2. Why Study Managerial Economics ?
o Sound Economic Business Decision:
o Factors Influencing:
o Managerial economics tells managers how things should be done to achieve
objectives efficiently, and helps them recognize how economic forces affect
organizations.*
Definition:
Economics is a social science, which studies human behavior in relation
to optimizing allocation of available resources to achieve the given ends.
3. Meaning :
Is a Discipline that deals with the application of Economic Concepts ,Theories and methods to the practical problem of
the Business to formulate rational Management decision.
Problems may be relating to costs,prices,forecasting the future market,human resource management, profits etc.
It is the attempt to optimize business decisions given the firm's objectives and given constraints imposed by scarcity.
4. Scope:
Wherever there are scarce resources, managerial economics ensures that managers make
effective and efficient decisions concerning customers, suppliers, competitors as well as within
an organization.
Helps in the following :
Demand Analysis and Forecasting :
Cost Analysis :
Production And Supply Analysis:
Pricing Decisions
5. Difference BW Accounting Profit & Economic Profit:
Accounting Profit Economic Profit :
Revenue - Cost. Opportunity Cost - Revenue
Significant in Number Less
6. Why Do Profits among Firms Vary ?
Disequilibrium Profit Theories:
Markets are sometimes in disequilibrium because of unanticipated changes in demand or cost
conditions.
Profits are sometimes above or below normal because of factors that prevent
instantaneous adjustment to new market conditions.
Monopoly profits exist when firms are sheltered from competition by high
barriers to entry.
Economies of scale, high capital requirements, patents, or import
protection, among other factors, enable some firms to build monopoly
positions that allow above-normal profits for extended periods.
Compensatory Profit Theories: Innovation profit theory, describes the above‑normal
profits that arise following successful invention or modernization.
As in the case of frictional or disequilibrium profits, innovation profits are
susceptible to the onslaught of competition from new and established
competitors.
Compensatory profit theory describes above‑normal rates of return that
reward firms.
Superior firms provide goods and services that are better, faster or
cheaper than the competition.
7. ROLE OF BUSINESS IN SOCIETY :
Why Firms Exist ?
Business contributes significantly to social welfare.
These contributions stem directly from the efficiency of business in serving the
economic needs of customers.
Social Responsibility of Business:
The firm can be viewed as a collaborative effort on the part of management,
workers, suppliers, and investors on behalf of consumers.
Taxes and restrictions on firms are taxes and restrictions on people associated
with the firm.
9. Text Books
Managerial Economics: Joel Dean.
Managerial Economics: Mote Paul & Gupta.
Managerial Economics: James pappas & Mark
Hershey.
Managerial Economics: Milton Spencer & Louis
Siegleman.
Economics : Samuelson
10. Economic Concepts
Demand:
Refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by
buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are
willing to buy at a certain price; the relationship between Price and
quantity demanded is called as Demand Relationship.
Supply:
Represents how much the market can offer. The quantity supplied
refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply
when receiving a certain price. The correlation between price and how
much of a good or service is supplied to the market is known as the
supply relationship.
11. The Law of Demand
The law of demand states that, if all other factors remain
equal, the higher the price of a good, the less people will demand that
good. In other words, the higher the price, the lower the quantity
demanded. The amount of a good that buyers purchase at a higher price
is less because as the price of a good goes up, so does the opportunity
cost of buying that good. As a result, people will naturally avoid buying a
product that will force them to forgo the consumption of something else
they value more.
12. Types of Demand:
Individual demand:
Market demand:
Joint demand:
Composite demand: Number of Uses.
Competitive demand: close substitutes .
Derived demand:
Variation in demand:
Direct demand:
13. Exceptions to the Law of Demand:
Speculative Market:
Inferior goods: Increase in Purchasing Power.
Prestige goods: Status Attached ( Veblen effect)
Price Illusions: Quality related to price.
Demonstration effect:
Snob Effect:
In the Above cases the Demand
curve is Upward showing a positive relationship between
Price and demand.
14. Chief Characteristics Of Demand:
Inverse Relationship:
Price ,an Independent while Demand is Dependant
Variable:
Other Things remaining Constant:
Determinants of Demand:
Income:
Price:
Weather Conditions:
Fashion:
Money Circulation:
Advertisement and salesmanship:
15. Price Elasticity of Demand
Meaning:
Definition:
(PED or Ed)
“ The degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change
in price”
Formula :
Proportionate change in quantity demanded
_______________________________________________
Proportionate change in Price
16. Types of Elasticity of Demand
Income Elasticity:
Demand for a good is the ratio of the percentage change in the amount
spent on the commodity to a percentage change in the consumer’s
income.
