Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning”. The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior.

1. Training,
Learning and
Motivation
Chapter 3
D R N AZ R U L I S L AM

2. Learning Objectives
 Define learning and describe Gange’s five learning
outcomes
 Describe the three stages of learning
 Describe conditioning theory and social learning theory
and their implications to training and development
 Describe adult learning theory, Kolb’s learning styles,
and accelerated learning and their implications for
training and development
 Define motivation and describe need process theories
of motivation and their implications for training and
development
 Define training motivation and discuss its predictors
and consequences.
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3. Training, Learning & Skill
1. The process of acquiring knowledge and skills and a
change in individual behavior as a result of some
experience
For our purpose, that experience is training and
development
2. Learning occurs “when one experiences a new way of
acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new way of acting,
thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern gratifying or
useful, and incorporates it into the repertoire of
behaviors.’’ J R Hinrichs (1976)
3. When a behavior has been learned, it can be thought as
a skill.
4. We infer that learning has taken place if an individual
behaves , reacts, responds, as a result of experience in a
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4. Learning
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5. Robert Gagne’s Classification of
Learning
1. Verbal information
 ‘Declarative knowledge’: facts, knowledge, principles, and
information.
2. Intellectual skills
 ‘Procedural knowledge’: learning of concepts, rules, and
procedures.
3. Cognitive strategies
 Application of information and techniques and understanding
how and when to use the information
4. Motor Skills
 The coordination and execution of physical movements that
involve the use of muscles such as learning to swim.
5. Attitude
 Preferences and internal states associated with one’s beliefs
and feelings.
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6. Stages of Skill Acquisition
Cognitive
Associative
Back
Autonomous

7. 1. The first stage of skill learning is the cognitive stage.
2. The fundamental requirement here is that the athlete gains an
understanding of the task required.
3. This will necessitate knowing what to do and an insight about
how to do it.
4. Conceptualization - or the generation of clear mental pictures
of the task - is essential for good movement reproduction.
5. Demonstrations, videos and information highlighting the
important points can help guide the learner through the skill.
6. During this stage, the learner should experience some
success.
7. All positive learning should be reinforced and encouraged.
8. Many coaches will give drills at this point to improve the
learner's coordination and feel for the desired movement.
The Cognitive stage of skill acquisition

8. 1. The second stage of skill acquisition is the associative stage,
which is identified by an emphasis of practice.
2. The learner, having acquired an idea of what the skill is,
needs to repeat the movement to enhance the
synchronization of their mind and muscles. errors still occur,
but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage.
3. Feedback is again essential to improve the skill, which the
learner repeats frequently in practice. a sense of fluency or
smoothness will develop as the learner's understanding
improves.
4. Practice will improve the way the skill is performed. The
learner eventually experiences some success. These
successes are felt more frequently with additional practice
and feedback. Gradually, the learner feels more at ease as
their confidence increases.
5. Learners can remain at this stage for a long period, even
years.
Associative stage of skill acquisition

9. 1. The third stage of skill acquisition is the autonomous stage,
which is characterized by the ability to automatically execute
the skill.
2. Execution of the movement is now properly sequenced and
performed instinctively.
3. The performer has consolidated the many discrete skills
(commonly called subroutines) that comprise the action. Their
movement has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines
sequence and blend in esthetically pleasing motions.
4. This is referred to as 'temporal patterning'. The movement
looks good because it is efficient, with the muscle groups
working in order and producing only the necessary
movements at the required time.
5. The most important feature of performers in the autonomous
stage is that they are able to attend to other cues while giving
little thought to how to perform the skill.
Autonomous Stage of Skill Acquisition

