Football Alliance Impacts

Final Year Project
TAL000-3
Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree BA (Hons) in Event Management
By
David Risebrow
1103710
April 2014

TAL000-3 Final Year Project 1103710
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Contents
Figures 3
Tables 4
Graphs 4
Abstract: Football Alliance 5
Introduction: The Little Guys 7
1.1 Aim and Objectives of Study............................................................................................ 8
S.M.A.R.T 8
1.2 The Focus of the Research Study................................................................................... 9
1.3 Research on Sport-Media-Sponsorship Alliance in Tourism / Events ............................ 9
1.4 Key Theories and Concepts........................................................................................... 10
1.5 Justification for Research............................................................................................... 11
1.6 Originality / Contribution to Knowledge / Impact Statement.......................................... 12
1.7 Limitations of Study........................................................................................................ 13
1.8 Organisation of Dissertation........................................................................................... 13
Literature Review: The W’s 16
2.1 Unruly trinity or match made in Heaven ........................................................................ 16
2.2 Under the football, media and sponsorship umbrellas.................................................. 18
2.3 Technology weighs in..................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Premier League hand-me-downs .................................................................................. 23
2.5 Greed or meagre income............................................................................................... 24
2.6 The Referee ................................................................................................................... 25
2.7 Research Questions....................................................................................................... 28
Background Secondary Data 30
3.1 Alliance Timeline ............................................................................................................ 30
3.2 Murdoch’s Stronghold .................................................................................................... 33
3.3 BSkyB V BT.................................................................................................................... 36
3.4 A Widening Gulf ............................................................................................................. 37
3.5 Parachute Payments...................................................................................................... 39
3.6 FA Steps In..................................................................................................................... 40
Research Design 45
4.1 Research Approaches.................................................................................................... 45
4.2 Research Techniques .................................................................................................... 46

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4.3 Sampling Issues............................................................................................................. 47
4.4 Data Collection Methods................................................................................................ 47
4.5 Designing Collection Methods ....................................................................................... 48
4.6 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 48
4.7 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................... 49
4.8 Matters of Validity and Reliability................................................................................... 49
Conduct of Study 52
5.1 The Location of Research and Research Informants.................................................... 52
5.2 Collection of Data........................................................................................................... 52
5.3 Analysing Data Collected............................................................................................... 53
5.4 Research Ethics............................................................................................................. 53
5.5 Changes after Interim Stage.......................................................................................... 54
5.6 Researcher Reflexivity ................................................................................................... 54
5.7 Other Issues................................................................................................................... 55
Findings and Discussion 57
6.1 Objective One................................................................................................................. 57
6.2 Objective Two................................................................................................................. 61
6.3 Objective Three.............................................................................................................. 65
Conclusion 69
7.1 Summary of Research Findings .................................................................................... 69
7.2 Relationship to Background Literature .......................................................................... 69
7.3 Contribution to Knowledge............................................................................................. 70
7.4 Research Aim and Objectives Re-visited...................................................................... 70
7.5 Implications of Study ...................................................................................................... 71
7.6 Directions for Future Research and Recommendations ............................................... 71
References 73
Appendix 80
9.1 Appendix 1: Several pages of Ofcom report detailing the discrepancies between PL
and FL clubs (Ofcom, 2007) ................................................................................................ 80
9.2 Appendix 2: Gary Lineker contact page ........................................................................ 82
9.3 Appendix 3 – Ethical Approval....................................................................................... 83

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Figures
Figure 1 – Football Sponsors Page 21
Figure 2 – FA Hierarchy of Coverage Page 26
Figure 3 – ITV Digital Revenue Page 32
Figure 4 – ITV Digital Collapse Page 32
Figure 5 – Broadcast Payments for Premier League Page 34
Figure 6 – How the Premier League Makes Its Money Page 35
Figure 7 – TV Broadcasting Rights Page 35
Figure 8 – Shirt Sponsors Page 38
Figure 9 – Insolvent Football League Teams Page 42
Figure 10 – Qualitative/Quantitative Research Page 45
Figure 11 – Valid and Reliable Data Page 49

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Tables
Table 1 – SMART Objectives Page 4
Table 2 – Research Layout Page 14
Table 3 – Football-Media-Sponsor Alliance Stakeholders Page 18
Table 4 – Rowe and Morrow Comparison Page 27
Table 5 – Research Questions Page 28
Table 6 – Alliance Timeline Page 30
Table 7 – Average income of FL divisions from broadcasters Page 38
Table 8 – Research questions answered Page 42
Table 9 – Ethical Research Page 53
Graphs
Graph 1 – Broadcasting companies is academic sources Page 58
Graph 2 – Broadcasting companies is secondary sources Page 59
Graph 3 – Secondary data on BT v BskyB Page 60
Graph 4 – ITV Digital collapses causes discrepancies Page 61
Graph 5 – Debts after ITV Digital collapse Page 62
Graph 6 – Expected losses after ITV Digital collapse Page 63
Graph 7 – Academic sources for and against the alliance Page 63
Graph 8 – % Academic sources for/against FA action against alliance Page 65
Graph 9 – Sources for/against parachute payments Page 66

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Abstract: Football Alliance
An alliance can be defined as a ‘union formed by mutual benefits’ (Stahl, Menderhall,
& Oddou, 2012). In terms of the alliance which this report focuses on; the mutual
benefactors are football, media and sponsors. Football provides the media with
worldwide entertainment and therefore an opportunity to create income through
advertising and subscription revenue is available. This global coverage gives
sponsors a platform to raise brand awareness by indirect marketing. Football
benefits from this via sponsors and media paying vast amounts to gain broadcasting
and naming rights.
This research uses three objectives which identify the key stakeholders in the
alliance, the impacts of the alliance and how the Football Association has attempted
to control the alliance. These combine to help answer the aim of whether the
financial impacts of the alliance are only felt by Premier League clubs or if Football
League clubs gain some benefits.
The research, making use of academic research and secondary data, uncovers that
main media companies within the alliance include BskyB and BT Sport with ITV
Digital playing a previous major impact. It also becomes clear that the alliance plays
a major part in the financial discrepancies between the two as well as indicating that
the Football Association could have aided Football League clubs more successfully.
Key Words: Football, Alliance, Media, Financial Impacts in Football
Acknowledgments
With thanks to:
Denise Cardwell – Dissertation tutor
Victor Le Grand – Support and academic guidance
University of Bedfordshire for use of facilities, sources and academic support
Rossbro Limited for binding and printing this document

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION: The Little Guys

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To explore whether the financial impacts of the Football-Media-Sponsorship
‘Alliance’ in England only benefit Premier League clubs
Introduction: The Little Guys
Football is a results business. However these results are not confined to the pitch.
Profit margins and clubs finances are taking priority over the sport’s aesthetics.
Football’s rich history for entertainment and ethical values for sportsmanship is
infamous. An alliance of football, media and business has taken shape and started to
weigh in on control of football.
Money being pumped into the sport has led to some major improvements to the
sport (e.g. facilities) and given the world coverage of some of best entertainment
around, but that does not mean the ‘little guys’ of the football league get to benefit
from this.
In England football influences many areas of day-to-day life. Newspapers have
football headlines on all the back pages, but how many pages do you have to turn to
read any news on the Football League’s 72 clubs and their players? The Premier
League and its 20 clubs clearly gain more attention and in turn a lot of revenue, does
this mean that Football League clubs aren’t getting their fair share of the benefits?

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1.1 Aim and Objectives of Study
Aim: To explore whether the financial impacts of the Football-Media-Sponsorship
‘Alliance’ in England only benefit Premier League clubs.
Objectives:
1. To establish who the main media companies in the football alliance are.
2. To explore whether the financial discrepancies between Premier League and
Football League clubs has been caused by the Football Alliance.
3. To analyse whether the FA are doing enough to help Football League clubs
gain the benefits of the Football Alliance.
These objectives clearly define this project making use of the ‘SMART’ principles.
S.M.A.R.T
This report has ensured it follows the ‘SMART’ principles;
Table 1 – SMART Objectives
Specific The report ensured the aim and objective were not too
broad. It gives a definite aim with three objectives that when
answered will conclude the aim. Research has been specific
using academic sources and secondary data applicable to
the overall topic without procrastinating into irrelevant
tangents.
Measurable The aim and objective ensured the research was
measurable. Through academic sources and secondary data
enough information was gathered to conclude the aim.
Achievable Similarly the aim was achievable due to the volume and
specific nature of the sources. The aim was specific enough
to focus the research and with similar academic research
available the aim could be answered.
Realistic By using secondary data rather than primary research the
aim became realistic. When primary research was

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attempted, sources could not be reached making the use of
primary research unrealistic (see sections below). The report
identified this early ensuring the aim was answered using a
realistic method.
Time-bound This report has made use of nearly two academic years. The
idea for the research began with project proposals a year
ago. This has allowed ample time to collect data and shape
research ensuring the project was viable and the aim
answered.
1.2 The Focus of the Research Study
This study will focus on the varying levels of impact each part of the alliance has
on both Premier League (PL) and Football League (FL) clubs. The Football
Section will focus on the involvement from the governing body (FA). The Media
Section will focus on who the major companies involved are, what impact they
have and how they are in competition with each other for supremacy. Finally the
Sponsors Section will focus on how and why they favour supporting PL clubs and
their strong partnership with media. This completes the ‘Golden Triangle’ of the
football alliance.
Other sporting literature will ‘set the scene’ and investigate the alliance with
secondary data used to show the specifics of the discrepancies between PL and
FL clubs e.g. Ofcom report, FA finance reports etc.
1.3 Research on Sport-Media-Sponsorship Alliance in Tourism / Events
This study is justified due to the lack of previous research based in this precise
research topic. Football is rarely looked into separately from sport in general.
Football becomes a very popular reference amongst authors to write about to
back their theories on sport, showing there is suitable academic references for
this project to use without repetition of other research. Much of this academic
finding is done using and citing secondary data, this will justify the choice for this
research to also use secondary data without primary research.

