreted to be more influencing due to high-involvement product.
Expert SMIs are more likely to be considered paid and affiliated with the endorsed brand.
Excerpts: “You will listen to him because he’s running a page, and he’s working on it so he knows
things."
“I believe when I am stuck between two cars right that are somewhat similar. For me, at that
moment, his word matters a lot because obviously he knows his shit right."
“You still check if he’s biased, he is forced, or has any collaboration with any company. “

P a g e 33 | 58
SMI Trustworthiness
Whether SMI could be trusted appears a major concern.
3 out of 22 respondents were of the view that SMIs could not be trusted at all. These 3 were the
same who said they won't be influenced by SMIs.
Expertise was found to interact with trustworthiness.
Excerpts: “We’re talking about someone that is very established in the field right?”
“But I think he has reach, definitely like any sort of branding, marketing, and especially pakwheels
owner right? Definitely it has an impact, at least on my decision, and I’m sure on countless others."
Moderating/Mediating Variables
Perceived motive of endorsement
“ If you know for a fact that he’s not being paid and not sort of agent for the company and whatever
he’s saying is in genuine opinion. It is still an opinion, but it is genuine opinion, which obviously
holds more importance than a person who’s simply being paid for that.” “It’s not credible.”
“Mooroo did a vlog on Porsche and .. the start of the video there’s this thing which comes up like
‘It’s not a paid content’ as like you know k this person is not doing it for himself, he’s doing it for
the product.” “Genuine”
Paid vs unpaid endorsement
“Now it depends, usually celebrities are paid!”
“Manjan bech raha hoga.”
“You do listen to it but you cross check it. You always cross check it. I mean at least with me, I
will cross check the facts even is a person is telling objectively, for example, the horsepower, the
mileage of car, I will cross check it with people so that I know a better picture and that I can make
an informed decision.”
Disclosed vs undisclosed endorsement
“If I were to see a certain celebrity endorsing any product, I know that this is apparent endorsement.
But guys like Sunil, you don’t know what happens behind his vlog, he might endorse you subtly.
Like for instance, I personally love a car Aqua alright, and if my friend likes it so there will be
reasons. But if Sunil is endorsed by Aqua, then he will not talk about the problems in that car. He
will try to focus more of that vlog’s time on talking good about it.”
User vs non-user influencer
“What I’ve realized is what I’ve actually and it’s taught in our courses by teachers that the issue
with endorsers of sub-continent is that they don’t use the product themselves. They are just
endorsing it. Abroad, or in the western world, or in Europe, if an xyz person or celebrity, if he’s
endorsing a product, this means that he has used that product. It comes to morals and ethics in the
end. So, I’m pretty sure about that celebrities do not use it themselves. If someone is endorsing a

P a g e 34 | 58
Mehran for example a celebrity, I know for a fact k he would not use a Mehran in real life.”
“QMobile’s advertisement for example, Fawad Khan endorses those mobiles.”
Type of argument (objective vs subjective opinions of influencer)
“One of the reasons might be that facts and figures in case of Sunil, I would be more inclined
towards because he knows his stuff right, he’s an expert. If he says that this particular brand is
better, I mean subjective opinions then I know that his work is already on automobile industry
right, he might have affiliations.”
Following are some insights that were not initially in the conceptual framework but are worthy of
sharing. They are related to Automobile usage and attitude (as a high-involvement product):

P a g e 35 | 58
Theme: Key motivators of having a car
Sub-themes Codes Frequency Excerpts
better in quality 5 "Nicer than a public one."
hassle-free 9 "Public transport will always be a hassle."
more secure 8
"There are a lot of permission issues at home
regarding safety etc."
offers privacy 6 "One wants an individual space, private space."
more convenient 13
“Convenience, in the sense whenever I
feel like going out, I can go.”
offers freedom and
independence
11 "I can go whenever I want to go, wherever I want to go."
comfortable 5 "Own transport feels comfortable."
buffer' for 'chaotic'
driving enviornment
3
"Accidents usually occur in traffic, bike riders are
rash drivers."
safer 3
"Being a female in this society, I prefer going out alone
than with a guy."
good mileage 2
safety features 6 "I feel a car is safe, it has seatbelts."
strong exterior 6
"Exterior is important when you're getting a car
for yourself."
durability 3 "It's an investment, should last longer."
comfortable interior 2
"When you sit comfortably in your car, you can reduce
aggression to some extent."
turning radius of a car 1 "I would say turning radius of the car matters a lot."
music features 3 "AUX"
peer expert opinion 2
"I would be more inclined towards Sunil because he
knows his stuff right, he's an expert."
user recommendation 3
"I naturally would be gravitated towards it a little bit
more because I know that this guy is actually driving
this car right now"
relatives say 5 "Decision of family members matters a lot."
online reviews 2 "They might form my opinion in the first place."
dealer advice 1 "Car dealers at showrooms eventually drive your purchase."
mechanic opinions 2 "If mechanics can easily fix a car, it's a big factor."
brand preference 1
“I think it’s more about Brand loyalty because we
already had a 2006 ki Cultus and he was very
comfortable with it .”
Benefits of
having a car
over
public transport
Benefits of
having a car
in general
Attributes of
a good car
Factors affecting
purchase

