we shall be dealing with both text (and discourse) and context (and co-text). As we shall see, text and context are complementary: each presupposes the other. Texts are constituents of the contexts in which they are produced; and contexts are created, and continually transformed and refashioned, by the texts that speakers and writers produce in particular situations. It is clear that even sentence-sized utterances, of the kind we considered in the preceding chapter, are interpreted on the basis of a good deal of contextual information, most of which is implicit.

1. Context and Co-text
By Group 3
Ayunda Wulandari
Debby Rizky
Razha Firmanda Harahap

2. Introduction to context
● Context means the parts of meaning that can be explained by
knowledge of the physical and social world, and
sociopsychological factors influencing communication, as well
as the knowledge of the time and place in which the words are
utterred or written. (Cutting, 2002)
● Huang (2007) defines context as referring to any rele- vant
features of the dynamic setting or environment in which
linguistic unit is systematically used.

3. Types of Context
Yule (2003)
• Yule (2003: 129-130) differentiate between two main types of contexts— linguistic context (co-text) and physical
context.
• Physical context means the time and place where the linguistic expression are encountered. For example, the
work ‘bank’ which is identified as homonym; when the word bank is used in a sentence accompanied by the word
river, there will be easy to the recognised the meaning of the word ‘bank’.
• The same thing will happen, if the word bank used in the phrase like get to the bank to cash a check, it will also be
easy to know the meaning of the word bank.
• In this case, the meaning of the the word bank are easily to identified because of the linguistic contexts in which
the both words of bank are used.
• In addition, when the word BANK is hanged out in a building, the place or the location where it is put can help us
to catch the meaning of the work bank.
• This is because of the help of physical context where the word bank is tied.

4. • Huang (2007) believed that context can be divided into three types—
physical, linguistic, and general knowledge contexts.
• Physical context means the physical setting or spatiotemporal location of the utterance.
• Linguistic context refers to the surrounding utterances in the same discourse and it is about what has
been mentioned in the previous discourse.
• General knowledge context deals with a set of background assumptions (real-world knowledge)
shared by the speaker and the address. This is also known as common ground—communal and
personal. Communal common ground is the set of background assumption shared by members of a
community; whereas personal common ground means the body of back- ground knowledge two
members of community share from their past experience each other.

5. • Cutting (2002) claims that there are
two major types of contexts—
contexts outside of text (contexts)
and context inside of text (co-texts).
• The former type of context is known
as extra-linguistic context; the latter
one is regarded as linguistic context.
• There two type of extralinguistic
contexts—situational context and
background knowledge context.
Further, background knowledge
context can be classified into
interpersonal context

6. Introduction to co-text
● Contextual context is also known as the context of the text
itself which is also regarded as co-text
● Co-text includes grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.
(Cutting, 2002)

7. 1) Grammatical Cohesion
• Grammatical cohesion refers to the
linkage or connection between a
referring expression with another
referring expression within the co-
text (Cutting, 2002).
• In short, grammatical cohesion is
what interconnects text together.
Grammatical cohesion can be
grouped into reference, substitution
and ellipsis.
Types of Grammatical Cohesion
Brief
explanation
(next slide)

8. • Reference refers to the act of using language to refer to entities in the
context. In other words, it can be stated that reference is the act in
which a speaker employs linguistic forms to facilitate the hearer to
identify something.
• Substitution refers to endophoric references that holds the text
together and avoid repetition.
• Ellipsis, just like substitution, avoids repetition and depends on the
hearer or reader’s being able to retrieve the missing words from the
surrounding cotext.

9. 1) Lexical Cohesion
• Lexical cohesion refers to linguistic
devices function to interconnect
words in the texts to make a
cohesive exchange.
• There are four types of lexical
cohesion, namely repetition,
synonym, superordinate and general
words.
Types of Grammatical Cohesion
Brief
explanation
(next slides)

10. • Repetition
One of lexical cohesion devices is by simply repeating words or phrases
thoroughly in the texts. It is known as repetition. Mostly writer used
repetition in stylistic purpose—to make tasteful effect.
• Synonyms
Synonym refers to linguistic devices in which to indicate cohesive texts
utilised by the speaker or writer by the another word that has the
same meaning or almost the same meaning. It is done by the speaker
or writer to create enjoyable conversation or interesting essay.

11. • Superordinates
Superordinate is one way of speaker or writer to avoid word repetition,
but using the general term. For example, the speaker or writer can use
flower as superordinate of rose, tullip, orchid, etc. Flower is the upper
level; whereas rose, tullip, and orchid are lower one. The lower levels
are referring to noun classified as superordinate functions as umbrella
term.
• General Words
General words means one kind of lexical cohesion in which speaker or
writer use one word a higher level that functions as umbrella term. For
example: thing, woman, person, man, etc.

12. Conclusion
● In the context of pragmatics, there are two things to be
considered; context and co-text.
● Context is how to someone understanding of much of what he
reads and hears is tied to the physical context, particularly the
time and place, in which someone encounter linguistic
expressions. And co-text is based on physical context.