10. ACT Theory of Learning
According to John Anderson’s Adaptive
Characteristic of
Thought (ACT) theory, learning takes place in
three stages:
1. Declarative knowledge
 facts, knowledge, principles, and information
2. Knowledge compilation
 Integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and
streamline the task.
3. Procedural knowledge
 learning of concepts, rules, and procedures.
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11. Theories of Learning: Conditioning
Theory
 According to Famous Psychologist B E Skinner, learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavior in response
to a particular stimulus or set of stimuli.
 Learning is a result of reward and punishment
contingencies that follow a response to a stimulus.
 The basic idea is that a stimuli or cue would be followed
by a response, which is then reinforced. This in turn
strengthens the likelihood that the response will occur
again and that learning will result.
Stimulus
Events or cues in
the environment
attract our
attention
Behavior
A response or set
of response
Consequence
Positive
reinforcement
Negative
reinforcement
No consequence
Punishment
The Conditioning Process
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12. Theories of Learning: Conditioning
Theory
Linking desired complex behavior to
pleasurable
consequences is based on three connected
concepts:
 Shaping:
-The reinforcement of each step in a process
until it is mastered
 Chaining
-The reinforcement of entire sequence of a task
 Generalization
-The conditioned response occurs in
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13. Theories of Learning: Social Learning Theory
People learn by observing the behavior off others, making
choices
about different courses of action to pursue, and by
managing their
own behavior in the process of learning.
Three key components
1. Observation:
 Learning by observing the actions of others and the
consequences
2. Self-efficacy:
 Judgment that people have about their ability to
successfully perform a specific task.
3. Self-management
 Managing one’s own behavior through a series of
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14. Theories of Learning: Adult Learning Theory
TABLE 3.1: Teaching Children Versus Adults
Factors Children Adults
1. Personality
2. Motivation
3. Roles
4. Openness to
change
5. Barriers to change
6. Experience
7. Orientation to
learning
1. Dependent
2. Extrinsic
3. Student, Child
4. Keen
5. Few
6. Limited
7. Subject-
centered
1. Independent
2. Intrinsic
3. Employer, Parent, volunteer, spouse,
citizen
4. Ingrained habits and attitudes
5. Negative self-concept
•Limited opportunities
•Time
•Inappropriate teaching methods
6. Vast
7. Problem-centered
Adults differ from children in a number of important ways. Some contrasts
between the learning needs of children and adults are highlighted in Table
3.1
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15. Theories of Learning: Adult Learning Theory
 Andragogy
 The differences mentioned in the table have led to the development
of an adult learning theory by Malcolm Knowles
 Refers to an adult-oriented approach to learning that takes into
account the differences between adult and child learners.
 Involves making learning experience self-directed and problem-
centered, and takes into account the learner’s existing knowledge
and experience.
 Pedagogy
 The traditional approach to learning used to educate children and
youth.
 Learning Style
 Developed by David Kolb: the way in which an individual gathers
information and processes and evaluates it during the learning
process
 Accelerated Learning
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16. Andragogy vs. Pedagogy
 Today, pedagogy refers to the theories and methods
used in teaching. However, in the past, pedagogy
referred specifically to the methods used to educate
children. Andragogy was coined to focus on the
practices used to teach adults.
 While the concepts of andragogy and pedagogy relate
to two different types of learners, adults and children,
respectively, the concepts do intertwine as the nature
of learning is a sliding scales from self-directed to
teacher-directed.
 Some children may learn under more self-directed
concepts and some adults may learn under more
teacher-directed concepts.
 Ultimately education needs to be tailored to the
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17. Andragogy vs. Pedagogy
The Main differences of Andragogy and Pedagogy
are outlined below.
 Definition: The methods and practices used in
teaching adults is andragogy. Pedagogy is the
methods and practices used in teaching, especially
of children.
 Focus: The focus of adult learning is often far more
on individual and self-directed learning. While
classroom training may exist it is often seen as a
supplement to the independent learning objectives.
 Control: The student is typically far more
responsible for their learning process and their
motivation to learn is crucial to succeed. With adult
learning there are often numerous methods to
obtain the same learning objectives and the
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18. Andragogy vs. Pedagogy, Contd.,
 Grading: The importance of grading often varies,
with many adult learning courses simply focusing
on completion. The necessity of obtaining high
grades for future objectives (i.e. admission a good
university) is not nearly as important as with
pedagogy.
 Teachers: In andragogy teaching principles
teachers are not as emphasized as the individuals
