2. Introduction
• These drugs are used primarily to treat
infections caused by aerobic gram-negative
bacteria
• Aminoglycosides are bactericidal inhibitors of
protein synthesis
3. History and Source
• Natural products or semisynthetic derivatives of
compounds produced by a variety of soil actinomycetes
• Streptomycin was first discovered in 1944 by waksman
isolated from a strain of Streptomyces griseus
• Gentamicin and netilmicin are derived from species of
the actinomycete Micromonospora
4. Contd.
• Difference in spelling (-micin) compared with
the other aminoglycoside antibiotics (-mycin)
reflects this difference in origin
5. Chemistry
• The term aminoglycoside stems from their
structure:
• Two aminosugars joined by aminocitol by
glycosidic bond:
Aminosugar-o- -o-Aminosugar
2-deoxystreptamine
6. Contd.
• In streptomycin aminocyclitol is streptidine:
• - -o- -o-
Streptobiosamine
Streptidine Streptose
aminosugar
N-methyl-L-Glucosamine
aminosugar
7. Contd.
• Spectinomycin is not aminoglycoside because
aminocyclitol is not connected to any
aminosugar
8. Properties
1) All are used as sulfate salts ,which are high
water soluble; solution are stable for months
2) They ionize in solution
-not absorb orally
-distribute only extracellularly
-don’t penetrate CSF or brain
9. 3) Excreted unchanged in urine
4) Bactericidal and more active at alkaline pH
5) Act by interfering with protein synthesis
6) Active against gram-ve aerobic bacilli and do
not inhibit anaerobes
7) There is only partial cross resistance among
them
8) Low margin of safety
9) Exhibit ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity
10. Mechanism of action
1. Transport of aminoglycoside through cell wall
and cytoplasmic membrane
2. Binding to ribosomes resulting in inhibition
of protein synthesis
11. Transport of drug
• Diffuse across the outer coat of bacteria
through porin channel
• Penetration is oxygen dependent active
process
• Inactivated under anaerobic condition
• Also favoured by high pH
12. Inhibition of protein synthesis
Bind to 30s, 50s ribosome as well as 30s-
50s interface
Freeze initiation, prevent polysome
formation and misreading of mRNA code
Inhibit protein synthesis
13.
14. • Cidal action due to secondary change in cell
membrane
• Energy dependent phase II process
• After exposure sensitive bacteria become
more permeable
• Ions, amino acid and protein leak out
Cell death
15. • Cidal effect is concentration dependent:
• Rate of bacterial cell killing directly related to
ratio of peak antibiotic concentration to MIC
• Also exert post antibiotic effect
16. Mechanism of resistance
a. Aciquisition of cell membrane bound
inactivating enzymes that
adenylate/acetylate or phosphorylate drug
Mainly by conjugation and transfer of
plasmids
• Nosocomial microbes have become rich in
such plasmids, some of which encode for
multidrug resistance
Aciquisition of cell membrane bound inactivating
enzymes that adenylate/acetylate or phosphorylate
drug
17. b)
Less common
Specific for particular drug
Seen in E.coli
Mutation decrease affinity of ribosomal proteins that
normally bound to aminoglycoside
18. Contd
• C)
• Less common
• Found in pseudomonas: 2nd phase active
transport defective
Decrease efficiency of aminoglycoside transport
mechanism
19. Phramakokinetics
Absorption
Highly polar cations
very poorly absorbed from the GI tract
Absorption of gentamicin from the GI tract may
be increased by GI disease (e.g., ulcers or
inflammatory bowel disease)
20. Contd.
• All the aminoglycosides are absorbed rapidly
from intramuscular sites of injection
21. Distribution
Because of their polar nature, the aminoglycosides
do not penetrate into most cells, the CNS, or the
eye
Plasma protein binding: neglible
Vd:25% of lean body weight –equal to ECF
Concentrations of aminoglycosides in secretions
and tissues are low
22. Elimination
Excreted almost entirely by glomerular filtration
Large fraction of a parenterally administered
dose is excreted unchanged during first 24 hours
t1/2: 2-4 hrs
Aminoglycosides can be inactivated by various
penicillins in vitro and thus should not be
admixed in solution
25. Contd.
Single total daily dose regimen for patients
with normal renal function because of:
a. Aminoglycosides have concentration
dependent killing and a long post antibiotic
effect
b. Plasma concentration remain subthresold for
ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity
26.