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Rowe described the alliance as an ‘unruly trinity’ in the book Sport, Culture and
the Media (Rowe, 2004). This opinion is not shared by all researchers. Others
have stated ‘Sport and television have been good for each other’ and described
them ‘as a match made in heaven’ (Hutchins & Mikosza, 2010) and Billings
compounded previous research in his chapter ‘why sport fits television so well’
(Real, 2011).
The secondary data will consist of many forms. Newspaper articles will feature
heavily with detailed reports from the FA and Ofcom to show finances and media
coverage. Overall from this there is clear academic research on similar areas of
research which will be used as reference to this report
1.4 Key Theories and Concepts
This research will cover a few definite areas. The key theory and concept is
mirrored in the aim, comparing the effects of the alliance. To achieve this, other
concepts and theories need to be explored.
The aims of the topic give specific theories and concepts to explore. The first
objective is to determine who the main media companies are and therefore the
concept of media is engaged. Media companies are in competition for coverage
of football such as televised games. Currently one competition stands out over
others: BSkyB v BT Sport. BT Sport is a fairly new media company and has
begun to make a concerted/determined effort to compete with BskyB, regarded
for some time as the dominant provider of football coverage. These newspaper
abstracts ‘BT complains to Ofcom about Sky Sports TV supply’ (BBC , 2013) and
‘another round in the battle found BT Sport making the controversial decision of
hiring on Andy Gray the former Sky Sports analyst, widely credited with
reinventing football punditry in Britain, part of a wider strategy to build a
relationship with Middle East networks’ (Rumsby, 2014) show the fierce battle
between the two.
Another impact media coverage has is the use of improved technology such as
HD and 3D viewing. Recognising this aspect allows this project to explore

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technology’s impact and place within the alliance, particularly since the FA
regulate the media involvement. This shows all objective links with technology
and therefore this type of technology (better and more expansive coverage) is
needed as key concept to explore, which is also linked due to the sponsorship of
the technology used. These key theories have been explored by reliable authors
such as (Rowe, 2004).
1.5 Justification for Research
In sport there is said to be a ‘Golden Triangle’ consisting of sport, media and
sponsors, this alliance has direct impacts on each other. In recent years the
involvement of stakeholders within the football alliance has visibly increased. This
report will compare whether the impacts caused by this only affect The
Premiership’s 20 clubs or if all 72 Football League clubs (tiers 2-4) get benefits
with the use of previous academic research and secondary data.
‘Sports mega-events such as football have grown over the years and have
thereby changed into commercial events, dominated by the power of
satellite television’ (Hacleitner & Manzenreiter, 2010)
This quote shows that media companies such as BskyB who own a satellite
television company have impacted on the game. The same article then goes to
state
‘The media are crucial actors of the sports-media-business alliance and
play a leading role in the construction of the bonanza image’.
This bleak and blunt description shows very little support for the media when
describing an alliance. Rowe (2004) acknowledges this alliance in his book where
he refers to Football-Media-Sponsorship as an “unruly trinity”. Other authors have
a very different outlook to this showing many benefits are not always felt by the
clubs outside the mega-events.

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The precise nature of the topic requires justification. Previous work has been
done but not to the extent this research will deliver. Prior research showed that
secondary data was used in the majority of research.
Secondary data is a justified method to use in this project. Primary research
would have been hard to gain in the area being researched such as; football
players and clubs not willing to talk or hard to access. Although their opinions
would be valued it would not be in conjunction with the aim and objectives of the
research. Secondary data will find exact results that will be used to state the
differences such as finance reports showing the FA’s financial backing of Premier
League and Football League clubs and therefore answer the aim and objectives
directly.
With the usage of secondary data quantitative data will need to be analysed by
using secondary data analysis as this will ‘lend new strength to the body of
fundamental knowledge’ (Long-Sutehall, Sque, & Addington-Hall, 2010) through
clear analysis combining records and statistics to give one overall answer to the
topic.
Finally the research will be justified as this report will give academic data and
factual secondary data showing negative aspects of the alliance. This could be
used to stop any possible impacts (positive or negative) of the alliance spreading
into other sports as the media is trying to gain control of sports to create a
platform for more income as shown with BskyB buying broadcasting rights for the
Irish GAA (Gaelic Football) (Irish Independant Newspaper, 2014).
1.6 Originality / Contribution to Knowledge / Impact Statement
This work is individual and contains no materials previously published or written
by another author, except where acknowledgements are made. The intellectual
make-up of this dissertation is original and not a representation of any work done
before. All research used in this report will be correctly referenced secondary
data or academic literature. No information used in this report will be fabricated
and all references will be included where applicable.
Usage of secondary data will lead to referencing quantitative data to give correct
numerical data to show the direct impacts. However qualitative secondary data

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could also enhance the overview of the report and reference to the quotes will be
made ethically.
1.7 Limitations of Study
The research will be limited due to the methods being used. The lack of primary
data limits the use of qualitative data and removes the emotion behind answers
that could have been gained. This research may not be able to acquire primary
data from the sporting bodies involved and if it did manage this the answers
could be biased.
Using secondary data also gives part responsibility away from the researcher as
access to the data is vital and not always permitted. ‘Records may not be well
kept or accurate, the researcher may not have access to records and certain
records may be left to change results’ (Matthews & Ross, 2010)
Also, this research is limited by the lack of time and budget to create an in-depth
as other researches will have a better capacity to perform more in-depth and
critical research within the topic.
Finally an element of risk is introduced when using secondary data as secondary
data has been collected by other people for their purposes, whatever they may
be and not collected for the same specific purpose. This will need to be carefully
monitored to ensure only relevant data is used.
1.8 Organisation of Dissertation
This research follows a logical path to present findings and data it will benefit
from following the following chapter structure:
 The report will have a clear and well designed title page. This will give the
readers a clear indication to what is being done.
 This will be followed by a small abstract from the research which
summarises the report giving detail to what the research intends to find out
and what methods are used.
 A list of contents, tables and figures will then be shown for ease of use for
the reader

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This will set the professional design for the research and is followed by the main
body
Table 2 – Layout of Research
Chapter 1:
Introduction
As already shown the introduction is there to ‘set the scene’, split into various
sections as already shown. It details the main aim and objectives, how the
research will be conducted as well as kept secure. Other areas include the
limitations and justification for the research
Chapter 2:
Literature
Review
Consists of many and various academic articles, books and journals. These will be
referenced to compare previous research and opinions on the topic. The literature
review will compare the methods and findings of other author’s research and will
help set the research design for this project. This will create the research topic
argument/questions. It will consider the key concepts and critical points of other
research allowing this project to take shape
Chapter 3:
Background
Explores more previous research and more specifically the secondary data which
will back up theories of the literature review. It will also investigate the objectives by
using secondary data relevant to the academic sources found in the previous
chapter.
Chapter 4:
Research
Design
Establishes the research questions which are to be found in the research. It will
justify the methods used to find the research collection and analysis as well as the
approach taken
Chapter 5:
Conduct of
Study
Details the limitations and ethics undertaken in the research. It will show how the
research will be done justly and how the research was done using which methods
for research and analysis.
Chapter 6:
Findings
and
Discussion
Shows the feedback and analysis of the data collected. It will give an answer to the
research topic and should answer the objectives. The discussion will show both
sides of the argument created in the previous chapters and will lead to the
conclusion.
Chapter 7:
Conclusion
Summarises the research. It will recap the report and detail the findings and why
that has led to the final statement. The conclusion is a final point and rounds the
report of meaning it is concise, it will also lead to suggest implications and the
importance of the research. Also this report will end with suggestions for further
reading.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW: The W’s
Who, What, Why, When & Where

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Literature Review: The W’s
This research has looked at many academic sources to provide a reliable argument
to the topic. This academic research has been taken from journals, books and
reports published by scholars and will be referenced to back any arguments made in
this report. These arguments will be backed up and further investigated in the next
chapter via secondary research undertaken.
This literature review will have many sources however there are two main source
used throughout for their concepts. These concepts have formed the research
questions and developed an argument for the research itself. Sport, Culture and the
Media (Rowe, 2004) has already been discussed previously and explains an opinion
of an ‘unruly trinity’ which will show the argument explaining the trinity and who are
involved. Another book which covers all of the objectives especially discussing the
financial discrepancies and the FA involvement is ‘The People’s Game’ (Morrow,
2003). These two sources will be referenced regularly and argued with or against
each other throughout the chapter by other academic sources.
This chapter will use many varying sources to help answer the aim and objectives of
this research. To ensure this is done this chapter will be sub-headed to show the;
Who, What, Why, When, Where and How of the alliance.
2.1 Unruly trinity or match made in Heaven
- What is the alliance?
As previously quoted ‘the media are crucial actors of the sports-media-business
alliance and play a leading role in the construction of the bonanza image’
(Hacleitner & Manzenreiter, 2010). For starters this shows that an alliance is
visible to see with media being a key influence within it. This ‘bonanza image’
however offers differing opinions. The ‘unruly trinity’ described by Rowe
contradicts other authors, however one thing that is apparent to all is the
presence of a sport-media-sponsorship alliance.