own responsibility. Teachers may exist for guides
and for questions, but will not direct students
through all of the learning materials.
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19. Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model of
Motivation
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20. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Motivation theory which suggests five interdependent levels of basic
human needs (motivators) that must be satisfied in a strict sequence starting with the
lowest level.
Physiological needs for survival (to stay alive and reproduce) and security (to
feel safe) are the most fundamental and most pressing needs.
They are followed by social needs (for love and belonging) and self-esteem needs
(to feel worthy, respected, and have status).
The final and highest level needs are self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment and
achievement).
Its underlying theme is that human beings are 'wanting' beings: as they satisfy one need the next
emerges on its own and demands satisfaction... and so on until the need for self-actualization
that, by its very nature, cannot be fully satisfied and thus does not generate more needs.
This theory states that once a need is satisfied, it stops being a motivator of human beings.
In personnel management, it is used in design of incentive schemes. In marketing, it is used in
design of promotional campaigns based on the perceived needs of a market segment a product
satisfies.
Named after its originator, the US psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-70) who proposed
it in 1954.
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21. Hierarchy
of
Needs
Theory
Physiological:
Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
Safety:
Security & protection from physical and emotional harm.
Social:
Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Esteem:
Internal esteem factors : self-respect, autonomy, achievement;
External esteem factors : status, recognition, and attention.
Self-actualization:
The drive to become one is capable of becoming; includes growth,
achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
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22. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Concepts:
More than one need can be operative at the same time.
If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a
lower-level need increases.
ERG Theory
There are three groups of core needs:
1. Existence:
Provision of basic material requirements.
2. Relatedness:
Desire for relationships.
3. Growth:
Desire for personal development.
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23. Training Motivation
 The direction, intensity, and persistence of
learning-directed behavior in training contexts
 Predicts learning and training outcomes and is
influenced by individual and situational factors
 Individual factors: personality variables as well as
factors associated with one’s job and career
 Personality variables: locus of control, achievement
motivation, anxiety, and conscientiousness.
Locus of Control (Internal & External)
 People’s beliefs about whether their behavior is
controlled mainly by internal or external forces
 Persons with internal locus of control believe that the
opportunity to control their behavior resides within
themselves
 Tend to have higher levels of training motivation
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24. A Model of Training Effectiveness
 A linkage between training and learning as well as
between learning and individual organizational
performance:
1. A path from training to learning and retention
 Personal factors influencing learning
 Cognitive ability: mental ability similar to intelligence, related to ability
to learn and to succeed on the job
 Training motivation
 Self efficacy
 Personality characteristics
 Job attitudes
 Job involvement
 Job satisfaction
 And organizational commitment
2. A path from learning to individual behavior and
performance
 Transfer of training and refers to application of learning on
the job
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25. A Model of Training Effectiveness
Cognitive
Ability
Self-Efficacy
Job
Attitudes
Training
1.
Learning &
Retention
2. Individual
Behavior &
Performance
3.
Organizational
Effectiveness
Personality
Characterist
ics
Training
Motivatio
n
A linkage between training and learning as well as between learning and individual
organizational performance
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26. Qs
1. a. How will you know that learning has occurred?
b. Describe Gange’s five learning outcomes
c. Describe the three stages of learning.
2. a. Describe conditioning theory and social learning theory
and their implications to training and development
3. Describe adult learning theories and their implications for
training and development.
4. Define motivation and describe need process theories of motivation and their implications for training and
development
5. a. Define training motivation and discuss its predictors and
consequences.
b. Describe a Model of Training Effectiveness.
Short
1. SMART goal
2. Lucas of Control
3. ERG
4. Key Elements of Motivation
5. Andragogy and Pedagogy
6. Conditioning Process
7. Key elements of Motivation
8. Key elements of Social Learning Theory
9. The Conditioning Process
10. Stages of Learning
11. When does learning take place?
12. The three relationships on which Expectancy Theory focuses.
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