27. Single daily dose regimen is not used in:
a. Patient with abnormal renal function and
children
b. Gentamicin is combined with β-lactam for
bacterial endocarditis
28. Untoward Effects
Ototoxicity
Ototoxicity results in irreversible, bilateral high-
frequency hearing loss and temporary vestibular
hypofunction
Degeneration of hair cells and neurons in the cochlea
correlates with the loss of hearing
Ototoxicity higher when plasma concentration of drug
is persistently high
For gentamycin: 2μg/ml
29. Contd.
Interfere with the active transport system
essential for the maintenance of the ionic
balance of the endolymph
Ear drops also can ototoxicity when given in
patient with perforated eardrum
30. Cochlear toxicity
• Start from base to apex
Symptoms:
• Tinnitus –high pitched
• Progressive hearing loss
• Duration: On stopping of drug, tinnitus
disappears but frequency loss persist
32. Nephrotoxicity
Tubular damage causes:
Low g.f.r
Nitrogen retention
Albuminuria
Casts
• High concentration is found in renal cortex
and toxicity related to total amount of drug
received
33. Mechanism
Inhibit various phospholipases, sphingomyelinases,
and ATPases, and they alter the function of
mitochondria and ribosomes
↓ PG synthesis and ↓ g.f.r
Incidence: 8-26%
Factor affecting nephrotoxicity
Total amount of drug administered
Duration of drug received
34. Contd.
• Advanced age, liver disease, diabetes mellitus,
and septic shock↑ toxicity
• Streptomycin and tobramycin are least
nephrotoxic
35. Neuromuscular blockade
• ↓ release of Ach from motor nerve endings
• Antagonizes Ca+2 and ↓ sensitivity of muscle
end plates to Ach
• Neomycin and streptomycin have higher
incidence
• Apnoea and fatalities when streptomycin was
put into peritoneal/ or plural cavity
36. Precautions and interactions
a. Avoid during pregnancy: risk of foetal
ototoxicity
b. Avoid concuurent use of nephrotoxic drug:
NSAIDS
Vancomycin
Cisplatin
Amphotericin B
Cyclosporine
37. Contd.
c) Cautious use of other ototoxic drug:
Vancomycin
Minocycline
Furosemide
d)Cautious use in renal damage and old age
e)Cautious use of muscle relaxant
f)Don’t mix aminoglycoside with any drug in same syringe
40. Gentamicin
• Cheapest and first line antibiotic
• 3rd systemically antibiotic obtained from
micromonospora purpurea in 1964
Spectrum
Gram-ve bacilli like: E.coli, Klebsillea,
Enterobacter, H.Influenzae, proteus, serrratia,
and pseudomonas
Many strain of brucella, campylobacter
citrobacter, Fransisella and yersinia are sensitive
41. Contd.
Uses
Preventing and treating respiratory infection
in:
Critically ill patient
Impaired host defence: AIDS, neutropenia,
Corticosteroids
Patient on resuscitation wards
Post operative pneumonia
With implants
ICU patients
Combined with penicillin/cephalosporin
42. • Not used in community acquired pneumonia as it
is caused by gram positive cocci and anaerobes
Psuedomonas, proteus, or Klebsiella
Burns
UTI
Osteomyelitis
Middle ear infection
Septicemia
43. Meningitis caused by gram negative bacilli
Third genration cephalosporins with
aminoglycoside is used
Subacute bacterial endocarditis(SABE)
Gentamicin 1 mg/kg 8 hrly i.m. with
penicillin/ampicilllin/vancomycin
Added to peritoneal dialysate to prevent or treat
peritonitis
45. Uses
Tuberculosis
Tuberculocidal
Acts only on extracellular bacilli
Use: in 2nd category T.B. for first two months
Dose:15 mg/kg i.m. thrice a week for 2 month
Subacute bacterial endocarditis
Plague: rapid cure within 7-12 days but tetracycline is
drug of choice
Tularemia: Streptomycin is drug of choice for this rare
disease
46. Contd.
Streptomycin dependence:
Certain mutant grown in presence of
streptomycin dependent on it
Seen in tuberculosis
Toxicity
Lowest nephrotoxicity
Hypersensitivity reaction are rare:
rashes, eosinophillia, exfoliative dermatitis, and
fever are reported
Anaphylaxis is very rare
47. Kanamycin
Obtained frorn S. kanamyceticus :in 1957
Similar to streptomycin in all aspects
Toxicity and narrow spectrum not used now
Occasionally used in 2nd line drug in
tuberculosis
48. Tobramycin
• Similar to gentamycin
• Used pseudomonas and proteus resistant to
gentamycin
• Ototoxicty and nephrotoxicity is less
49. Amikacin
• Semisynthetic derivative of kanamycin
• Resistance to bacterial aminoglycoside
inactivating enzymes.
• Has widest spectrum of activity
50. Contd.
Use:
Empirical treatment of hospital acquired gram
negative bacillary infection where gentamycin
resistant is very high
Multidrug resistant T.B.
More hearing loss than vestibular disturbance
51. Netilmicin
Semisynthetic derivative of gentamycin
Broader spectrum
Relatively resistant to aminoglycoside inactivating
enzymes
More active against klebsilla, Enterobacter and
styphylococcus
Less active against pseudomonas
Less ototoxic
53. Contd
Orally
a) Preparation for bowel surgery:3 doses of 1g along with
metronidazole 0.5 g on day before surgery reduce
postoperative infection
b) Hepatic coma:
• By suppressing intestinal flora it decrease NH3
production
• Because of toxicity lactulose is used
54. Side effects
• Malabsorption syndrome with diarrhoea and
stetorrhoea
• Hypersensitivity reactions, primarily skin rashes,
occur in 6-8% of patients –with topical therapy
• Superinfection with candida
• Nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity
• Neuromuscular blockade with respiratory paralysis
59. Spectinomycin
• Obtained from streptomyces
• Not true aminoglycoside chemically
• Single dose 40 mg/kg i.m. used for
gonorrhoea alternative to penicillin
• Nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity very rare
60. Clinical summary
• The role of aminoglycosides in the treatment of
bacterial infections has diminished steadily as
alternative drugs have become available
• Compared with other antibacterials, aminoglycosides
are among the most toxic
• These agents are first-line therapy for only a limited
number of very specific, often historically prominent
infections:
plague,
tularemia
tuberculosis.
61. Contd.
• Gentamicin or amikacin may have a role as a in
the treatment of nosocomial infections caused
by multidrug-resistant gram-negative
pathogens :
Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter
• Because more effective and less toxic
alternatives usually are available:
62. Contd.
• Aminoglycosides should be used sparingly and
reserved for specific indications
• Duration of therapy should be kept to a
minimum to avoid toxicity, and serum
concentrations should be monitored
Editor's Notes
IN Majority aminocitol is 2…
Only streptomycin 30 s ribosome
Except for streptomycin which is bound to albumin, vd is almost of equall to ECF
Narrow margin of safety dosing schedule must be calculated according to body weight and renal function:nomograms is used
With normal RFT
Hair cell can not regenerate
Tinnitus-high pitched
To reduced resistance
Oral use of diarrhoea for streptomycin is banned in india