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“A Sporting Triangle: Television, Sport and Sponsorship” is a complete chapter in
a Boyle & Haynes book which details that ‘There is a complex triangular
relationship that has evolved between sport, sponsors and media (television in
particular) and this relationship is not a new one’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2009). Boyle
and Haynes identify the alliance has been formed a long time ago. This alliance
was caused by the forcefulness of the media with ‘television the emerging driving
force of this trinity’ (Sandvoss, 2003).
The alliance is a working partnership between the three, ‘they all require each
other’ (Horne, 2006). Football gives a platform for the media to create business
as well as sponsors being made visible which in turn requires sponsorship and
advertising for money to fund the sport as ‘the longest relationship football cubs
have are with the media’ (Morrow, 2003).
Sponsorships take many forms from sponsoring team, players and stadiums,
sponsoring games and other indirect platform of football to the obvious TV
advertisement. ‘Sponsorship is one of the world’s most important forms of
marketing’ (Chadwick, 2009). Football relies on sponsors for income and ‘in 2008
was valued at £5 billion’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2009) with the majority of this
sponsorship visible during games. With income so vast football can develop and
has been allowed to ‘expand in the way it has, however this has led to
commercialisation of the game’ (Billings, 2011). Football has become a business
which cannot survive without sponsors pumping money into the game.
Nonetheless this is likely to continue as media are given a bigger platform to
provide sponsorship opportunities with ‘improving technology and greater
coverage across the world’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2004). This new income leads to
better results leading to greater income creating a multiplier effect.
The alliance of football-media-sponsors is a working partnership and although it
may have led to the game changing and becoming commercial, from a business
perspective it is a ‘match made in heaven’ (Hutchins & Mikosza, 2010)

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2.2 Under the football, media and sponsorship umbrellas
- Who is actually in the alliance?
It has been explained that football, media and sponsors make up the alliance.
This report will go deeper into the actual stakeholders responsible and affected
by the alliance.
Table 3 –Football-Media-Sponsor alliance stakeholders
F
O
O
T
B
A
L
L
Football is the major sport in the UK and ‘accounts for the
largest share of the UK sports rights market – the top five
properties are all football’ (Ofcom, 2007). Using the term
‘football’ does not define those who are involved. There are
many layers of stakeholder involved under football. The sport is
governed internationally by FIFA (Fédération Internationale de
Football Association) and nationally by the FA (Football
Association). Within the FA there are various leagues and
regional governing bodies. ‘English football contains over 24
levels in a pyramid league system containing more than 140
leagues, 480 divisions and nearly 7,000 clubs‘ (Greenfield &
Osborn, 2011). This shows the number of people affected by the
alliance. This report is focussing on the difference between
Premier League and Football League clubs which consists of a
combined 4 divisions and 92 clubs.
Although the FA oversees all of these clubs there are separate
governing bodies. The Premier League contains 20 clubs and is
‘the most powerful and influential football authority in the world ‘
(Szymanski, 2010) this compares to the Football league which is
the body containing three division; The Championship, League
One and League Two containing 72 clubs.
This indicates the PL maybe prioritised by the FA much ahead
of the FL with each club having a close connection to its
governing body. The FA has come under much criticism in the
past for commercialising the game and leading the way in
encouraging the football-media-sponsorship alliance ‘the

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governing body of sport which was built and supported entirely
by amateurs are captured for commercial purposes’ (Boyle &
Haynes, 2009). This view is similar to Morrow who states ‘the
FA shows is feebleness to regulate football’s economy resulting
in many clubs changing their structure’ (Morrow, 2003).
Contradictory to this some argue that the FA are trying to keep
its morals and have been shown to widely discourage the
‘comericalsiation of historical competitions such as the FA Cup,
which is not about maximising revenue’ (Rowe, 2004). However
since this the FA have allowed the ‘FA cup to be sponsored’
(Boyle & Haynes, 2009).
This shows therefore that the FA is the key stakeholder in the
football section of the alliance with the PL and FL in competition
for the spoils.
M
E
D
I
A
Media companies both at the front of the competition and those
who have been pushed aside have all impacted the alliance.
There are obvious companies at the forefront of football
coverage in the UK. The clear current major companies include;
BBC, ITV, BskyB and BT Sport.
Morrow states that companies such as BskyB have forced clubs
to ‘sell their sole to TV’ (Morrow, 2003). Rowe agrees that
‘BskyB have dominated in previous years with its coverage of
live football in the UK’ (Rowe, 2004) and even ‘attempted to buy
Manchester United, the richest club at the time’ (Dobson &
Goddard, 2004). However, BskyB have started to face
competition from ‘most noticeably BBC and BT’ (Boyle &
Haynes, 2004).
This will not be the first time BskyB have faced competition and
have overpowered and removed all previous competition for
media control over football in the UK. ‘ONdigital attempted to
take on BskyB but barely got off the ground before Murdoch
(BskyB CEO) crushed the competition’ (Hutchins & Rowe,
2013). ‘Setanta, ESPN and ITV Digital have also famously tried

20
to take on BskyB but to no avail’ (Jarvie & Thornton, 2012).
BskyB had rapid growth in the 90s (Chadwick, 2009) which has
given them a historic right to be at the forefront of football
media.
There will ‘always be competition for media control as sport fits
TV so well’ (Billings, 2011). ‘BskyB makes use of 5 channels;
Sky Sport 1, 2, 3 and 4 as well as Sky Sports News’ (Boyle &
Haynes, 2004). This allows the company to cover a wide range
of sport and matches simultaneously. ‘ITV Digital attempted a
similar fate but with the economic downturn could not handle the
costs’ (Dobson & Goddard, 2004).
BskyB may be facing their power over football reducing
dramatically in the near future which will be explored further in
the next chapter, but it is very apparent that BskyB are key
stakeholders involved in the football-media-sponsorship
alliance.
S
P
O
N
S
O
R
S
Sponsors cover all aspects of football open to them. Stadiums
are rebranded and sponsored by the highest bidder, kits are
covered in company logos and even players juggle their football
commitments to extra earning of the pitch with sponsors. Major
players such as David Beckham are famous for their brand
almost more so than their talents ‘Beckham had a string of
sponsors worth more than £8 million with Marks and Spencer,
Pepsi, adidas and Brylcream’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2004). This
shows how sponsors have entered the aliance jumping on
marketing opportunites provided by the increased coverage of
players, teams and locations. It has led to ‘sport and players
being associated with brands as much as the sport itself’
(Kennedy & Hills, 2009). This then leads to controversy within
the sport as unofficial sponsors try to weigh in and with blurred
lines over ‘sponsorship regulators struggle to keep control’
(Rowe, 2004).
The number of sponsors is too many to detail, however with this

21
report focussing on the PL and FL clubs it will uncover the
perpetrators of commercialisation in these leagues. ‘Coca-Cola
signed a deal with the football league to sponsors its leagues
leading to the renaming of its league e.g. Coca-Cola League
One’ (Nicholson, 2007). Sponsors of leagues in the past can be
stakeholders within the alliance. Since then, the FL have given
in to naming rights of sponsors to Sky Bet, again showing how
influential Sky is within this alliance not only as a major media
company but also as a sponsor.
This has led to controversy with Rowe stating ‘unofficial
sponsors seek to get their association logo as close to the sport
as possible’ (Rowe, 2004). This view is shared by Morrow but
for different reasons. Morrow feels the FA have allowed
sponsors in and have failed to control them but Rowe feels the
sponsors have forced their way in uncontrollably.
Morrow also denotes clubs have been known to have ’11 or
more official sponsors’ (Morrow, 2003). Again, this shows the
numerous sponsors involved in the alliance and the varying
interest FL clubs attract contrasting highly from PL clubs.
Currently the Premier League is sponsored by Barclays Bank for
a reported ‘£40million per year deal; however this is not their
only sponsorship deal’ (Kew, 2003). The figure below shows the
main sponsors for the PL, however this is dated source and only
used to indicate the number of sources in football.
Figure 1 - Sponsors of PL clubs (Kew, 2003)

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Sponsors have started to provided enough to sport to begin
having their say in the running of events ‘in a similar way as
media companies have over scheduling due to broadcasting’
(Bridgewater, 2010)
Overall it is clear that the Premier League is covered more comprehensively by
the media and sponsors. BskyB is a key stakeholder within the alliance acting as
a major media company and sponsor with the FA covering the football section of
the alliance. However this opens the discussion to which other stakeholders are
involved to be explored later.
2.3 Technology weighs in
- When did the alliance form?
English football began to be ‘televised in 1937, with an Arsenal v Arsenal
Reserve football match broadcast live. The first international fixture to receive live
broadcasting was England v Scotland in 1938, the same year the first FA cup
final was shown live’ (Kennedy & Hills, 2009) showing how far back the alliance
started to form, yet many authors believe that only recently has the alliance
expanded and gained such recognition.
Football’s alliance ‘coincides with the sports globalisation’ (Sandvoss, 2003) as
the world gained better coverage and technology more football was able to view
on TV. Rowe begins to explain globalisation of sport ‘opened up a platform for
sponsors and media companies to exploit’ and ‘are expanding’ (Rowe, 2004).
This view is again argued by Morrow who states ‘broadcasting is in decline due to
the European economic climate’ (Morrow, 2003).
Although most authors seem to feel the globalisation or commercialisation of
football has increased the standing and power of the media and sponsors within
the alliance many disagree to when this formed. Dobson and Goddard explain a
‘steady increase in the economics of football with few key milestones in its growth
dating back to early 20th century’ (Dobson & Goddard, 2004) but this view is
argued by Crowther who explains the ‘dramatic increase of technology and media