P a g e 36 | 58
Theme: Key inhibitors of having a car
fuel cost 4 "Fuel consumption should not be high."
hectic in traffic 3 "There is congestion"
driving can be tough 4 "It is frustrating"
adds to traffic 1
"I avoid going out in rush hours, I try to leave a
bit early or late."
availability of spare parts 1 "Spare parts for Honda are rarely available here."
ease of repair and maintenance 2
"Every other mechanic knows how to deal with
a Suzuki."
available budget 7 "Constraint is budget set by family."
car is a status symbol 8
"I agree because a lot of people judge me that
as I come in a Reborn, I am rich."
societal pressure 7 "There is societal pressure, family pressure."
Driving is tough 4
"It is tiring to put effort as a driver rather
than sitting on passenger seat."
Poor infrastructure 4 "Bad road conditions do not let me enjoy a drive."
Distance to travel 1 "Depends how far does one live."
Having a driver 2 "Driver should be efficient to get out of traffic."
Traffic issues 6 "Traffic problem"
Limitations of
having a car
Factors
affecting
purchase
Factors
affecting
usage
Theme: Key motivators of the brand (Suzuki)
affordable 4 "I guess there is affordability but obviously there is a lot of com
easy to repair and
maintain
2
"Speaking of repairs, Suzuki is at an advantage."
wide availability of
repair parts
2 "It will influence my decision to buy a car."
good as a basic mode
of transport
1
"But as a car itself, as a mode
of transport, yes you do get affordable cars,
with good mileage obviously.”
durable 3 "It's durable, bought and used for a longer time."
patriotic value 1 "I think as a Pakistani, I would prefer the brand."
nostalgic value
1
"I think if I could draw a parallel with another
brand, I’d go with Nokia."
affordable car
5
"Brand perception is affordability or lower class,
it is made for lower middle class or middle
class."
Suzuki positives
Positive brand
perceptions

P a g e 37 | 58
Theme: Key inhibitors of the brand (Suzuki)
lack of innovation
4
"Apparently for me at least they lack
the innovation that’s needed."
compromise on comfort
2
"You do compromise on load of things. For
example, comfort."
negatively affect social
status
(low on status symbol)
5
"If I own a Mehran, and someone else owns
a Corolla, I feel bad from inside."
stepping stone
3
"For me Suzuki would be ideal as a first car
but obviously I would prefer something
better as I progress along the years.”
"ghareebon ki gaari"
4
"Wo basically Suzuki ko ghareeb logo ki gaari
bola gya hai. Wo hai ghareeb logo ki gaari.”
'cheap'
6
"Suzuki provides you cheap cars and
basic features"
Suzuki negatives
Negative brand
perceptions
In-depth interviews
In-depth interviewing is a qualitative method of research which involves taking an intense
interview of a key opinion leader and finding their views and ideas pertaining to a certain topic.
For example, we might ask participants, staff, and others associated with a program on what were
their most enjoyed experiences and what they might be further expecting along with any short
comings with in the process of doing something, and any felt change they saw in themselves whilst
being associated with the program. In-depth interviews prove to be quite useful when you want
deep though opinion and behaviors of a person about a topic. It provides a context for different
types of data, detailing a clearer picture as to what happened in the program and its cause. Focus
groups should be swapped with in-depth interviews if the participant s of that focus group are not
comfortable taking to openly in a group, or when the need is to refine future qualitative research
of a program.
The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide much more detailed information
than what is available through other data collection methods, such as surveys. They also may
provide a more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information— people may feel more
comfortable having a conversation with you about their program as opposed to filling out a survey.
However, there are a few limitations and pitfalls, each of which is described below. Prone to bias:
Because program or clinic staff might want to “prove” that a program is working, their interview
responses might be biased. Responses from community members and program participants could
also be biased due to their stake in the program or for a number of other reasons. Every effort
should be made to design a data collection effort, create instruments, and conduct interviews to
allow for minimal bias. Can be time-intensive: Interviews can be a time-intensive evaluation

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