Proportionate change in the quantity purchased
_____________________________________________
Proportionate change in Income
17. Cross Elasticity :
A change in the price of one good causes a change in the
demand for another.
Proportionate change in purchases of commodity X
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Proportionate change in the price of commodity Y
Complementary Goods:
Substitutes:
18. Perfectly Elastic Demand:
Where No Reduction In price is Needed to Increase
Demand.
Perfectly Inelastic Demand: Where Change in Demand
results in no change in price .
Demand with Unity Elasticity: Equal Change
Relatively Elastic Demand: Reduction in price leads to
relatively more change in demand.
Relatively inelastic Demand: Where reduction in price leads
to less change in demand.
19. Determinants Of PED
Availability of substitute goods:
Income:
Necessity:
Brand loyalty:
Who pays:
Proportionate of Income spend:
20. Opportunity Cost:
Is meant the sacrifice of alternatives required by that
decision.
Ex: Funds, Time.
Production function
Is a function that specifies the output of a firm, an industry,
or an entire economy for all combinations of inputs
Q = f(X1,X2,X3,...,Xn)
where:
Q = quantity of output
X1,X2,X3,...,Xn = quantities of factor inputs (such as capital,
labour, land or raw materials)
21. The law of supply
This Law demonstrates the quantities that will be sold at a certain
price. But unlike the law of demand, the supply relationship shows
an upward slope. This means that the higher the price, the higher the
quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price because
selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.
Factors Effecting Supply:
Input prices –
Technology -
Expectations -
22. Law of Demand
The Law of Demand
A, B and C are points on the demand curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation
between quantity demanded (Q) and price (P).
So, at point A, the quantity demanded will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on. The demand
relationship curve illustrates the negative relationship between price and quantity demanded.
The higher the price of a good the lower the quantity demanded (A), and the lower the price, the
more the good will be in demand (C)
23. Law of Supply
Supply (s)
P3
Supply Relationship
P2
P1
Q1 Q2 Q3
A, B and C are points on the supply curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation
between quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). At point B, the quantity supplied will be Q2 and the price
will be P2, and so on
24. Demand Forecast
Meaning:
Length of Forecast:
Short term Forecasting: up to 12 months used for
inventory control, productions plans etc…
Medium term forecasting: 1- 2 years used for rate of
maintenance, schedule of operations etc…
Long term forecasting: 3 – 10 years used for manpower
planning, capital expenditure etc…
25. Levels :
Macro – Level : National Income ?& Expenditure.
Industry Level :
Firm Level:
26. Purposes of Short term Forecasting
Appropriate Production:
Reducing Costs:
Determining appropriate Pricing Policy :
Setting Sales targets:
Advertising Decision:
Financial Requirement:
27. Purposes of Long term Forecasting
Expansion Plans:
Long term financial requirement:
Planning Man Power:
Classification of Forecasting
Passive Forecasting
Active Forecasting
31. Criteria for a good forecasting Method:
Accuracy:
Simplicity and ease of comprehensions:
Economy:
Availability:
Maintenance of Timeliness:
32. Presentations of forecast to
management
Ease to understand.
Avoid using vague generalities.
Always pin-point major assumptions and sources.
Give possible margin of error.
Avoid making undue qualifications.
Omit details about methods and calculations.
Charts and graphs .
33. Steps in Demand Forecasting
Setting the Objectives.
Selection and Classification of Goods.
Selection of Methods.
Interpreting the result.
34. Qualitative Sources of Data:
Consumer Market
Survey Method
Experiments
Expert Opinion
Methods
Complete Sales Force Method
Enumeration Sample
Survey
37. Advantages:
It Facilitates the Anonymity of the respondents.
This is nearly as good as having the panelist physically
pooled.
Conditions:
Panelist Knowledge :
43. Costs Determinants:
•Level of Output:
•Prices and Input factors:
•Productivity:
•Size of the plant:
•Lot of size:
•Level of capacity utilization:
•Technology :
•Learning Curve:
•Breath of product range:
• Geography:
•Degree of vertical Integration:
45. Economies of Scale
Cost advantages
Expansion.