23
coverage caused by BskyB has led to an increase in the commercialisation of the
sport’ (Crowther, 2000). A third view, showing the wide range of opinion on this
matter, from Boyle & Haynes elucidates the growth has been ‘constant but
inconsistent since the development of new technology’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2009).
Television companies are under pressure to fill a lot of channels and therefore
time with good viewing for audiences around the world. ‘Live sport is a much
cheaper exercise than TV dramas and soaps’ (Boyle & Haynes, 2004) showing
why technology has impacted the alliance as the media now need fooball to fill
their planners giving sponsors more opportunites to exploit.
This appears to be the least translucent section of the alliance with a large
deviation in views over the time of which the alliance formed. However many
seem to feel the creation of new technologies such as TV, 3D TV and HD TV
have all played a part in the development of a alliance (see appendix 1). Many
agree that the alliance was formed a long time ago but has become more
prominent in recent time due to the improvements in technology. ‘The creation of
television led to a stronghold on coverage of sport in the UK’ (Boyle & Haynes,
2004) showig how key milestones changed the viewing of sport which is further
backed by Sandvoss who clarifys how ‘social media and new technology has
added to the commericalisation and globalisation of football’ (Sandvoss, 2003)
2.4 Premier League hand-me-downs
- Where do Football League clubs fit in?
The PL is shown to be preferred over the FL. Football being a business means
that those not generating enough money will be left, which is clearly the case in
football. However the FL is still bringing in large quantities of money which the
media and sponsors have started to pick up on with ‘intensive discussions over
deals with the Football League and a range of broadcasters’ (Boyle & Haynes,
2004) starting to emerge. The large amounts of income to the FL is
comprehensively looked at by Szymanski ‘The premier league pays the football
league £20 million a year for player development... saving football league clubs

24
from bankruptcy as the level of interest at that level does not warrant enough
commercial deals’ (Szymanski, 2010).
Szymanki’s statements are contradictory to Morrow, stating the level of income
the football league brings in via coverage when ‘broadcasting fees in 1983 were
£2.6 million and 20 years later had raised to £367 million’ (Morrow, 2003).
Although they disagree on whether the FL can stand by itself all authors show the
football league is bringing in revenue. ‘The Premier League offers Football
League ‘solidarity package’ to ensure a fairer distribution of revenues across the
professional English game’ (Beech, Horsman, & Magraw, 2008). This view of the
PL aiding the FL is not a popular one and argued at great length by Emery &
Weed who feel ‘The gap between the Premier League and the rest of English
Football grows and has abandoned Football League’ (Emery & Weed, 2007)
Rowe identifies that money has ‘flowed into English Football League in the last
decade or so... which has significant implications on the relationships between
the club and their stakeholders’ (Rowe, 2004). This view shows the FL does bring
in revenue and fits in the alliance but needs to be managed to ensure the clubs
do not prioritise keeping the media happy over the clubs structure.
2.5 Greed or meagre income
- Why is there a discrepancy?
It has become obvious that clubs have started to rely on the income from
sponsors and media companies to run their club. This is a dangerous tactic as
this income is not a guaranteed.
There are several examples of clubs becoming reliant on the alliance as ‘clubs
now rely on broadcasters for income’ (Crowther, 2000). This may ‘only happen to
those clubs which have been mismanaged’ (Emery & Weed, 2007) but the large
number of clubs which have faced harsh financial times due to a lack of income
and support outweighs those which we mismanaged ‘with 68 clubs becoming
insolvent’ (Beech, Horsman, & Magraw, 2008) in recent times.

25
Rowe argues that the clubs should have better management and ‘although the
collapse of ITV Digital could not be foreseen, 10 out of 24 League One clubs had
liabilities greater than their assets’ (Rowe, 2004)
Morrow identifies that one of the main news stories in sport ‘since ITV Digital
collapsed is “Financial difficulty in the FL”’ and ‘BskyB rule over football’ (Morrow,
2003). Rowe agrees and shows that BskyB have a part to play in the discrepancy
with ‘pay-per-view events only covering specific events and never reaching lower
levels’ (Rowe, 2004)
FL clubs ‘created budgets and projections based on income which never came’
(Emery & Weed, 2007) and led to years of attempting to right the wrongs made.
The media companies and sponsors ‘sold FL clubs a dream’ (Crowther, 2000)
resulting in the financial meltdown of many clubs.
The discrepancy was then created and since then has grown due to ‘the rapid
expansion of the PL’ (Dobson & Goddard, 2004) and the FL playing constantly
catch up
2.6 The Referee
- How does the FA control the alliance?
Many authors cover the FA regulations over broadcasters with contradictory
views. Beech gives details on how the FA control who can gain ownership of
clubs to ensure financial security via a ‘Fit and Proper Person Test and the threat
of points deductions’ (Beech, 2011). However as stated the FA have failed many
clubs by allowing ‘68 to become insolvent’ (Beech, Horsman, & Magraw, 2008).
The FA does not only look over the finances of the clubs but also the coverage.
As shown, many authors feel the alliance has begun to take over the sport,
‘controlling timings and scheduling of games’ (Horne, 2006). The FA need to
regulate the control to ensure the morals and integrity of football is kept.
Figure 2 below shows the FA’s hierarchy for rights at football events. It shows
how many and various sponsors can be involved but the FA overlooks each
section to ensure it is kept within regulation (Desbordes, 2007)

26
Figure 2 – FA rights for broadcasting (Desbordes, 2007)
Rowe feels the FA has ‘allowed the sport to become commercialised’ (Rowe,
2004) with many negative outcomes particularly for clubs already struggling. On
the other hand Morrow feels that the ‘FA provide support for relegated clubs via
parachute payments for two seasons’ and ‘the FA have given into pressure from
major teams’ (Morrow, 2003) increasing the gap between the FL and PL, a view
which is cited by Crowther who adds ‘the FA faces a challenge to ensure they
maintain control’ (Crowther, 2000).
Crowther’s idea of a challenge between regulators and broadcasters is
acknowledged by authors who identify ‘broadcasters have rejected FA proposals’
(Greenfield & Osborn, 2011) and ‘require government help to regulate
broadcasting’ (Nicholson, 2007). Some authors however feel that the income the
FA has gained from the alliance has ‘been unevenly spread across the leagues’
(Szymanski, 2010)
Overall this shows that the FA is undoubtedly a major stakeholder and in charge
of the football section of the alliance. However it is clear they face a hard
challenge to maintain major control of the alliance and some authors feel they
have not fairly distributed the benefits of the income, resulting in a discrepancy
between PL and FL clubs.

27
The table below summarises the two main author’s main views throughout their
books based on the previous sections.
Table 4 – Rowe and Morrow Comparison
(Rowe, 2004)
Sport, Culture and The Media:
an unruly trinity
(Morrow, 2003)
The People’s Game; football,
finance and society
2.1
What is the
alliance
An unruly trinity. Portrays the
alliance as an aggressive battle
for dominance between the
members of the triangle.
Describes the alliance as the
longest relationship football has,
depicting friendly mutual
agreement.
2.2
Who is in the
alliance
Sky is a dominant force and
blurred lines form over who is in
control with the FA attempting to
keep its morals
The FA are feeble in controlling
the alliance which is controlled
by the media and sponsors
2.3
When did the
alliance form
Formed many years ago and
expanding rapidly with no signs
of stopping
Formed years ago but in decline
due to the worldwide financial
decline
2.4
Where do FL
clubs fit in
Rarely mentioned. Emphasis is
based the media controlling
football as a whole
Maintain control over their own
finances and create enough
interest to warrant a position in e
alliance
2.5
Why is there a
discrepancy
The force of the media has held
back the FA but improvements
are visible and control is being
restored to the FA
The FA have failed to maintain
control of the alliance and left FL
clubs abandoned
2.6
How do the FA
control the
alliance
Again the media has taken
control and been allowed to
commercialise football but is
beginning to regain control
Provides relegated clubs with
parachute payments which
increased the gap, showing little
control over the alliance.
Overview of
aim
Appears to favour the FA in
signs of improvement but shows
Shows the PL and FL have a
gulf between them due to the

28
the alliance has taken over.
Does not show any specific
discrepancy between FL and PL
and therefore does not only
effect PL clubs
alliance and benefits are felt
much more strongly by PL clubs
due to the FA’s lack of control
In conclusion this chapter has used the objectives to shape academic research and
create questions to be explored in the next chapter making use of secondary data,
factual and empirical sources.
2.7 Research Questions
The research questions which have been shaped by academic research and will be
observed to answer the objectives in the next chapter are:
Table 5 – Research Questions
1. Has BskyB always dominated media coverage of football and will it dictate
for the foreseeable future?
2. What effects of the alliance have caused financial discrepancies between PL
and FL clubs?
3. Does the FA encourage the PL and FL discrepancy or has the PL forced its
own development, caused by the alliance, making the FA control redundant?
These questions relate clearly to the objectives and when explored in the following
chapter will answer the objectives and in turn answer the aim.

29
CHAPTER THREE
BACKGROUND: Findings from Secondary Data

30
Background: Findings from Secondary Data
This chapter will make use of newspaper articles, reports and interviews to answer
the objectives of this report. A basic timeline of the alliance shows the development
of the ‘Golden Triangle’ followed by more in-depth research into who the companies
in the alliance are, whether the FL and PL discrepancies are caused by the alliance
and how the FA have attempted to control it. The research questions from the
literature review have specified the secondary data collected and referenced in this
chapter.
3.1 Alliance Timeline
Football spans more than 100 years beginning in 1863 in England when the
Football Association in England was formed - becoming the sport's first
governing body (FIFA, 2007). ‘A lot can change in 10 years and the monopoly
money in football means the rich become unreachable’ (Slater, 2013)
Table 6 – Alliance Timeline
Event Description Date
Football
reaches
Europe
The first Continental European team forms in Denmark showing the
spread of football across the world (Kjøbenhavns Boldklub, 2010)
1879
English
Football
Expands
Second Division formed as The Football League expands to 28 clubs
(Football League, 2013)
1892
Football
Televised
Arsenal v Arsenal Reserve football match broadcast live (Kennedy &
Hills, 2009).
1937
Big games
on TV
The first international fixture to receive live broadcasting was England
v Scotland in 1938, the same year the first FA cup final was shown
live’ (Kennedy & Hills, 2009)
1938
First FL
game on TV
First ever live Football League match shown on TV - Blackpool v
Bolton Wanderers. (Football League, 2013)
1960

31
Match of the
Day
The BBC first broadcasts Match of the Day, which becomes an
instant hit with viewers. It soon attracts a quarter of the adult
television audience. (The Guardian, 2003)
1964
Advertising
comes in
ITV introduces a new programme ‘The Big Match’ making use of
sponsorship for the first time on televised football (ITV, 2012)
1968-
1992
Shirt
Sponsor
Liverpool were the first British club to have a shirt sponsor (Hitachi in
1979) (The Guardian, 2000)
1979
First title
sponsor
Canon sponsors the football league as a title sponsor (Football
League, 2013)
1983
Stadium
naming
rights sold
The first football ground in the UK to be named after its sponsor was
Scarborough's stadium, named after the frozen chip company McCain
(Donlan, 2005)
1988
PL and FL
begins
Premier League breaks away to create football league and premier
league divisions (Football League, 2013)
1992
BskyB gains
rights
In a dramatic smash and grab, Sky wins the rights to live Premier
League football in a £304m five-year deal (The Guardian, 2003)
1992
MUTV Manchester United TV opens, the first TV channel dedicated to one
single clubs begins
1997
ITV Digital
fails
(detailed
below table)
ITV Digital collapses, still owing £178.5m to the Football League,
which it fails to get back in court. The dramatic bankruptcy puts
dozens of small clubs in jeopardy and signals the end of the football
rights gravy train. Sky picks up the Nationwide League and
Worthington Cup rights for a song.
2002
FA finance
control
FA introduces ‘Sporting Sanctions’ – a mandatory deduction of 10
points for any club using any insolvency process to reduce debt
2003
Setanta fails The Dublin-based broadcaster launched Setanta Sports in 2004 as a
direct competitor to Sky in the hope of sharing in the global riches
associated with the Premier League. It soon found that trying to win
this particular sporting title was a lot tougher than it first thought. It
went into administration in 2009 (Burrel, 2013)
2009
Social
Media
FL and PL make use Twitter and Facebook to contact fans directly
2009

32
One major event within the timeline was the collapse of ITV Digital. An Ofcom
report (figure 3) on broadcasting costs explains that the football league was
bringing in many commercial partners however these partners could not afford to
stay afloat leading to missed payments to the football league, explained further
later.
Figure 3 – ITV Digital’s funding for the FL (Ofcom, 2007)
Making use of the Ofcom report again, a case study was provided to show the
effects from the ITV Digital deal which collapsed.
Figure 4 – Effect of ITV Digital collapse (Ofcom, 2007)

33
It shows the financial impacts which affected FL clubs for years after and some
clubs still feel the effects of now. When ITV Digital could not complete its
payments to the clubs many clubs went into financial crisis due to their
dependence on the income which is similar to PL clubs relying on BskyB income.
3.2 Murdoch’s Stronghold
Rupert Murdoch took control of BskyB and first bid for rights to broadcast football
in 1988 (The Guardian, 2003). Since then BskyB has controlled the majority of
football broadcasting in the UK. His ruthless approach to management hasn’t
always made him popular but there is no doubt BskyB has remained dominant
seeing off major competition. In reference to Setanta’s decline and eventful fall
into administration ‘Sky - Setanta's rival for showing Premier League games -
said its competitor had "tried to grow too fast and lost control of costs’ (BBC
news, 2009) showing little pity or mercy for its competitors and shows just how
strong BskyB are as a broadcasting force. ‘BSB and ESPN faced similar
problems and failed to compete with BskyB under Murdoch’ (Burrel, 2013). This
is backed with another BBC news article showing ‘More than 80% of live
televised Premier League games will appear on BSkyB after the broadcaster
snatched some of the TV rights from rival Setanta’ (BBC News, 2009).
Before Murdoch’s BskyB took control the cost of broadcasting rights were vastly
different. BskyB changed the way in which rights were gained. In 1983 rights to
show live matches for 2 years cost a mere £5.2m (Fisher, 2014) and ITV gained
a four year deal worth £44m in 1988 (Arsenal FC, 2013). This was followed by
Murdoch’s shocking successful bid in 1992 despite ‘ITV being the frontrunners,
Rupert Murdoch tabled an incredible £304m bid for the five-year deal and blew
their rivals away’ (Rodrigues, 2012)
Controlling such a major title as football’s main broadcaster in the UK has many
benefits. Although the original investment may seem ludicrous to many, reaching
a total cost of £1.1billion spread across the PL clubs (Premier League, 2012), the
rewards and income generated is vast.

34
The figure below shows the broadcast payments for the 2011/12 season and
shows the large difference between PL and FL clubs
Figure 5 – Broadcasting payments (Premier League, 2012)
Murdoch’s influence on the alliance is abundantly clear controlling with such
forcefulness to ensure his company remains in charge. For example his
company has bought sole exclusivity of broadcasting the games. This then
prohibits the BBC from broadcasting full football games covered by BskyB and
limits them to showing highlights only. This embargo exists even within BBC's
ability to broadcast footage via media in the form of internet and not even the
highlights show 'Match of the day' is available on the BBC's On Demand iPlayer
system for viewing after its original broadcasting (CCahill , 2012)
The Premier League relies on broadcasting for 50% of its revenue as the figure
below indicates. BskyB being the major stakeholder of the broadcasting right
clearly has a large influence of the running of the PL as it is by the far the biggest
investor. However their influence has led to FL clubs risking their very structure

35
and business strategy to become a PL club to gain the benefits of BskyB and
other media companies ‘Championship clubs continue to overstretch off the field
as they seek playing success to reach the Premier League’ (BBC, 2013). This
shows how the discrepancy between PL and FL clubs could have been caused
by the alliance and by stakeholder such as BskyB.
Figure 6 – How the PL makes its money (BBC, 2013)
Figure 7 shows the media which were given live coverage and highlights of
football in England between 1992/3 to 2006/7. It clearly shows Sky and BBC to
be consistent in ownership in past years and indicates Sky beating other
companies with Setanta sports and Telewest rivals no longer having any
coverage since this.
Figure 7 - Ofcom Report (Ofcom, 2007)

36
Although BskyB is clearly leading the way, Murdoch’s stronghold of football has
come under fresh competition from BT and with BBC and ITV still retaining their
rights (BBC Sport, 2009) BskyB is seeing their comfortable position under threat.
‘Under ITV’s new television deal, Sky will be unable to show the Champions
League for the first time since 2003’ (BBC Sport, 2013)
3.3 BSkyB V BT
BT sport has gone head-to-head with BskyB to become the broadcasting giant of
football in the UK. ‘Telecoms giant BT has launched its UK sports channels in a
challenge to the two-decades-long sports-TV dominance of Sky which has
already seen off ITV Digital, Setanta and ESPN, which all temporarily entered
the pay-TV football market’ however ‘BT has spent £738m over three years for
the rights to 38 live Premier League matches a season while Sky has paid
£2.3bn for 116 matches, including FL games, a season’ (BBC Sport, 2013).
BskyB have ensured they have kept hold of their FL rights which BT Sport
appeared to have no interest in, Media companies’ desperation to own PL rights
have left FL clubs with a large financial gulf and a lack of coverage.
BT took an aggressive approach ‘BT is to offer free Premier League football
coverage to its broadband customers, the telecoms company says. The
announcement is a signal of BT's intent to challenge BSkyB's dominance of the
UK's sports pay-TV market’ (Cellan-Jones, 2013). Nevertheless BskyB replied
with a similarly aggressive procedure: ‘Sky have signalled their intent to tackle
new rivals BT head on in the battle for audiences, advertisers and subscribers
with the publication of the broadcast schedules’ (Farquhar, 2013)
BT’s rights led to an explosion of users to their service with user numbers
reaching 2 million new customers (Ford Rojas, 2013) which may have been
mainly due to their winning of major events such as the Champions League in a
£897 million deal (BBC News, 2013). Not only did BskyB lose out on this deal
but share prices in the company fell due to the new competition, falling 10.9%
(Peston, 2013).

37
An interview with BSkyB’s investment manager, Bradley Russell showed how
BskyB had been hit hard and unexpectedly by BT and questions whether BskyB
could bounce back came into focus? Mr. Russell did state ‘there can't be this
situation where outbidding each other goes on, so we'll just have to see who
comes out on top’ (Russell, 2014)
A lot has been said and written about the two companies’ competition to become
the main stakeholder of the alliance in football. However very little rivalry has
been apparent over FL broadcasting rights. This shows how the PL has broken
away from the FL and how financial discrepancies have formed between the FL
and PL.
A research question of this chapter was to explore if BskyB always dominated
and if they will continue to dominate in the future. This has been clearly shown in
this section as BskyB dominating in the past beating all competition and
changing the way football is viewed. However it has come under serious
competition and is no longer the only main broadcasting media company.
3.4 A Widening Gulf
The differences between PL and FL clubs are growing in variety and magnitude.
It has resulted in many FL clubs feeling that the rich PL clubs become
unreachable. Despite there being more revenue made in the FL than ever before
the PL recorded a turnover of over 6 times the amount of the FL according
to Deloitte's Annual Review of Football Finance (Deloitte, 2013). The major
difference between the two revenues is the money brought in via broadcasting
deals and sponsorships, the two other components of the alliance. Barclays
have recently renewed their contract to sponsor the PL paying more than £40
million a season to do so (Goodley, 2013). This compares to Sky Bet creating a
new deal with the FL to sponsor all 3 divisions for no additional money on top of
the broadcasting deal already in place (Sharma, 2013). This shows the level of
money thrust into the PL for numerous deals compared to the lack of

38
engagement the FL has with major companies widening the financial gap
between the two.
Less media coverage and sponsorship open the FL to more than just simple
income dilemmas. The PL is beamed around the world attracting the best
footballers from all corners of the world, but the FL does not have their games
shown to the same extent and therefore cannot advertise itself as the PL does.
The PL players consists of 20% less English born players than the Championship
showing how the FL divisions haven’t attracted the worldwide audience and
players to improve the fundamental standard of football. In an interview BBC
presenter Clare Balding explains that ‘this rise of globalisation in football has
prioritised the PL to utilize the high income of the league’ (Balding, 2012)
The graphic below shows the various shirt sponsors of PL clubs in 2000. FL clubs
received less than 10% of the income from shirt sponsors in comparison to PL
clubs (Dobson & Goddard, 2004)
Figure 8 – PL shirt sponsors (Dobson & Goddard, 2004)
Table 7 - showing the much smaller average income of FL clubs in comparison to
PL.
Average income from broadcasters for FL and PL divisions (Deloitte,
2013)
Premiership £25m
Championship £6.6m
League One £5m
League Two £3.3m

39
To summarise, FL clubs have to be run more like businesses, trying to improve
while desperately trying to break even with a minimal income, whereas Premier
League clubs look to reinvest their high income in a way that allows them to
improve as a team. With external investment a regular occurrence breaking even
is not a high priority. The FL is very difficult to operate in, with boardroom staff
having to try their hardest to find a successful balance between the two, or end
up risking their clubs long-term future if they are unsuccessful (Howells, 2012).
3.5 Parachute Payments
Parachute payments are defined as ‘a payment in the nature of compensation
made to a “disqualified individual” triggered by a change in control. This includes
all payments or benefits that would not have been made if no change in control
had occurred.’ (Martin, 2010) To make this relevant to this report parachute
payments occur when a PL club is relegated (dis qualified individual) and
receive payments or benefits from remaining PL clubs in parachute payments
over following years.
They are seen by many FL clubs as a reward for failure in the top league and
expands the gulf between the FL and PL with relegated clubs having much better
finances and therefore much more likely to regain PL status. They are seen to
‘save relegated clubs lives but unfair to all other teams’ (Moore, 2013) due to the
additional income received to PL clubs relegated which has ‘crippled the
competition while clubs relegated from the Premier League are given enormous
parachute payments, their Football League rivals are being left behind to the
detriment of competition’ (Storey, 2013).
These parachute payments were created and are given out by the PL, with the
FA overseeing and accepting of these payments. ‘With the PL’s helping hand,
since 2010, clubs relegated for the PL have received £15m then £17m for the first
two seasons, then £8m for the two seasons after that’ (Wilson R. , 2013). This
has led to the media attacking the PL for ‘unduly interfering’ with the game and
it’s ‘heavy-handedness with FL clubs in the tortuous negotiations about how
much of its forthcoming TV billions it will share with the rest of football’ (Conn,
2013). It shows another attempt by the media to control the direction of the game

40
but this time showing support to the FL as it wants to decrease the financial and
talent gap between the PL and FL.
FL clubs have reacted badly and campaigned with the media to ensure these
parachute payments do not impact so heavily on the league ‘the figures have got
the FL in a frenzy and there will be a massive campaign to try to embarrass the
PL into splitting the annual cash handout – worth £131.7m in total – more evenly.
One FL club stated “Those figures have gone down like a lead balloon and
people are saying ‘enough is enough.’ (Nixon, 2013) Many clubs worry that the
parachute payments will ‘permanently damage the integrity of the FL’ (The
Independant, 2013)
It shows how the PL is trying to dominate English football and how the money
received from sponsors and the media have created a massive financial
difference between the FL and PL. As well as showing this discrepancy is partly
caused by media and sponsors within the alliance. It also begins to show that the
FA could help control the discrepancy but have failed to do so with the
introduction of parachute payments.
3.6 FA Steps In
Although the FL feel the FA have neglected them in favour of the PL in certain
circumstances such as parachute payments, the FA has introduced regulations
and maintained control of many aspects of football to ensure the discrepancy is
minimised and the alliance does not become commercialised and controlled by
the media and sponsors.
Firstly, through ensuring historical competitions such as the FA Cup are still held
in high regard and open to all clubs at all levels, the FA has given FL clubs a
chance to compete at the highest level and receive extra revenue with half of all
gate receipts being given to each team (FA, 2012).
The most obvious regulation brought in recently by the FA to ensure the alliance
does not seize control is ‘Financial Fair Play.’ This provides support and
regulations to decrease the number of clubs under financial difficulty and ensures
a more even spread of wealth’ (FA, 2012). This regulation has resulted in the

41
‘Premier League agreeing a financial cap and clubs will face point’s deduction if
they breach new rules’ (Sale C. , 2013) and in basic terms means ‘from the
2013/14 season Premier League clubs cannot make a loss in excess of £105m
aggregated across seasons 2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16’ (Premier League,
2013). Richard Scudmore, chief executive of the PL, hopes this will ‘restrict the
financial loss and decrease the financial gap of the elite’ (Sky News, 2013). The
FA took this decision from media pressure and clubs asking to ‘end the financial
craziness’ and ‘introduce caps for PL clubs to aid the whole FL‘(Conn, 2011).
However the FA delaying their response to media control over football forced the
governing bodies of the FL and PL to create their own regulations. Within their
regulations it clearly states that all media and sponsorship deals must be
‘approved by the FL board to ensure it is in the best interest of the league’
(Football League, 2013). This action taken by the FL shows how the media has
become empowered by the lack of FA action with many feeling the FA has
‘signed away any right to control the media’ (Strugeon, 2010)
Media control over the FA appears to be a popular opinion with players
themselves feeling the media has control over the FA such as footballer Luis
Suarez who claims ‘the powerful British media has control’ (Suarez, 2013).
Suarez is not the only player to claim the FA has let them down in favour of the
media as some players feel the FA ‘considers the demands of TV companies of
"greater importance" than the health and safety of the players’ (Fifpro , 2013)
The FA also lost its case to show mega-events such as the World Cup on ‘free-
to-air TV’ (Wilson B. , 2013) presenting another failure of the governing bodies to
control the media. On top of this technology has began to enter the game from
media pressure which some feel ‘could spoil the spirit of the game’ (Dirs, 2013).
It has also become clear that those teams which relied on the income during their
time in the PL struggled to cope with the lack of income when relegated into the
FL as shown in figure 9. Many teams found they were reliant on the bigger
income in the PL and went into administration, causing further relegations in
some cases which led to increased financial issues.

42
Figure 9 - Insolvent clubs (Beech, Horsman, & Magraw, 2008)
On the other hand the FA has previously introduced a competition separately for
FL clubs only. The ‘Football League Trophy’ was introduced in 2006 and provides
a new income for FL clubs from sponsorship of the competition which is currently
sponsored by Johnstone’s Paint (Johnstone's Paint, 2014). This shows the FA
making steps towards providing FL clubs with a platform to exploit the alliance
but this tournament has little standing amongst elite teams.
All of this provides evidence that the FA attempted to maintain control of the
alliance but has acted late or too weakly to combat the media and sponsors
forcefulness.
Overall this chapter has used secondary date from newspapers, reports and
interviews to help answer the research questions of the literature review.
Table 8 – Research questions summarised
1. Has BskyB always
dominated media
coverage of football and
will it dictate for the
foreseeable future?
Research question one was explored and showed the battle
between BskyB and BT. The timeline of the alliance showed when
BskyB came and changed the way football broadcasting occurs. It
becomes clear that BskyB have always dominated since the
company became involved. Sections 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 all show how

43
BskyB have controlled the media coverage for years without much
competition. However as shown BT have now become a large threat
and rivals to them relating closely to objective one.
2. What effects of the
alliance have caused
financial discrepancies
between PL and FL
clubs?
The alliance timeline helps to show when discrepancies and the
alliance were first visible. Evidence such as the failure of ITV digital
shows how clubs became reliant on the alliance, and when that
failed FL clubs were left in financial ruin. In comparison PL clubs
have always had enough income, greater media coverage and
sponsorship to stop this occurring. The effects of the alliance have
caused financial discrepancies due to the investment size in the PL
compared to a much more modest one of FL. This has caused the
gap between the PL and FL to widen in many aspects including
quality, coverage, FA attention and most obviously financially.
3. Does the FA encourage
the PL and FL
discrepancy or has the
PL forced its own
development, caused by
the alliance, making the
FA control redundant?
This chapter shows the FA attempts to either control or stop the
effects of the alliance. Introducing competitions such as the Football
League Trophy and maintaining competitions e.g. FA Cup the FA
has shown their attempts to provide the FL with coverage. Financial
fair play has tried to reduce the gap between the rich clubs and the
rest of the FL yet there appears to be evidence the PL has already
got away from the FA rule over finances. With PL initiatives such as
parachute payments the rich clubs will maintain their position at the
top and leave FL clubs to suffer. The FA has begun to put measures
in place to stop and help clubs in financial difficulty however the PL
has expanded beyond the reach of the FA in many cases and now
encourages the growth of the PL to exploit revenue and recognition.

44
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN

45
Research Design
This project was conducted without primary research. Justification for using
secondary data was explored earlier. Nevertheless to be sure the research methods
used were appropriate; background research was conducted showing how reliable
and realistic gathering primary research would have been.
4.1 Research Approaches
Research can be undertaken using different approaches.
 Quantitative/Qualitative
 Applied/Basic
 Deductive/Inductive
(Neville, 2007)
Figure 10 – Quantitative and Qualitative data (Neville, 2007)

46
The figure above shows quantitative data is the emphasis on numerical data
showing statistics and can presented in graphics easily. Qualitative data is the
thoughts and emotions behind answers. It is deeper approach and analyses
answers to understand behaviour. This research has made use of both
quantitative and qualitative approaches in secondary research.
A basic approach is undertaken to improve knowledge without any particular
applied purpose whereas applied approaches are used to apply findings to solve
a particular problem (Husse & Collis, 2003). This research applied knowledge,
academic research and secondary data and applied it the aim and objectives of a
particular problem showing an applied approach to research.
Finally, deductive approaches are used when a broad idea is narrowed into a
specific and particular situation in comparison inductive approaches take a
specific situation and expand this into a broad ideology. (Coady & Lehmann,
2008). As this research focussed on a specific issue within a broad ideology and
concludes with a specific answer to a specific aim this research is using a
deductive approach.
4.2 Research Techniques
This research did not conduct any primary research. This techniques and
methods used to collect primary research e.g. interviews, focus groups,
questionnaires etc where not applicable or suitable to this research topic.
To gain supportive and relevant data from a primary source the research would
have had to contact significant members of the football community. Due to the
wide scope of clubs being looked at very specific personnel would have been
needed to gain data which would add substance to this report. Attempts to reach
these varying individuals were made once ethical approval to do so was gained.
Members of the football community use agents as a middleman for those trying
make contact. Several emails and phone calls were used to contact individuals;
Gary Lineker OBE (previously an international footballer with experience playing
for both FL and PL clubs and currently a highly rated pundit) was one member
which contact was attempted via an application (see appendix 2) on his website

47
however this was unsuccessful when his agent explained he was too busy for
any interviews. This was a similar story for many footballers with a football
background matching Gary Lineker. Media and sponsorship companies were
also unwilling to interview to discuss the alliance in any depth and contact
information on relevant members of staff within the organisations found difficult to
find. This justifies using secondary data research as this reports technique.
4.3 Sampling Issues
Contact with suitable individuals for primary research was too difficult to use as
part of this research. Communication with football clubs locally such as Luton
Town FC was possible conversely. The football club had experience playing in
the FL and top division in its history. Despite this the club has currently been in
non-league football since 2009 and would therefore be less relevant due to the
recent surge in media.
This meant that secondary data and academic research were the only suitable
samples that could be used and as these sources were either unrealistic or
irrelevant and justifies the primary research being omitted from the research.
4.4 Data Collection Methods
The academic research shaped the method of the secondary data collected. The
literature review gave an in-depth background to the alliance. The research
questions shaped to help answer the objectives and gave a clear structure to
help conclude the overall aim.
The background chapter of secondary data then expanded on the detailed
background created by the literature review. This chapter approached the
objectives differently but still expanded on the research questions of the 5 W’s
from the literature review. The first sub-heading gave a timeline of the alliance for
a brief history on how football has changed to aid understanding. This was
followed by a detailed look into the history of BskyB and its dominance over the
recent past which in turn was followed by its recent competition with BT. This will
relate to the ‘Who’ research question and develops the argument for objective

48
one. Objective two was looked at by the next subheading showing a widening
gulf and gave a more comprehensive look at the ‘Why’ research question. Finally
the rest of the subheadings helped answer objective three and ‘How’ the FA is
attempting to control the alliance.
Secondary data and academic research were justified with the use of over 80
various sources as part of the data collection.
4.5 Designing Collection Methods
Throughout the previous two chapters sub-headings were introduced to add
logical flow to the argument introduced by the aim, and aid to the ease of
answering the objectives. The use of these questions needs to be justified. The
literature review was used to give the academic research behind the argument. It
set the scene and detailed opinions of academics on the subject area. The sub-
headings in this chapter were the research questions; the chapter used the
method of the 5 W’s (Who, What, Why, When and Where) as well as the How in
relation to the alliance and ‘gives a reliable and specific background to any topic
shaping projects’ (Marchiori, 2004). This meant all areas of the alliance which
were applicable in answering the aim were covered.
On the whole the design of the project is justified by the use of relevant and
realistic data sources to give a reliable argument and helps to provide an
accurate answer to the overall aim. The research has also created a justifiable
structure by means of appropriate research questions and subheadings all
relating to the objectives which are in place to gain a valid response to the aim.
4.6 Data Analysis
Graphics will help show the numerical values of authors and data for each side of
the argument per objective. Each objective offers an argument; this research
explores these opinions and presents them to give an overall view. For example
many authors feel that FA has not done enough to control the alliance; the
number of authors or secondary data argument for or against this point will be
presented in a graph giving an indication to which is more popular.

49
These opinions vary however, and a clear overwhelming opinion may not be
reached. In this case the research questions may not be conclusively answered
and will lead this report to suggestions of further readings.
4.7 Ethical Considerations
Before the research could be produced ethical approval was needed. Ethical
approval was granted on 21/11/13 (see appendix 3). Primary research was not
applicable for this report and to persist in attempting to gain contact with those
needed would have breached the ethical code of the research. Throughout the
report, sources have been appropriately and correctly referenced to ensure no
copyright ethical issues arose.
4.8 Matters of Validity and Reliability
Research needs to be valid and reliable to have any standing. The source
gathered need to be factual and trustworthy.
Figure 11 – Valid and reliable data (McMillian & Weyers, 2011)
Figure 11 shows a checklist of ensuring sources are reliable. The more of these
that can be ticked off shows the more reliable the source is. It shows the more
information available about the source the more valid its references are.

50
This research has ensured that sources have information available to ensure the
research is valid and reliable itself. Over 80 sources have been used to back up
arguments and argue against each other. The more sources on a similar topic
area also help to show the reliability of the sources.

51
CHAPTER FIVE
CONDUCT OF STUDY

52
Conduct of Study
5.1 The Location of Research and Research Informants
This research took place within the University of Bedfordshire premises. As
discussed no primary research was conducted and therefore no further locations
were needed.
By using exclusively secondary research the University of Bedfordshire (UoB)
had ample facilities for the needs of this topic. All information could be gained via
the library, online academic sources and secondary data online or in
newspapers. This justifies the location of University of Bedfordshire and the
informants used.
5.2 Collection of Data
Data has been pooled from nearly two years of research giving a number of
sources. These academic sources are accessible online and within the UoB
library (University of Bedfordshire, 2006). UoB’s library contains various
academic sources from many different topics as well as an online system
covering all aspect of the topic being covered. These sources were read,
recorded and referenced to make use of during the research and shape the
discussion
Secondary data was similarly recorded and accessible online meaning they were
freely available whenever needed and updated regularly. These sources were
collected and referenced on a safe database which the researcher had access
to.
Again the exclusive use of academic and secondary sources without primary
research has resulted in the easy collection of data without any real ethical
consideration needed.

53
5.3 Analysing Data Collected
Over 80 various sources were directly used at least once during the report have
been carefully selected to add substance to the argument presented by the aim.
Academic sources gauged a background to the subject area showing academic
research on similar topics. Secondary data was taken from four types;
newspapers, reports, online blogs and interviews.
These sources had to be analysed and conducted in a clear structure to conclude
the topic. As stated previously this would be done by visual graphics such as
charts and graphs to provide the reader with a definite answer to the objectives
and aim.
5.4 Research Ethics
As stated this research was granted ethical approval to be conducted. Many
areas needed to be addressed. All areas of ethical research was considered;
Honesty, Objectivity, Integrity, Careful, Openness, Respect, Confidentiality, Non-
Discriminatory and Legality (Bell, 2010).
Table 9 – Ethical Research
Honesty Needs to be considered with references and quotations
taken. These need to be honestly used and not taken out of
context as to diminish its meaning.
Objectivity Means avoiding or minimizing bias or self-deception. As well
as avoiding disclosing personal or financial interests that may
affect research.
Integrity Has been shown by keeping the promises and agreements in
the research and the research have acted with sincerity
throughout.
Careful Research was conducted by ensuring all data was correct
and checked, critically analysing the sources as well as the
researchers own work.
Openness Was ethically done by showing the results and sharing all

54
sources within the reference list at the end.
Respect Of intellectual property was shown to all sources by keeping
to copyright and patents as well as only using published
works.
Confidentially Is used in research when colleting primary research which
this research has not made use of.
Non-
Discriminatory
This research has not excluded any works on the basis of;
sex, age, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation or any other
factor other than the intellectual components
Legality Has been kept by ensuring all relevant laws and governance
over sources has been adhered to such as copyright
5.5 Changes after Interim Stage
When the research was reviewed via an interim report it became clear that the
research was too broad. The topic area at the interim report was ‘To investigate
the negative impact the sport mass media has on the England National Football
team’ with four main objectives. In hindsight it is clear that the topic area and
each objective was too broad and was not making use of ‘SMART’ criteria.
As well as this the idea of primary research was still being attempted during the
interim report and since then has been shown to be unachievable and unrealistic.
This research now has a specific aim and clear concise objectives. The use of
primary data has been replaced by relevant secondary data.
5.6 Researcher Reflexivity
Reflexivity ‘refers to our human capacity to consider ourselves in relation to our
context and vice versa’ (Longhoffer, Hoy, & Floersch, 2013). It gives a chance
for the researcher to reflect upon the research and how personal opinion and
feelings have shaped the research,
This research had emotional attachments due to the close connection and
feelings towards the topic. Having the research support a FL team and watch PL
games gave the background curiosity towards the topic.

55
5.7 Other Issues
The main issue which arose during this research was the lack of contact possible
with relevant primary sources. This had been acknowledged and countered by
the use of secondary data.
Others issue which occurred was the access to some sensitive secondary data
e.g. finance reports of football teams. Although finance reports of league and
some teams were available the lack of all information meant a case study type
research was not possible or suited for this research.
Overall the conduct of the study was clearly making use of secondary data. Changes
have been made in reflection to ensure the best results are gained from the
research. All data was collected ethically and in the premises of UoB.

56
CHAPTER SIX
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

57
Findings and Discussion
This chapter begins to conclude this report. The objectives will be summarised and
discussed showing evidence to what side of the argument has more support. Each
objective will be looked at individually explaining what was found, presenting the
findings and then related back to the academic and secondary sources. This is
possible due to the relevant and specific nature of the research questions.
6.1Objective One
- To establish who the main media companies in the football alliance are
The objective helps to answer the aim as it establishes the stakeholders within
the alliance and therefore narrows the search field to specify which sources are
most suitable.
Throughout this research it has become very clear who the main media company
in the alliance is and has been since its launch as a football broadcaster. BskyB
has been dominant for many years within the industry, almost all academic
sources on the topic area establishes BskyB as the main broadcasting company
since the early 90s.
BT has now come to compete with BskyB broadcasting football in the UK.
Authors feel that BT has the right attributes to mount a serious challenge but also
feel it could take years to become the established force. Other companies are
vital in explaining the discrepancies of the alliance such as ITV Digital, as its
collapse caused a huge gulf in finances between the FL and PL. In the academic
sources these three companies are frequently used to explore the topic as well
as the occasional mention of other broadcasters such as ESPN or Setanta.
From the 41 academic sources which directly reference broadcasting companies
the following graph shows which company is mentioned most frequently

58
Surprisingly BT Sport is mentioned less frequently than ITV Digital. This is likely
due to the dates of these sources being slightly out of date in comparison to BT
Sports very recent ascent to dominance.
Not surprisingly BskyB is almost ever present with only 3 academic sources not
directly using BskyB. Both Rowe and Morrow, the main two academic sources
cited within this report frequently mention and use BskyB within their research.
This certainly establishes BskyB as the dominant and main media company
within the football alliance; however it cast doubt over BT Sports being an
established force yet. Secondary research found opposing results.
The research has made use of 46 secondary sources which directly refer to a
broadcasting company. Of the 46 sources, 43 of them mention BT Sports directly
as a main media company broadcasting football within the UK, more frequently
than sources mention BskyB.
Despite its apparent vital influence on the FL when it collapsed ITV Digital is
mentioned less recurrent in secondary sources than academic sources. Other

59
companies included; ESPN, Setanta and others which were only mentioned as
comparison to BskyB and its previous competition.
ITV Digital obviously holds a key part within the alliance despite no longer being a
solvent company. Their frequent mentions within academic and secondary
sources show their impact on the FL has endured and a case can be made to
state it still impacts FL clubs now. However, mentioning the company in sources
alone does not define it as being the established companies in the alliance.
Other companies such as ESPN and Setanta have made little impact and are
merely used as examples of BskyB dominance; therefore, have not earned the
right to be an established media company within the alliance.
BskyB has clearly established itself; with authors citing the company such as
Rowe stating ‘BskyB have crushed all other competition’ adding to Morrow
suggesting ‘BskyB rules over football.’ The real discussion is whether BT Sports
and ITV Digital should be established as main media companies in the alliance.
As stated earlier authors such as Boyle and Haynes refer to BTs up and coming
challenge on BskyB stating that BskyB faces challenges ‘most noticeably from
BT.’ It appears that the majority of the most recent academic sources refer to BT

60
with many suggesting their challenge could unseat BskyB at the top by
mentioning how ‘BskyB shares falling’ as Peston (2013) discusses.
It appears to be the timescale of BTs rise which has meant academic sources
have not established their claim as a major media company in the alliance. BT’s
rapid growth has meant only recent academic sources would even be aware of
BT’s competition. Below shows a graph to illustrate how many secondary sources
appear to favour BT Sport in overtaking BskyB as the main media company
within the alliance.
This is backed up with the numerous mentions and promotion from secondary
sources establishing BT Sport as the second main media company within the
alliance.
ITV Digital has obviously impacted the FL and had direct impacts on the football
alliance. 19 sources, both secondary and academic, directly mention ITV Digital
all give detail on the effect the company’s collapse had on the FL and therefore
the football alliance.

61
Graph 4 below indicates how many of these 19 sources show ITV Digital to have
financially directly impacted the football alliance
Clearly sources believe that ITV Digital were instrumental in the financial
discrepancies between the FL and PL. This collapse of ITV Digital had such as
big effect as Rowe states ‘the collapse could not be foreseen’ meaning FL clubs
did not plan for the lack of income. In contrast some authors feel that ITV Digital’s
place within the alliance is as irrelevant as EPSN and Setanta which relates to
Jarvie who explains ‘Setanta, ESPN and ITV Digital have also famously tried to
take on BskyB but to no avail’. Overall it appears ITV Digital has had an impact
on the alliance due to the financial impacts its collapsed had on FL clubs.
However ITV Digital is not as established as BskyB or BT Sports as the main
media companies. It can be summarised as concluding the main media
companies are in ordered as follows, based on their impact within the alliance:
1. BskyB
2. BT Sport
3. ITV Digital
6.2Objective Two
- To explore whether the financial discrepancies between Premier League and
Football League clubs has been caused by the Football Alliance

62
It has been clearly shown that the FL and PL have a large gulf in finances
between them. Rowe and Morrow have similar views on BskyB running football.
Section 2.5 of this research explains why there is a discrepancy and much is to
blame on football clubs which ‘rely on broadcasting income’ explains Crowther.
FL clubs appeared to rely on ITV Digital and its income therefore a large financial
discrepancy formed when the company collapsed. The alliance appears to be the
root cause backed by bad management and the collapse of media companies.
The overall view of the report relates to authors such as Morrow who also details
how the PL introducing parachute payments have caused the rich to become
unreachable leaving a gap between the top clubs and the FL. This introduces the
question of whether the FA were doing enough to control the alliance and
stopping the discrepancies from growing.
Contradictory Szymanski argues that the PL saves clubs from bankruptcy with
support and player development. However this money gained by the PL has been
brought in by media companies and sponsors as a direct impact from the football
alliance.
Overall it was revealed that FL clubs becoming reliant on media and sponsorship
income became very costly when the income stopped and no contingency plan
was in place. This shows bad management according to Rowe and therefore
although the alliance was to blame for the initial financial discrepancies, bad
management and control caused the gap to widen quickly leaving PL clubs
impossible to keep up with. This adds to the lack of support and control the FA
maintained over the alliance and its bias toward the PL shown in many sources.
The alliance empowered the PL to take control over football in the UK and grow
away from the FL. This proves the alliance caused financial discrepancies
between the two and encouraged a further gulf.

63
Graph 5 shows the level of financial difficulties some FL clubs faced with debts
up to £40m directly due to media companies within the alliance.
This further backed by the losses expected for the FL clubs. As stated earlier in
the report most clubs had budgeted for at least two seasons with ITV Digital
income still expected. The graph below indicates the expected losses for the
lower league divisions.
Figure 6 presented earlier in this report shows how 50% of the PL clubs income
is from broadcasting and as figure 5 shows an average income of over £40m
from broadcasting rights is given to PL clubs. With an average income therefore
of over £80m PL clubs are in a very healthy financial position which compares to
an average £5m per club for League One clubs.

64
Graph 7 shows that from the 43 academic sources used, the alliance is directly
linked to causing a discrepancy in 30 of them with only 13 supporting the alliance
in helping FL clubs.
As shown in table 1 Morrow feels that the alliance has taken over control of
football and the FA has failed to maintain any control. Rowe feels the FA are
attempting to maintain this control but the sheer force of the media and sponsors
have left the FA unable to remain in charge despite their best efforts. Either way it
has become obvious that the alliance within football has had detrimental effect in
keeping the FL and PL clubs closer financially.
Overall the overwhelming evidence blames the football alliance for causing
financial discrepancies between FL clubs and PL clubs; whether this was directly
caused by companies in the alliance or indirectly by encouraging PL supremacy
and encouraging bad management of FL clubs which become reliant on
broadcasting income.

65
6.3Objective Three
- To analyse whether the FA are doing enough to help Football League clubs
gain the benefits of the Football Alliance
The FA was identified as the leading stakeholders in controlling the football
section of the alliance. Their involvement within all decisions of broadcasting,
sponsorship and regulations can be traced making their impact very visual. The
key points of the FA involvement include; introducing regulations e.g. financial fair
play, maintaining competitions for FL clubs e.g. FA cup and Football League
Trophy, inability to control parachute payments and whether there is biasness
towards the PL.
Morrow feels the FA have shown their ‘feebleness’ in being over thrown by media
as leaders in the alliance with Sturgeon agreeing saying the FA signed away all
rights to the media. Clearly authors feel the FA did not act quickly enough to
maintain control when companies such as BskyB first began to take broadcasting
rights, focussing too much on the extra revenue. Even Rowe agrees with Morrow
in the opinion the media took control with the rapid rise in rule which the FA could
not handle.
Graph 8 shows the percentage of the 43 academic sources used which indicate
the FA involvement. 31 out of the 43 sources agree with Rowe and Morrow that
the FA did not act well enough to support FL clubs within the alliance.

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