Average cost per unit to fall as the scale of output is
increased.
"Economies of scale" is a long run concept and
refers to reductions in unit cost as the size of a
facility .
Marketing Costs, Purchasing Costs etc…
46.
47. Market Analysis
Meaning:
Elements :
Market size : Sum of Revenue of the market.
Market profitability:
Market growth rate :
Distribution channels :
Success Factors :
Importance Of Market Analysis:
48. Steps in Market Analysis :
Defining the problem
Analysis of the situation
Obtaining data that is specific to the problem
Analysis and interpreting the data
Fostering ideas and problem solving
Designing a plan
49. 1 ) Defining the problem
Are we trying to market our entire product or service
line? Or, are we trying to hone in on a new product
or a new service?
What specific marketing strategies ?
How much money is allocated to marketing?
When making a sale, do we survey our customers to
determine a referral source?
Who are our customers?
50. 2 ) Analysis Of The Situation:
Primary & secondary market research:
3 ) Obtaining Data Specific To The Problem :
4 ) Data Analysis and Interpretation :
5 ) Fostering Ideas And Problem Solving:
6 ) Marketing Plan:
51. 3.Obtaining Data Specific To The Problem
Qualitative & Quantitative Questionnaires:
Ex: Excellent=4Good=3Fair=2Poor=1.
Ways to Conduct Surveys:
Mail Surveys : 25 % RR.
Telephone Surveys :
Personal Interview Questions:
Observations:
52. 4 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Poor Sampling :’
Misinterpretation:
5. Fostering Ideas And Problem Solving
6. Marketing Plan
53. Price Discrimination
Degrees of Price Discrimination:
First Degree Discrimination: Seller charges diff price
to same buyer for each unit bought.
Second Degree Discrimination: Seller charges diff
prices for block of units instead of individual units.
Third Degree Discrimination: Segregation , Elasticity
prevails.
54. Conditions for price Discrimination:
Multiple Elasticity:
Market Segmentation:
Market sealing:
Objectives of Price Discrimination:
To dispose of occasional surplus:
To develop a new market:
To earn monopoly Profits:
To enter into or retail export markets:
To raise future sales:
55. Monopoly V/S Price Discrimination
Monopoly : Price discrimination:
Same Price to Buyers . Different Prices to Diff
Monopolistic Decision. Buyers .
Under utilization of Buyers are charged acc to
resources. their ability to pay .
Better utilization of capacity.
56. Pricing Policies:
Introduction:
Consideration for formulation Pricing Policies:
Objectives of Business:
Competition situation:
Product and promotional Activities:
Interest of Manufactures and Middlemen:
57. Objectives of Pricing Policies:
Maximization of profits for entire Product line:
Promotional: Discouraging the entry of new firms.
Adaption of Prices:
Flexibility:
Kotler additional Objectives:
Market Penetration:
Market Skimming:
Early cash Recovery:
58.
59. Role of Cost in Pricing:
Demand Factor In pricing :
Consumer Psychology & Pricing:
Price as an Indicator of Quality :
Ease in measurement:
Expenditure of Money :
Snob Appeal:
61. Reduction In Prices:
Offset possible Loses :
Expansion :
Competition:
Technological Development:
Increase in Prices:
62. Pricing Methods:
1. Cost + Pricing methods:
Advantages of cost-plus pricing :
Easy to calculate.
Minimal information requirements.
Easy to administer.
Ethical advantages.
Simplicity.
It is readily available.
Price increases can be justified in terms of cost
increases .
63. Disadvantages :
Provides no incentive for efficiency.
Tends to ignore the role of consumers.
Tends to ignore the role of competitors.
Ignores Opportunity costs.
64. 2.Target rate of return pricing :
3. Value-based pricing:
Important concepts:
Customers are value conscious rather than price
conscious e.g. some customers will pay extra for prompt
delivery.
Customers assign a personal value to a product or
service e.g. a teenager is willing to pay a premium price
for a concert performed by his idol.
The selling price is based on customers’ perceived value
rather than on the vendor’s costs.
65. 4. Everyday low price:
5. Marginal Cost Pricing:
MC pricing – allows flexibility
Particularly relevant in transport where fixed costs
may be relatively high.
6. Going Rate Pricing:
7. Customary Prices:
8. Sealed Bid Pricing:
