slid show

1. BAKERYAND CONFECTIONERY
Bakery and confectionery
12/09/1994
By chef Brijesh
Taj Palace Hotel ,New Delhi
1. HISTORY OF BREAD
2. BREAD – INGREDIENTS, THEIR ROLE AND STEPS IN BREAD MAKING
3. BREAD FAULTS
4. BREAD IMPROVERS
a. Custards and Creams
b. Souffles and Mousses
5. CAKE MIXING AND BAKING
6. PASTRY
7. COOKIES AND BISCUITS
8. BAKERY TERMINOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF BREAD
BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so
many countries….but what really is bread????

2. The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago,
primitive people made flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these
cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the
ashes/embers of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was
kept and mixed with the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a
royal Egyptian household forgot about some dough he had made and kept aside. When he
returned, it had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough was punched down
furiously and baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.
The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and
ovens for every ones use and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans
continued the idea of the public bakeries. They also required that every baker put an
identificationstamp on their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with millstones and the
finest flour was sifted through silk sieves.
CHAPTER 2: BREAD
Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the
components (ingredients) that are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic
ingredients are Flour, Salt, Yeast and Water.
Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types
of dough.
Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and
salt are blended with yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then
covered to prevent drying out and a skin forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation.
Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to ferment. The dough is then knocked
back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place and then kneaded
to encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the
fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can
vary from one to twelve hours, dependingon the recipe.
No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that
contains chemicals that would naturallybe produced by fermentation, given a littlemore time.
Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is
continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is developed sufficiently. It is preferable to
use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the dough is ready for
scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick
fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not
allow time for the gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to
compensate. The extra water will increase the yield, which should pay for the improver. No time

3. dough is ideal for those kitchens with limited time, space and facilities. Improvers also assist
prolonged quality maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread that has
less gluten (weak flour).
Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to
become accustomed to the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which
will slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and
fermented with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and with all the water.
Fermentation depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar
conditions. The first ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk
powder to form a dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for
roughly the same time as the ferment. The dough can then be scaled.
TEMPERATURE
It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of
fermentation. Even for basic bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the
raw material. The best temperature for fermentation is between 25°C and 28°C. Above 32°C,
fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker. Under 24°C, fermentation is slow. As water
temperature can be readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature of the dough,
determines the water temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the
required dough temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above
number. The result is the required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28°C, and the
flour temperature is 18°C, then 2x28=56, 56-18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be
38°C. Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the insoluble wheat portions forming gluten.
Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough. Water has a marked
effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The
water content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various
flours.
THE COMPONENTS
SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also
necessary to stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast,
which in turn will affect the crumb or texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too
rapid in dough with too little salt, which checks the growth of yeast so more sugar is converted
to gas. Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion,
leaving too much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is
insipid. Too much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation.
With the yeast activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten
resulting in a smaller volume. At worst, the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of
excessive salt.

4. YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2
(carbon di oxide), alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network,
which aerates the dough. The second function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread,
is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the dough, so that when the item is baked,
the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at the same time
retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple
sugar). Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast.
Other sugars and carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must
be in a good condition to work efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it
is dark ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an unpleasant odor, then it should not be used.
Small quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a cool place. Yeast works
best between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker
as the temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C,
yeast works slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or
sugar or dispensed in a strong solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it
can never be dissolved in liquid.
FLOUR - there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white
flour. Whole meal flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during
processing, Strong with flour has higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft
cake flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water absorption rate than white flours so the
dough may be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain speed up the dough
ripening so the dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation.
Because the physical and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough
needs shorter fermentation.
GLUTEN - Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread
during the manipulation(mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin combine
in the presence of moisture (water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas generated by
the yeast and holds it in the dough structure. When it coagulates, it becomes the framework of
the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by many factors including the
amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough, fermentation
time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading). Given good
material and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than properly made
dough. The kneading, fermentation and the knocking back are also important. Proper mixing
gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the maximum water and become thoroughly hydrated.

5. IMPROVERS - contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time,
under the skilled eye of the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough
and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt
and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For dough that is enriched with fat
and sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical improver would
include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active
malt flour.
RETARDATION
Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C. It enables
the dough to be made in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required.
This ensures freshness and standard quality. Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the
best and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done in two ways: the dough is
given between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs
pieces to quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is
again given 50-70% of its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and
then brought back to room temperature. The final proving should not be forced. The dough
should be cooled before retarding as a high temperature will extend fermentation before
retardation is effective. To avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at
75% humidity or in polythene bags.
DOUGH ENRICHMENT
Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the
taste and flavour, and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will
have to be reduced when using salted butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the
dough should be kept a little softer and for a slightlylonger time.
POINTS TO NOTE
- Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,
- See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.
- Carefullyweigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,
- Calculate water temperature and measure.

6. - Disperse yeast in a littlewater, add salt in the rest of the water and add to the flour,
- Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.
-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. - Prove in a place
at the correct temperature or in the prover.
- Knock back when proved according to the BFT.
- Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.
- Cover with greased polythene sheet to prevent skin formation
- Egg/starch wash and cutting is best done when the dough is ¾ proved.
- Rolls are baked at 230°C with steam.
STEPS IN BREAD MAKING OPERATIONS
To start with, the ingredients should be correctly scaled and weighed as per a good recipe.
Baking is a science, it is essential to begin correctly with the right ingredients in the correct
proportions.
1. FERMENTATION: the dough should be fermented for the proper length of time, during which
the yeast cells act on the sugars and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. A number of physical
and chemical changes take place during this time.
Physical changes include:
- steady increase in the volume of the dough and can be up to five times its original volume
- increase in temperature by about 5°C to 6°C
- Increase in the number of yeast cells by about 26% in straight dough and 56% in sponge
dough.
- Loss of moisture
- Change in the consistency of the dough – it becomes soft, elastic and extensible
Chemical changes include:
- the PH of the dough reduces from 5.5 to 4.7 due to the production of acetic acid, lactic

7. acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
- formation of maltose by diastatic enzymes by acting on starch
- production of carbon dioxide and alcohol by enzymatic reactions
- Mellowing of the gluten by proteolytic enzymes present in the flour and yeast.
Fermentation time will depend on:
- type of flour
- quantity of the yeast
- temperature of the dough
- presence of yeast food (sugar)
2. FERMENTATION CONTROL
It is important to control the fermentation so that the gas production and the gas retention
coincide as closely as possible. If the peak of gas production in the dough is reached before its
gas retention capacity is at a maximum, then much of the gas will be dissipated and not enough
will be left to aerate the dough when its extensibility is at its highest point. On the other hand if
the dough reaches its optimum gas retention capacity before gas production is at its highest
rate, much of the gas will be lost subsequently. Hence, fermentation control is important to have
the development of gas production and gas retention capacities at a parallel and even rate.
3. GAS PRODUCTION:
Gas production will increase with:
- addition of malt and sugar
- the increase of yeast concentration
- the presence of yeast food
- high temperature of the dough (35°C)

8. Gas production decreases with:
- addition of salt
- excess amounts of yeast foods
- higher temperature of the dough (above 35°C)
4. GAS RETENTION
Gas retention is governed by chemical and physical factors such as minerals, moisture, PH,
proteolytic enzymes and oxidising agents, mixing, dough expansion, punching (knocking back).
5. FERMENTATION LOSSES
The weight loss in fermented dough is in the range of 0.5 to 4%. However, under average
conditions it is 1%. The loss in weight is normallyattributed to the loss in moisture, which
depends on the temperature and the relative humidity. Minor loss may be attributed to the
escape of carbon dioxide.
6. KNOCK BACK
Punching of the dough in between fermentation periods:
- increases the gas retention of the dough
- Equalises the temperature throughout the dough and ensures more even fermentation.
- Reduces the retarding effect of excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide
- Introduces atmospheric oxygen and stimulates yeast activity
- Aids the mechanical development of gluten by the stretching and folding actions
The first punch is normally given when 60% of the fermentation is complete and the second
punch is given in half the time required for the first punch.

9. 7. DOUGH MAKE UP
The function of dough make up is to transform the dough into properly scaled and moulded
dough pieces, which after prooving and baking will yield the desired bread. The operations
involved include:
a) Scaling (dividing): the dough is divided into individual pieces of pre determined uniform
weight and size. The weight of the dough depends on the final weight of the dough. Generally,
12% extra dough is weighted to compensate for the baking losses. Dividing should be
performed in the minimum amount of time to ensure even weight as the dough is scaled on
volumetric basis. Longer time changes the density of the dough due to production of carbon
dioxide by yeast, thereby changing the weight of the divided dough. If there is delay n dividing,
corrective steps such as de gassing the dough or increasing the size of the dough should be
taken. The de gassers are essentially dough pumps which fed the dough into the hopper and in
the process remove most of the gas. The advantage of using de gassers are:
- more uniform scaling
- Uniform texture and grain of the bread.
b) Rounding The dough pieces, which had lost a good part of the gas during the dividing, is
irregular in shape and sticky with perhaps cut surfaces. The function of the rounding (using a
rounder), is to impart a new continuous skin that will retain the gas as well as reduce the
stickiness.
c) Intermediate Proof: Dough that has undergone dividing and rounding operations has lost
much gas, lacks extensibility and will tear easily. It is rubbery and will not mould properly. To
restore a more flexible and pliable structure, which will respond well to the manipulationsof the
moulder, it is necessary to let the dough rest while the fermentation continues.
d) Moulding: The dough is now moulded into the required shapes.
9. FINAL PROOF
The purpose of the final proof is to relax the dough from the stress received during the moulding
operations and to facilitate the production of gas in order to give volume to the loaf. It also
changes the tough gluten to a good, mellow and extensible character.

10. 10 BAKING
It is the most important step in bread making and the heat transforms the unpalatabledough
into a light porous readily digestibleand flavoured product. The factors that influence the quality
of baked products are the baking temperature, humidity and the duration of baking (baking time).
There are two types of changes that take place during baking.
Physical Changes:
Film Formation: when the dough is placed in the oven, the effect of heat is the instantaneous
formation of a thin expandable surface film. The length of the time that the film remains
expandable depends on the temperature and the moisture conditions of the oven.
1. Oven Spring: Sudden expansion of the dough volume by about 1/3rd of its original size in
the oven is called oven spring. In short, it is the difference in height of the product, before and
after baking. The dough piece containing millionsof minute gas cells, under the influence of
heat, beginsto expand. As the pressure in the gas cells increases and causes expansion of cell
walls, the carbon dioxide generated by yeast in the dough is liberated at about 50°C. the freed
gas increases the pressure in the gas cells causing expansion of the dough. The evaporation of
alcohol and other low boiling point liquid increases the gas pressure, leadingto an additional
expansion of gas cells.
Chemical changes:
1. Yeast Activity: the yeast in the dough will generate carbon dioxide and alcohol with the rate
of generation increasing the temperature until the thermal death point of yeast (60°C) is
reached.
2. Starch Gelatinization: the oven spring due to the softening of gluten in the early stages of
baking is counter acted by the starch swelling which begins at about 54C. The degree of
gelatinizaton is restricted by the limitedavailabilityof water.
3. Gluten Coagulation: Starch geltinizationis associated with water absorption resulting in the
removal of water in gluten as it denatures, Gluten coagulation sets in at about 74°C and
continues till the end of baking. In this process, gluten is transformed into a semi-rigid cell
structure. The major change that takes place during baking is the re distribution of water from
gluten phase to starch phase.

11. Chapter 3: BREAD FAULTS
A good bread should be judged by its volume, bloom, shape, color, texture, sheen, moistness
and flavor. In general, one should examine the external area and the internal (crumb) area of
the bread.
Bread faults can arise from many causes. Flour varies in grade, in gluten content and quality.
Color also varies and so does the maltose content. When examining the faults in the loaf of
bread, the temperature and timings, methods of manipulation,addition of materials, errors in
setting and timing of machinery, all must be taken into account.
EXTERNAL FAULTS
1. Lack of volume: The major causes of this fault are
- a dough that is too tight and with too little yeast
- Too much salt will cause under ripening, conducive to small volume.
- Flour with low maltose will produce bread of less than normal volume. Over bleached flour
or the excess use of chemical improvers, will also produce this fault.
2. Excessive volume:
Dough with
- low salt content
- excess final proof
- loose moulding
will produce a bread of excessive volume
Excess salt decreases the stability of gluten. An excessively slack dough also produces a bread
with excess volume. This can be adjusted by altering the proving time. A cool oven causes
fermentation to continue in the oven. Therefore there will be too much oven spring.

12. 3.Lack of Crust Color: Baking the bread in a cool oven renders the loaf colorless. The other
causes for lack of crust color may be:
- over ripe dough, due to extended fermentation period (all the sugar is used up)
- excess water content
- lack of maltose
- lack of salt
1. Excess Crust Color: The likely causes are
- insufficient fermentation
- excessive use of sugar
- flour might have been milled from sprouted wheat (partially)
- baking too quickly and at too high a temperature
2. ShellTops: This is due to the formation of a crust on top of the loaf before maximum
expansion has taken place. The pressure from within the loaf exerts itself in such a way that the
top of the loaf liftsin the form of a lid.
3. Rough Surfaces: The crust of over fermented dough is always rough. Use less yeast.
Bad moldingcan also cause unsightly crust surfaces.
4. Collapsing Bread: Collapsing bread is caused by insufficient tensile strength of the
dough. Such dough is mainly due to too much water, malt or gluten improvers. Other causes
could be
- over proving
- baking in cold oven
- Disturbance of the dough before entering the oven.
Extraneous matter that may have been an accident, can lodge itself in the mass of the dough.
However there can be no excuse for dark smears caused by dirty tin grease, finger marks or the
dirt from unclean racks and boxes.

13. EXTERNAL FAULTS
1. Holes in the crumb: A dough made from flour weak in gluten, especially when the yeast
content is high, will cause holes, because the gluten has littlepower of gas retention and the
weaker cells will break down during baking. Faulty manipulationafter bulk fermentation destroys
the elasticity of the gluten and therefore the expansion does not proceed evenly, breakage
occurs and large holes are formed in the mass.
2. Cores Seams Streaks and Condensation Marks: The most common cause for cores is
the incorporation of pelletsor hard flour or dough particles. Anothercommon cause is the
turning in of a dry skin when moulding. Slight over proving or over malting often cause a core
near the bottom of the loaf.
Seams are dense layers of inedible bread. He careless causes them handling when
loading. Movement of the dough in the oven during baking makes the delicate dough structure
tremble and collapse sufficiently to form a seam or a heavy uncooked layer.
Streaks are evidence of uneven manipulationof the dough in the final stages. Loose
moulding and insufficient final proof are also causes of streaks. Dark streaks are also caused by
high maltose flour.
Condensation marks are due to improper packing.
3. Damp Clammy or Close Crunch:
The common causes are:
- Use of high maltose flour, milledfrom sprouted wheat.
- Overloading the dough with enriching agents
- Use of very weak flour
- Over machining the dough
- Wrapping the bread prematurely
- Development of a ropy condition

14. 4. Crumbliness: A slack dough will produce crumbly bread. Crumbliness is related to the
degree of fermentation. If the fermentation is insufficient, then the gluten is not conditioned and
the crumb has neither the resilience nor tensile strength necessary to whit stand the action of
cutting the loaf. Excessive mineral improvers also cause crumbliness.
Chapter 4: BREAD IMPROVERS
We refer to flour as being either strong or weak. The strength of flour varies according to its
strength and also according to factors such as starch content, sugar content, the water
absorption power (WAP) of the flour and even the color. These aspects will affect the final
outcome. In order to make good bread, it is not always possible to use the right type of flour as
the availabilitymay vary. It becomes necessary therefore to add something to the dough in
order to bring the product to a pre determined standard. This additionshould be with discretion
on knowledge, otherwise, the quality of the bread instead of improving, may actually worsen.
Bread improvers are substances, which when added to dough, enables the baker to produce an
improved loaf with better keeping qualities, finer textures, softer crumb, added bloom and
enhanced flavor.
There are three main types of bread improvers:
1. Mineral additives
2. Yeast foods
3. Enriching agents
MINERAL ADDITIVES
Mineral bread improvers are used during the millingof wheat flour. They are commonly used by
the baker during production as well. They will include:

15. - Perusulphates – used by the miller at the rate of ¼ to ½ oz per 280 lbs (one sack). The
perusulphates used are pottassium and ammonium. Flour treated with perusulphates will take
on more water and an increased yield is obtained.
- Glyceral Mono Stearate - The mono glyceral ester of stearic acid, which has remarkable
emulsifying power, is used as an emulsion stabiliser and as a crumb softener in bread.
- Potassium Bromate – It is used by the miller at the rate of 1 lb per sack (280 lbs). Bromate
increases the stabilityon the gluten to extend. Bromate has an astringent action on gluten
thereby increasing the use of water in the dough. It also increases the gas retaining properties
of the gluten, thus improving loaf volume.
- Phosphates – Acid calcium phosphates and ammoniumphosphates both have a
tightening action on gluten and since phosphates are a necessary constituent of yeast food,
they are both fermented stimulants. Acid calcium phosphate (ACP) is used at the rate of 1 lb
per sack (280lbs) which can be increased to 2 lbs per sack to inhibitthe development of rope. A
phosphate is added at the rate of 8 oz per sack.
- Lime Water – Lime water was used to retard the fermentation of the dough in hot weather
climates. In addition, it has astringent action on the gluten. As lime is alkaline, it reduces the
acidity of the dough and thus slows the rate of the fermentation. It is used at the rate of 1 quart
per sack.
- Organic acid – Organic acids are natural constituents of fermented dough. They are added
to get the dough better conditioned. Lactic acid can be added at the rate of 8 oz per sack.
Sussinic acid is added at the rate of 2-4 oz per sack.
YEAST FOODS
Yeast foods indirectly affect the bread in a number of ways by their effect on fermentation. Malt
not only provides food directly to the yeast but manufactures further supplies as and when
needed whilst simultaneously mellowing and softening the gluten of the flour.
There are two types of malt: diastatic and non diastatic.
Diastatic malt add to the flavor, it increases the sugar content in the dough and provides
diastatic sugar for the fermentation process. Diastatic enzymes also contain proolytic enzymes
which modify gluten. Non Diastatic malt serves the dual purpose of providing sugar as well as
adding to the flavor.
Flour contains natural sugar. Principally, this is sucrose in varying amounts. Normally, it is 2.5
–3%. This amount is not sufficient for satisfactory fermentation. There must be sufficient sugar
present for the production of gas that will give the loaf the required volume and to allow for the
caramelization of the crust during baking. As sugar contains no nitrogen, they cannot be

16. considered complete foods for yeast, but they produce material from which CO2 can be
produced. Demerara sugar and even treacle can be used in brown breads as they are excellent
for imparting flavor and retaining color.
ENRICHING AGENTS
Enrichment is a way of increasing nutritional value of the bread along with improvements in
volume, texture and the keeping quality of the bread
Fats - Fats have a physical rather than a chemical effect on dough. As fat is a shortening agent,
it reduces toughness, thus making the product more mellow. It is particularly valuable for use
with strong flour with a tough and harsh gluten content. Fats can be used in small quantities to
give optimum effect. Fat also increases food value. They add to the moistness in bread thereby
retarding staling. They also impart flavor to the bread.
Milk and Milk Products - Whole milk added to dough has the effect of adding fat as well as
sugar, besides calcium salts and casein.
Eggs – The incorporation of eggs in a bread dough results in many improvements. Egg adds to
the increased volume, better texture and better oven spring. It is economical to use as it
contributes immensely to improved quality and volume of the product.
- Frozen Yoghurts contains yoghurt in addition to the normal ingredients for ice cream
- Sherbets and Ices made from fruit juices, water and sugar. American sherbets usually

17. contain cream or milk and sometimes egg whites. The egg whites increase smoothness and
volume. Ices, which are also called water ices, contain only fruit juices, purees and sugar. The
do not contain milk products and are often referred to as sorbets or granite. Ice creams and
sorbets are churn frozen and are constantly mixed while they are freezing. If they are not
churned, they would freeze into a solid block of ice. The churning keeps the ice crystals small
and also incorporates air into the ice cream.
- Frozen souffle, bavarois and mousses are referred to as still-frozen desserts. There is no
churning involved. Egg whites or fresh cream is incorporated to give lightness.
- Specialty ice creams are commonly found ways in which ice creams are served. These
include :
1. Bombes
2. Parfaits
3. Coupes/sundaes
4. Meringues glace
5. Baked alaska
6. Frozen eclairs and profiteroles
What is Ice cream?
Technically, ice cream may be defined as the partly frozen foam with an air content of 40-50%
air by volume. The continuous phase of the foam contains dissolved and colloidal solids such
as sugars, proteins and stabilizers. The fatty phase is in the emulsified form. Some of the milk
proteins are structurally related to the fat globules of the emulsion.
Imitation ice cream is known as Mellorine and is made now in many parts of the world. Mellorine
is cheaper than ice cream because in expensive vegetable fats and oilsare substituted for the
more expensive dairy fats. Other than this, mellorine has almost the same composition as ice
cream. There is still no cheap substitute for milk protein, although some vegetable proteins,
particularly from soy bean, with improved flavors are used to prepare lactose free ice creams.
Prevention of food adulterationAct (PFA) Rule A 11.02.08, defines ice cream and kulfi as under:
The frozen food obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof, or from cream and
/or milk product with or without the addition of cane sugar (dextrose, liquid glucose and dried
liquid glucose), eggs, fruit and fruit juices, preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavors and
permitted food colors. It may contain permitted stabilizers and emulsifiers not exceeding.5% by

18. weight. The mixture should be suitably heated before freezing. The product must contain not
less than 10% milk fat, not less than 36% total solids, except when the aforesaid preparation
contains fruits, nuts or both, the content of the milkfat shall not be less than 8% by weight.
Starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5% under the declaration on the label. The
standards of ice cream shall also be applied to softee.
Ice cream is a complex system in which the stable mixed emulsion of four phase system of fat-
water-ice-air, must be balanced and protected from breaking and separating.
The blend of milk fat and non fat solids with sugar must result in a product of pleasing taste and
one which is smooth and creamy. Composition of the mix is important, but the most critical
stage of ice cream manufacture is the mechanical blending, freezing and hardening of the ice
cream.
COMPOSITION OF ICE CREAM
The ingredients used in ice cream manufacture are milk, skim milk powder, cream, butterfat,
sugar, stabilizers, emulsifiers, food grade flavors and permitted colors. Chocolate, dried fruits
and nuts, honey, fruit pulps and other such ingredients are also added to give variety.
Normal ice creams will have a milk fat content of 10-14% but richer ice cream will have a dairy
fat content of up to 20-24%. Proteins are usually between 3.5-4%, sugar 14-15%, stabilizers .3
-.5% and emulsifiers .1-.2%
MANUFACTURE OF ICE CREAM
The following are the steps involved in the processing of ice cream:
- Pasteurization
- Homogenization

19. - Cooling
- Ageing
- Freezing
- Hardening
- Storage
- Transportation and delivery
After weighing or metering by volume, the ingredients are heated together in a jacketed tank
with strong agitation so as to form a core emulsion with large fat globules up to 15 gms in size.
Pasteurization treatment may be carried out in the mixing tanks. During Homogenization, the
mix is converted into a true emulsion with a fat globule size of less than 2 gms. For efficient
homogenization, the fat phase should be completely liquidand hence a temperature near
pasteurization temperature is preferred. Homogenization of the ice cream mix is normally
carried out at a pressure of 140-210 kg/cm2. At the end of this treatment, it is often found that
individual small fat globules cohere in clumps, resulting in a viscous mix with poor processing
properties in subsequent stages. A second homogenization at lower pressure of 35kg/cm2 is
used to break up the clumps.
The emulsion is now cooled immediatelyto 4°C sometimes using a super cool.
The next step is ageing. The cooled emiulsion is usually styored in a thermostatically controlled
vessel for 2-8 hours because ageing improves freezer performance and produces better ice
cream structure. During ageing, the stabilizer hydrates fullyand increases the viscosity of the
mix. The importance of ageing will vary with different stabilizers. Significant improvement in
texture is noted at this stage.
FREEZING
Ice cream is available in two forms:
1. As hard ice cream which has been frozen in a continuous freezer and is either extruded,
shaped or packed in small individual portions or in the larger family packs. The final processing
step now is hardening at a low temperature cold store at –30 to -40°C before it is distributed in

20. refrigerated transport.
2. As soft ice cream which is frozen in a small batch freezer situated at the retail outlet. Ice
cream mix for this type of operation is provided as a pasteurized mix which must be stored at
4°C after manufacture. This is often referred to as the softee ice cream.
STORAGE OF ICE CREAM
Ice cream can be stored at 0°F (-18°C) to prevent large ice crystal formation.
For service, temper frozen ice cream till it is soft enough to serve. If scooping, the ice cream
scoop must be rolled over the surface so that the ice cream forms into a round ball.
FUNCTIONS OF SOME OF THE INGREDIENTS:
- Sugar: Sugar represents half the total amount of solids in the ice cream mix. It includes
lactose, which is the natural milksugar. Sugars act as a sweetening agent, depress the freezing
point, influence the consistency and to some extent the size of the ice crystals and the lactose
crystallization of the frozen ice cream.
- Stabilizers: Gelatin was the first stablilzer used in the manufacture of ice cream. Since
then a number of poly saccharide stabilizers have become available.These include sodium
carboxy methyl micro crystalline cellulose, sodium alginate, cerragaenan, agar pectin, xanthin
gums, carobbean and guar gum. Often a combination of these is used. Stabilizers perform
several functions in the manufacture of ice cream. They increase the viscosity, thereby
improving the body and creaminess of the ice cream. They also regulate the development of the
ice crystals and thereby give a smooth texture to the ice cream. During inevitable temperature
fluctuations, they minimisethe development of large crystals and the undesirable coarse texture.
They thicken the aqueous phase and modify the crystallization of ice
ICE CREAM QUALITY
Quality implies a clearly produced ice cream of acceptable flavor, taste, body and texture. The
composition of the product and the ingredients used should be within the parameters and the
limits set by the food laws. The desirable physical properties of ice cream should be defined
mainly in terms of the texture as it is eaten. The consistency should be smooth and creamy and

21. the air content should be finely distributed. There should be a quick meltingeffect on the palette,
without greasiness or gumminess and with no gritty icy sensation. As the ice cream warms up, it
should have a tendency to retain its shape, and as it melts, a creamy and not a watery serum
should be formed. Flavor acceptability is governed by the quality of the ingredients that are
used as well. Fruits, nuts, chocolate as well as the added flavors should be of a good quality.
However, the basic flavor must come from high quality of milk and cream.
ICE CREAM – THE CHILLING TRUTH
Ice cream, Sumptuous…….., Luscious………………., Creamy…………. Ice cream!!!
Now that summer is almost here, it is time for scoops of it. But, have you ever considered what
gives that delightful taste to a snowy vanilla ice cream? The real extract of orchids??? Forget it!!!
The genuine vanilla that is obtained from the variety of orchids, almost never reaches the ice
cream manufacturer. Instead, a synthetic substance called vanillin makes its way into the
creamy stuff. Vanallincomes much cheaper than vanilla. If a small amount of vanilla can flavor
two cups of ice cream, then the same amount of vanillin can flavor 500 cups. So why should’nt
the manufacturer use the cheaper stuff…the customer would never know!!!! The substitute
tastes like the real thing, but it is far from harmless! This is largelybecause there is very little
accountability for the manufacturers. Even in the US, the food and drug administration (FDA)
has not forced icecream manufacturers to name all the ingredients on the labels of their
products. All you get is the brand name, the Company’s name and the flavour. The small print
merely says, ‘only permitted colours and flavours used. But what flavours and what colours?
Icecream companies here and abroad are given carte blanche to use additives. Not surprisingly,
neutralisers, stabilisers, emulsifiers, buffers, anti-oxidants, surfactants, bactericidals, synthetic
colours and artificial flavours – all find their way into the gooey stuff. In 1942 the FDA had
banned the use of many additives because their safety had not been verified. But oddly enough,
again in 1960, it sanctioned the use of these chemicals – although there was still no proof of
their safety. The fact is that surfactants, which reduce the surface tension and are wetting
agents, are chemicals similar to detergents. And most emulsifiers are polyoxyethylene based
and have caused cancer in experimental animals. Most germicidals, anti-freeze agents and
pain
CHAPTER 6: CAKE FORMULA BALANCING
What is a CAKE FORMULA?
It is an accurate record of the quantities of the raw materialsnecessary to make a particular
type of cake. In other words………..it is an accurate recipe. If the recipe is correct, it will produce
a good cake. As important as the recipe is the correct temperature, time and packing of the
product. A good cake is one showing no faults, either in appearance, texture or while eating. It
should be of good flavor and aroma and if it contains fruits, they must be evenly distributed.

22. Bakery being the science that it is, we refer to the recipe as a formula. In the bakery, the range
of ingredients that are used and which are essential is limited. There is Flour, Fat, Sweetening
and Moistening. Each of these has a specific role to play and must be in Balance with each
other.
What is BALANCE?
The ingredients that are used in cake making are divided according to their functions:
The Tougheners – these are the ingredients that provide structure and form and give shape to
the product. These will include flour and egg. The starch in the flour gelatinizes and the protein
in the egg coagulates during baking and gives shape to the cake.
The Softeners – these are the ingredients that soften the texture of the cake and include sugar
and fat and milk. This softens the texture of cake and makes it different from that of bread,
which contains basically the same ingredients but in a different proportion.
The Moisteners – these ingredients like milk, egg and liquid sweeteners like golden syrup
provide the moistening effect in the batter and adjust the consistency.
The Driers – are those ingredients, which absorb the excess moisture in the batter and include
flour, milk powder, cocoa powder.
The problem in Balancing is that certain ingredients perform more than one function. Eggs
provide toughening but are also a moistening agent. Milk is a moistening agent, but milk powder
is a drier!!!! The aim of formula balancing is to balance the moisteners with the driers and the
tougheners with the softeners. A simple sponge recipe may be in perfect balance, but when
converted into a chocolate cake, the additionof cocoa powder in the recipe will mean additional
driers so the corresponding moistening (addition of milk) will have to be increased as well.
There are three simple rules that govern Formula Balancing:
- the weight of the fat should not exceed the egg
- the weight of the fat should not exceed the sugar
- the weight of the sugar should not exceed the total liquid
The Effect of Sugar
Sugar sweetens. It also has the power to lift and lightenthe cake and to give the crust its color.
It improves the taste and the flavour of the cake as well as the keeping quality and it adds to its
nutritive value. The extra sugar in a recioe will result in the M Fault, when the extra sugar has
lifted the batter to such an extent that the protein-starch structure can no longer hold up the

23. cake and collapses. Excess sugar will result in spots on the crust and the crumb will be sticky
(excess moisture). On the other hand, if the batter is made with less sugar, it will have a
decreased volume with a peaked surface. The crumb will be dry and harsh. The peaked top is
the result of the lack of softening action of the sugar on the gluten, which in turn will have
greater resistance to expansion resulting in a peaked top.
The Effect of Fat
Fat imparts a rich and pleasant eating quality to the cake and increases the food value. Butter
adds flavor and improves the quality of the cake. Because of its shortening property, fat/butter
also prevents toughness. It holds the air that is incorporated in the initial process of creaming.
To much fat in a recipe will result in a cake of poor vol; Ume. The top crust will be thick and
greasy. An increase in fat must be balanced by an increase in the toughners (structural material)
like flour and egg. Less fat will make the caske tough, the volume will be poor and the crumb
structure will show tunnel like holes pointing to the centre of the crown of the cake.
The Effect of Baking Powder
Baking Powder is used for aeration, thus increasing the volume of the cake. Some recipes do
not use baking powder and the aeration is provided by mechanical means like creaming or
beating (of eggs) or by sieving. Excess baking powder will produce the same effect as an
excess of sugar will produce. The only difference is that there is a generation of gas beyond
that which the flour and egg can take, with the result, the cake collapses. The crust of the cake
is darker than normal and the crumb is open and is discolored especially near the base of the
cake. Less baking powder will produce a cake of poor volume.
Common Problems/Faultsin Cakes
1. Cakes rise and fall during baking: An unbalanced formula is commonly responsible for this
condition. Too much liquid or sugar will weaken the structure. Less flour or weak flour will not
produce the structure required to support the leavening action. An excess of baking powder will
produce excess gas that will weaken the structure and cause collapse. Too much aeration
caused by over beating will also stretch the cell structure causing it to weaken. Excess fat may
overburden the flour and egg structure causing the cake to rise initiallyand then collapse. Also,
if during baking, the cake in the oven is shifted about before the it is fully set, it will tend to fall
back.
2. Cakes sink after baking: Cakes that are rich in sugar and fat but not supported by sufficient
flour and egg will tend to sink after baking. Excess moisture in the in the cake may cause
shrinkage. Too rapid cooling of freshly baked cakes can also cause shrinkage.
3. Cakes have Peaks: Peaks are often caused by too strong flour. A high gluten content will
ause the batter to become stringy and binding. Lack of liquidresults in a firmer batter that does
not expand evenly and peaks are formed from the forced breakthrough of the expanding gas

24. and steam.
4. Fruits sink to the Bottom of the Cake: A moderatelystrong flour must be used to make fruit
cakes. There should be sufficient amount of gluten developed to hold the fruits in suspension.
Some amount of extra gluten can be developed by mixing the batter well, after the addition of
the flour. This will provide a structure that is strong enough to hold the fruits and the nuts. Weak
flour will allow the fruits to sink to the bottom as the fat melts and liquifiesand sugars are in a
syrup form. Also, large pieces of fruits will settle as they are too large to be supported. Fruits,
which come in sugar syrup, must be drained properly. Excess liquid will act like a lubricant and
allow the fruits to move rapidlythrough the batter during the baking process.
5. Cakes crumble when sliced: An open grain and a weak structure are the primary cause for
cakes getting crumbly. It may be due to over creaming, excess shortening or sugar or even
improper mixing. A weak structure is caused because of a weak flour or lack of the flour – egg
combination. An excess of sugar creates a very open grain that will not hold the fruits. Fruits
that are not soaked and are dry will absorb the moisture and make the cake crumble.
CHAPTER 7: PASTRY
Various types of pastries are used in the preparation of sweet and savory dishes in the bakery
and confectionery. These include:
1. Short crust pastry
2. Flaky pastry
3. Puff pastry
4. Danish pastry
5. Choux pastry
6. Rough puff pastry
7. Hot water pastry
SHORT CRUST PASTRY
Short crust pastry is a mixture of flour, fat, sugar and sometimes egg and milk. The flour should
have low gluten content, one that is milled from soft wheat flour. The fat will reduce the

25. extensibility of the gluten that is it makes the gluten strands shorter….hence the term shortening
for the fat used in the bakery and the term short crust pastry. The usual method of making short
crust pastry is by the rub-in method. Chilled fat or butter is rubbed into the sieved flour so that it
is finely dispersed and resembles a sandy or bread crumb like texture. The fat forms a thin layer
or coating on the glutenin and gliadin molecules, without turning the fat into a continuous paste.
Cold water is sprinkled over the mixture to form smooth dough. The ratio of fat to flour is
normally 1:2, but the fat can be increased to equal the flour to obtain a rich dough. This dough
would be very difficult but not impossible, to work with. Pate Sucre is a sweet version of this
pastry and sugar is creamed with butter before the flour and the moisture is added. The ratio of
sugar fat and flour is 1:2:4. Various sweet and savoury products are made with short crust
pastry. It forms the base of several pies, tarts, flans and also products like cheese straws and
turnovers. Few precautions must be taken when making short crust pastry. It is important not to
work the dough too much as it will get tough due to the development of gluten. This can also
happen when scrapings and trimmings are added to the dough and re worked. The use of too
much flour for dusting will also alter the ratio of the mixture and cause toughening as the extra
flour proteins – glutenin and gliadin - does not have a coating of fat around it, and thus come
together to form gluten.
Some faults in Short Crust Pastry
- Hard or tough pastry is due to too much liquid or too little fat. It is also probably due to
over mixing.
- A soft and crumbly pastry is due to too little water for the binding, too much fat or the use
of self raising flour instead of plain flour.
- A shrunken pastry is due to excess stretching during rolling.
- A soggy pastry is the result of the filling in the product being too moist.
LAMINATED PASTRY
This category of pastry includes Puff, Flaky, Rough Puff and Danish Pastry.
Puff and Flaky are two of the most remarkable products of the Bake Shop. Although they are
similar products, they are made differentlyand it is almost impossible to tell which is. Puff is
referred to as the French method whereas the English refer to it as Flaky pastry. The Scots
have their own version and call it Rough Puff Pastry. The flour used for laminated pastry must

26. be of high gluten content so that it will stand up to the manipulation involved in building up the
laminated structure. Butter is the preferred fat because of its flavour and melt in the mouth
quality. Special pastry margarine is also available. It has a low moisture content and good
creaming value…ideal for this kind of pastry. This product is easy to work with as it does not get
too hard in the refrigerator. A weak acid solution such as lemon juice or cream of tartar is added
to the dough, as it will confer greater extensibility to the gluten.
Puff pastry has equal amounts of fat and flour. A dough is made with flour, salt, and the lemon
juice. After allowing it to rest, the dough is rolled out into a square and the creamed block of fat
is placed in the centre. The dough is then folded around the fat and it is refrigerated for a while.
The dough is then rolled into a rectangle about ½ “thick. Fold the two ends to the centre and
then into half (book fold). Make sure that the edges /corners are even. Refrigerate/rest the
dough to relax the gluten. Do not refrigerate for too long as the fat will harden. Now turn the
dough 90° on the table so that the length now becomes the breadth. This step must be
repeated before subsequent rollings so that it helps to stretch the gluten in all directions, not just
lengthwise. Failure to do this will result in the product that shrinks unevenly when they are
baked. Repeat the rolling and folding a total of four times. The dough is now ready to be rolled
out for the final shaping and cutting.
Flaky pastry is a similar product. The dough is similar but the amount of fat is only 2/3 that of
the flour. The fat is creamed into a homogenous mass and divided into three parts. The dough
is rolled out into a rectangle about ½ “thick. One third of the fat is then spread onto 2/3rd of the
dough surface. The dough is then folded into three so that there are alternate layers of fat and
dough. The dough is then rested/refrigerated to relax the gluten. The process is repeated twice
more to use up all the fat and then once again without fat (blind fold). Remember to rest the
dough between each rolling.The pastry is now ready for the final make up.
Khari biscuits, vol-au-vents, cream horns, cheese straws, meat and vegetable puffs are some of
the sweet and savory products made with puff and flaky pastry.
Rough Puff pastry is the Scottish answer to Puff and Flaky pastry. This is the quickest method
of making a laminated pastry. Old books describe it as the Blitz method, the term being derived
from the German Blitzen. Meaning lightening. In this method, the fat is mixed into the sieved
flour in pieces, the size of walnuts. A dough is made using water and a little lemon juice, without
using too much pressure so that the fat does not completely blend into the dough. The dough is
then rolled out like the Flaky pastry method and the process is repeated two more times. The
dough is now ready for rolling cutting into the desired shape.

27. When laminated pastries are baked, the fat melts and forms oil layers between the layers of
dough, preventing them from sticking to each other. As the heat penetrates into the product, the
water in the dough layers changes into steam and pushes the lubricated leaves of dough apart.
This produces an increase in the volume of the dough. Later, the gluten in the flour coagulates
while the water is dried out so that by the time the pastry is properly cooked, it is able to retain
its distended puffy volume. The temperature of the oven has an important role to play in the
success of this product. The temperature must be hot enough to generate the steam required.
Danish pastry is a rich, sweet and fermented dough. The fat is laminated into the dough and
therefore, Danish is also considered a laminated pastry. A ferment of yeast, sugar, eggs and
milk is added to the flour to make a soft dough. After resting and knocking back the dough, it is
then rolled into a rectangle and the fat spread evenly. The dough is then cut into three uneven
sizes and a spool is made….that is….rolling the smallest into the medium and then that into the
largest piece of dough. The dough is wrapped into a moist cloth and refrigerated for 15-20
minutes. It is then rolled and cut into the desired shapes. Egg wash is applied and the product is
allowed the second prooving and then is baked at 200°C for 20 minutes. The pastry is brushed
with sugar syrup after baking.
Croissants, windmills, turnovers, napoleons, and breakfast Danish are products.
CHOUX PASTRY
The French term for this pastry Pate a choux literally means cabbage paste, because the
profiteroles and cream puffs made from this pastry resemble little cabbages. These are hollow
shells which have a crisp and brittle texture. They are then filled with a variety of fillingsboth
sweet and savoury – includingcreamed cheese, fresh cream, crème patissiere, fish, and meat
pate. Water, butter and salt are boiled together and then the flour is added in to form a partly
gelatinised paste. It is mixed vigorously with a wooden spoon and then cooked once more till
the mixture has a shiny appearance and leaves the sides of the pan. Beaten eggs are added
gradually to the paste, beating continously to form a smooth pliable and piping consistency
mass. It is then piped into the desired shapes – rosettes, fingers or balls. Choux paste is baked
at 200°C so as to achieve maximum rise. The temperature is then reduced to 150C to dry out
the shells and to obtain the crisp and brittle texture. During the baking, the products should not
be subjected to unnecessary movements, otherwise the structure will collapse. Shells can be
stored in airtight containers and used as and when required. Eclairs, Cream Puffs, Duchesses,
profiteroles and cream puffs are all choux pastry based items.

28. HOT WATER PASTRY
This is also known as the cooked pastry and is seldom used these days. It is a lean dough
made by cooking the flour, salt and a littlefat in water to a paste. This paste is then used to line
the sides of pie tins, using the hands to apply the mixture, the fillingwas then placed inside the
tin and then covered with more of the paste. After baking, the dough was often discarded and it
was more like a protective layer over the filling. Welsh miners oven carried their food wrapped in
this pastry to work. At lunch time, the pastry was broken open and the filling-meat or fish - was
consumed. Cornish Pasties, a traditionalWelsh favorite was originallymade with Hot Water
Pastry.
CHAPTER 8: BISCUITS AND COOKIES
The name biscuit comes from the French word bis, which means twice and cuit which means
baked. It is a sweet or savory dry flat cake with a high calorie content (420-510 / 100 gm) The
raw materials used for biscuit manufacture is flour, sweeteners, shortening, milk, leavening
agents and other miscellaneous products.
Cookies were at one time referred to as small cakes or sweet biscuits. The Dutch have provided
bakers and confectioners with the word kocke which means small cake. The Americans began
to use the word cookie, whereas the English continue to use the word biscuit for the same
product. There are more varieties of cookies than any other baked product because there are
so many different shapes, sizes, textures and flavors that are possible.
CLASSIFICATION OF COOKIES/BISCUITS
Cookies can be formed by dropping, rolling, cutting out, moulding and pressing. Cookies are
usually classified according to the way in which the dough is shaped:
1. bars and squares
2. drop cookies
3. rolled cookies
4. pressed cookies
5. moulded or shaped cookies

29. 6. refrigerator cookies
7. bag cookies (piped)
Bar and drop cookies are made with soft dough that has a comparatively high percentage of
liquid. The other varieties call for a stiff dough, usually less sweet and often higher in fart
content than soft dough.
MIXING METHODS
Cookie mixing methods are similar to cake mixing methods. Major difference is that less liquid
is incorporated, therefore less gluten. The methods of mixing are:
a. One stage
b. Creaming
c. Sponge
One Stage method: All the ingredients are mixed at once. Here the baker has less control over
the mixing.
Creaming method: This is identical to the creaming method for cakes. The amount of creaming
affects the texture of the cookies, the leavening and the spread, hence only a small amount of
creaming is desirable.
Sponge method: This is similar to the egg foam method for cakes. The only batter is delicate.
Precaution that one has to take is to keep the batches small because the
MAKE UP METHODS
Because their mixing is simple, it is better to classify cookies and biscuits according to their
makeup.
Bagged: Also, called pressed cookies are made from soft dough. The dough must be soft
enough to be forced through a pastry (piping) bag, but stiff enough to hold its shape. E.g.:
Butter Buttons

30. Dropped: these cookies are made from soft dough. In this method, the batter is deposited on a
sheet for baking with a spoon or a scoop. When the dough contains pieces of nuts, dried fruits
or chocolate bits or chips, this method is used. Also, when you want the cookie to have a rough
homemade look. E.g.: peanut macaroons.
Rolled: Cookies are rolled and then cut with cutters. Bakeshops and 5 star operations do not
make these type of cookies because of the labour involved. Also, after cutting the scraps, these
are re rolled, making tough and inferior cookies. The only advantage is that you can make
different shapes and sizes. E.g.: Tricolor biscuits
Moulded : In this method, each piece of dough is moulded into the desired shape. This usually
involves flattening the piece out with a weight. (stamp the design) e.g.: Shrewsbury Biscuits
(from Kayani, Pune).
Icebox: Also called refrigerated cookies. This method is ideal for operations that wish to have
freshly baked cookies on hand at all times. Rollsof dough are made in advance and kept in the
fridge. They are then cut and baked as needed. This method is also used to make multi colored
cookies in various designs. E.g.: chequered and pinwheel.
Bar: Here the dough is baked in long narrow strips which are then cut cross wise into bars.
Sheet: This make up is like the sheet cakes….only denser and richer.
No matter what method is used, one important rule to follow is – the cookie should have a
uniform size and thickness. This is essential for even baking. If the cookies are to be garnished,
they must be done immediatelyon panning. Press them gently when still fresh. If you wait, the
surface dries up.
PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHILE MAKING COOKIES/BISCUITS

31. 1. A major precaution to be observed while making cookie mixture is that they should be
quickly mixed and never over processed.
2. For hard to handle soft doughs, roll the dough directly on to the baking sheet. Cut into the
desired shapes and remove the scraps from around.
3. If cookies should stick to the pan, put the pan back into the oven for a few seconds. This
usually loosens the cookies easily.
Cookies may be iced, sandwiched with filling or dusted with confectioners sugar. They make a
excellent finger food dessert or can be used as a garnish for a dessert. Cookies are one of the
most profitable items produced by the baker. An important factor in the production is the use of
high grade ingredients. Butter is the preferred shortening. It has a better flavor and a melt in the
mouth quality. Careful selection of the purest spices, extracts and flavorings will assure
delicious cookies. The type of flour used for cookies can vary from flours of medium strength to
soft texture. Strong flours are not recommended for making cookies.
COOKIES AND BISCUIT FAULTS
1. Lack of spread.
a. Too fine granulation of sugar
b. Adding sugar at one time
c. Excessive mixing
d. Too hot oven temperature
e. Too much of acidity in the dough
2. Excess of spread
a. Excessive sugar
b. Too soft a batter consistency

32. c. Excessive pan grease
d. Too low an oven temperature
e. Excessive or improper type of shortening
3. Tough cookies
a. Insufficient shortening
b. Flour too strong
c. Over handling
4. Sticking to pans
a. Too soft a dough
b. Excessive egg content
c. Unclean pans
5. Black spots and harsh crumbs
a. Excessive ammonia
Sometimes we want some cookies to be crisp, others to be soft, some to hold their shape and
others to spread. In order to produce characteristics we want, and to correct faults, it is useful to
know what causes these basic traits.
Crispness: Cookies are crisp if they are low in moisture.
- Low proportion of liquid in the mixture, so stiff dough
- High sugar and fat content

33. - Baking long enough to reduce moisture
- Small sizes or thin shapes
- Proper storage
Softness: This texture is the opposite of crispness
- High proportion of liquid
- Low sugar and fat
- Use of honey and molasses
- short baking times
- Large size or thick shapes.
- Proper storage
Chewiness: Moisture is necessary for chewiness
- High sugar and liquid content
- High proportion of egg
- Strong flour
Spread: This feature is desirable in some varieties of cookies while others must hold their
shape
- High sugar content increases the spread. Coarse sugar increases the spread while fine
sugar reduces spread.
- Baking soda and ammonia increases spread
- Creaming fat and sugar contributes to leavening by incorporating air and therefore
increases spread. Just blending fat and sugar to a paste reduces spread.

34. - Low temperature increases spread
- Excess liquid(slack batter) will increase the spread
- Strong flour decreases spread
- Spread is more on a heavily greased tray.

35. CHAPTER 9: BASIC BAKERYTERMS
Allumette French word for 'matchstick'. Various puff pastry items made in thin sticks
or strips.
Almond Paste A mixture of finelyground almonds and sugar.
Angel Food Cake A type of cake made with meringue (egg white and sugar) and flour.
Angel food Method A cake mixing method involving foldinga mixture of flour and sugar onto a
meringue.
Baba A type of yeast cake that is soaked in syrup.
Babka A type of sweet yeast bread or coffee cake.

36. Baked Alaska A dessert consisting of ice cream on a sponge base, covered with
meringue and browned in the oven.
Baking Ammonia A leavening agent that releases ammonia gas and carbon dioxide.
Baklava A Greek or Middle Eastern dessert made of nuts and phyllo dough and
soaked in syrup.
Batter A semi-liquidmixture containing four or other starch, used for the
production of cakes and breads, and for coating products to be deep-fried.
Bavarian Cream A light cold dessert made of gelatin,whipped cream, and custard sauce
or fruit.
Beignet Soufflé A type of fritter made with éclair paste, which puffs up greatly when fried.
Black Forest Torte A chocolate sponge layer cake filled with whipped cream and cherries.
Blanc Mange 1) An English pudding made with milk, sugar and cornstarch. 2) A French
dessert made of milk, cream, almonds and gelatin.
Bloom A whitish coating on chocolate, caused by separated cocoa butter.
Blown Sugar Pulled sugar that is made into thin walled, hollow shapes by being blown

37. up like a balloon.
Bombe A type of frozen dessert made in a dome shaped mold.
Boston Cream Pie A sponge cake or other yellow cake filled with pastry cream and topped
with chocolate fondant or confectioners' sugar.
Bran The hard outer covering of kernels of wheat and other grain.
Bran Flour Flour to which bran flakes have been added.
Bread Flour Strong flour, such as patent flour, used for breads.
Brioche Rich yeast dough containing large amounts of eggs and butter, or a
product made from this dough.
Brown Sugar Regulargranulated sucrose containing various impurities that give it a
distinctive flavor.
Buttercream An icing made of butter and/or shortening blended with confectioners'
sugar or sugar syrup a and sometimes other ingredients.
Cabinet Pudding A baked custard containing sponge cake and fruits.

38. Cake Flour A fine, white flour made from soft wheat.
Caramelization The browning of sugar caused by heat.
Cassata An Italian style bombe, usually with three layers of different ice-creams,
plus a fillingof Italian meringue.
Cast Sugar Sugar that is boiled to hard crack stage and than poured into molds to
harden.
Celsius Scale The metric system of temperature measurement, with 0°C set at the
freezing point of water and 100°C set at the boiling point of water.
Charlotte 1) A cold dessert made of Bavarian cream or other cream in a special
mold usually lined with ladyfingers or other sponge product. 2) A hot dessert made of cooked
fruit and baked in a special mold lined with strips of bread.
Chemical Leavener A leavener such as baking soda, baking powder or baking ammonia,
which releases gases produced by chemical reactions.
Chiffon Cake A light cake made by the chiffon method.
Chiffon Method A cake mixing method involving the folding of egg whites into a batter
made of flour, egg yolks and oil.
Chiffon Pie A pie with a light fluffy filling containing egg whites and usually gelatin.

39. Chocolate Liquor Unsweetened chocolate, consisting of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.
Christmas Pudding A dark, heavy steamed pudding made of dried and candied fruits, spices,
beef suet and crumbs.
Clear Flour A tan colored wheat flour made from the outer portion of the endosperm.
Coagulation The process by which proteins become firm, usually when heated.
Cobbler A fruit dessert similar to a pie but without a bottom.
Cocoa The dry powder that remains after cocoa butter is pressed out of the
chocolate liquor.
Cocoa Butter A white or yellowish fat found in natural chocolate.
Compote Fruit cooked in sugar syrup.
Confectioners' Sucrose that is ground to a fine powder and mixed with
Sugar a little cornstarch to prevent caking.
Coupe A dessert consisting of one or two scoops of ice-cream or sherbet,
placed in a glass and topped with any number of syrups, fruits and garnishes - a sundae.

40. Couverture Natural, sweet chocolate containing no added fats other than natural
cocoa butter; used for dipping,molding, coating and similar purposes.
Creaming The process of beating fat and sugar to blend them uniformly and to
incorporate air.
Cream Pie An unbaked pie containing a pastry cream type filling.
Cream Pudding A boiled pudding made of milk, sugar, starch and eggs.
Crème Anglaise A light vanilla flavored custard sauce made of milk, sugar and egg yolks.
Crème Caramel A custard baked in a mold lined with caramelized sugar and then de-
molded.
Crêpe A very thin pancake often served rolled around a filling.
Crêpes Suzette French pancakes served in a sweet sauce flavored with oranges.
Croissant A flaky, buttery, yeast roll shaped like a crescent and made from a rolled
in dough.
Custard A liquidthat is thickened or set by the coagulation of egg protein.

41. Dessert Syrup A flavored syrup used to flavor and moisten cakes and desserts.
Devil's Food Cake A chocolate cake made with a high percentage of baking soda, which
gives the cake a reddish tint.
Diastase Various enzymes, found in flour and in malt that convert starch into
sugars.
Disaccharide A complex or double sugar such as sucrose.
Dobos Torte A Hungarian cake made of seven thin layers filled with chocolate
buttercream and topped with caramelized sugar.
Docking Piercing or perforating pastry dough before baking in order to allow steam
to escape and to avoid blistering.
Drained weight The weight of solid canned fruit after draining off the juice.
Dredge To sprinkle thoroughly with sugar or some other dry powder.
Drop Batter A batter that is too thick to pour but will drop from a spoon in lumps.
Dutch Process Cocoa processed with an alkali to reduce its acidity.
Cocoa

42. Éclair Paste A paste or dough made of boiling water or milk, butter, flour and eggs;
used to make éclairs, cream puffs and similar products.
Emulsion A mixture of two or more unmixable substances.
Endosperm The starchy inner portion of grain kernels.
Extraction The portion of the grain kernel that is separated into a particular grade of
flour.
Fermentation The process by which yeast changes carbohydrates into carbon dioxide
gas and alcohol.
Foaming The process of whipping air, with or without sugar, to incorporate air.
Fondant A type of icing made of boiled sugar syrup that is agitated so that it
crystallizes into a mass of extremely small white crystals.
Frangipane A type of almond flavored cream.
French Pastry A variety of small fancy cakes and other pastries, usually in single portion
size.
French Style Ice-cream containing egg yolks.
Ice-Cream

43. Fritter A deep fried item made of or coated with a batter or a dough.
Frozen Mousse A still frozen dessert containing whipped cream.
Ganache A rich cream made of sweet chocolate and heavy cream.
Gâteau French word for 'cake'.
Gaufre French word for 'waffle'.
Gelatinization The process by which starch granules absorb water and swell in size.
Genoise A sponge cake made with a batter containing melted butter.
Germ The plant embryo portion of a grain kernel.
Glacé 1) Glazed; coated with icing. 2) Frozen.
Glaze 1) A shiny coating, such as syrup, applied to a food. 2) To make a food
shiny or glossy by coating it with a glaze or by browning it under a broileror in a hot oven.
Gliadin A protein in wheat flours that combines with another protein glutenin to
form gluten.

44. Gluten An elastic substance, formed from proteins present in wheat flours, that
give structure and strength to baked goods.
Gram The basic unit of weight in the metric system; equal to about one-thirtieth
of an ounce.
Granité A coarse, crystalline frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice or
another flavoring.
Gum Paste A type of sugar paste or pastillagemade with vegetable gum.
Hard Sauce A flavored mixture of confectioner's sugar and butter; often served with
steamed puddings.
Hard Wheat Wheat high in protein.
Hearth Bread A bread that is baked directly on the bottom of the oven, not in a pan.
High Ratio 1) Term referring to cakes and cake formulas mixed by a special method
and containing more sugar than flour. 2) The mixing method used for these cakes. 3) Term
referring to certain specially formulated ingredients used in these cakes, such as shortening.
Homogenized Milk Milk that has been processed so that the cream does not separate out.

45. Hydrogenation A process that converts liquid oilsto solid fats (shortenings) by chemically
bonding hydrogen to the fat molecules.
Ice A frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice.
Ice Cream A churn-frozen mixture of milk, cream, sugar, flavorings, and sometimes
eggs.
Icing Combs A plastic triangle with toothed or serrated edges; used for texturing icings.
Inversion A chemical process in which a double sugar splits in two simple sugars.
Invert sugar A mixture of two simple sugars, dextrose and levulose, resulting from the
breakdown of sucrose.
Italian Meringue A meringue made by whipping boiling syrup into egg whites.
Japonaise A baked meringue flavored with nuts.
Kernel Paste A nut paste, similar to almond paste, made of apricot kernels and sugar.
Kilo Prefix in the metric system meaning "one thousand."
Kirsch A clear alcoholic beverage distilled from cherries.

46. Kugelhopf A type of rich, sweet bread or coffeecake usually made in a tube type pan.
Ladyfinger A small, dry, finger-shaped sponge cake or cookie.
Langue-de-Chat A thin, crisp cookie The French name means "cats tongue," referring to
the shape of the cookie.
Lean Dough A dough that is low in fat and sugar.
Leavening The production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase
volume and to produce shape and texture.
Linzertorte A tart made of raspberry jam and a short dough containing nuts and
spices.
Liter The basic volume of unit in the metric system: equal to slightly more than
a quart.
Macaroon A cookie made of eggs (usually whites) and almond paste or coconut.
Malt Syrup A type of syrup containing maltose sugar extracted from sprouted barley.
Marble To partly mix two colors of cake batter or icing so that the colors are in
decorative swirls.

47. Marron French word for "chestnut."
Marshmallow A light confection, icing, or fillingmade of meringue and gelatin (or other
stabilizers).
Marzipan A paste or confection made of almonds and sugar and often used for
decorative work.
Meal Coarsely ground grain.
Melba Sauce A sweet sauce made of pureed raspberries and sometimes red currants.
Meringue A thick, white foam made of whipped eggs and sugar.
Meringue Chantilly Baked meringue filled with whipped cream
Meringue Glacée Baked meringue filled with ice cream.
Meter The basic unit of length in the metric system; slightlylonger than one yard.
Milli Prefix in the metric system meaning "one thousandth."

48. Modeling Chocolate A thick paste made of chocolate and glucose, which can be molded by
hand into decorative shapes.
Molasses A heavy brown syrup made from sugar cane.
Monosaccharide A simple or single sugar such as glucose and fructose.
Mousse A soft cream dessert that is made light by the additionof whipped cream,
egg whites, or both.
Napoleon A desert made of layers of puff pastry filledwith pastry cream.
Net Weight The weight of total contents of a can or package.
No-Time Dough A bread dough made with a large quantity of yeast and given no
fermentation time expect for a short rest after mixing.
Nougat A mixture of caramelized sugar and almondsor other nuts used in
decorative work and as a confection and flavoring.
Old Dough A dough that is over-fermented.
One-Stage Method A cookie mixing method in which all the ingredients are added to the bowl
at once.

49. Othello A type of small (single-portion size), spherical sponge cake filled with
cream and iced with fondant.
Oven Spring The rapid rise of yeast goods in the oven due to the production and
expansion of trapped gases caused by the oven heat.
Overrun The increase in volume of ice cream or frozen desserts due to the
incorporation of air while freezing.
Pain d'Epice A type of gingerbread. French, meaning spice bread.
Palmier A small pastry or petit four sec made of rolled sugared puff pastry. Cut
into slices and baked.
Parfait 1) A type of sundae served in a thin tall glass. 2) A still frozen dessert
made of egg yolk, syrup and heavy cream.
Paris-Brest A dessert consisting of a ring of baked choux paste filled with cream.
Pasteurized Heat-treated to kill bacteria that might cause disease or spoilage.
Pastillage A sugar paste used for decorative work, which becomes very hard when
dry.

50. Pastry Cream A thick custard sauce containing eggs and starch.
Pastry Flour A weak flour used for pastries and cookies.
Pâte à Choux Éclair paste.
Pâte Feuilleté French name for puff pastry.
Peel A flat wooden shovel used to place hearth breads in an oven and remove
them.
Petit four A delicate cake or pastry small enough to be eaten in one or two bites.
Petit Four Glacé An iced or cream filled petit four.
Petit Four sec An un-iced or unfilled petit four such as a small butter cookie or palmier
(sec means dry).
PhiladelphiaStyle Ice-cream containing no eggs.
Ice-cream
Phyllo A paper-thin dough or pastry used to make strudels and various Middle
Eastern and Greek desserts.

51. Piping Jelly A transparent, sweet jelly used for decorating cakes.
Pithiviers A cake made of puff pastry filled with almond cream.
Pot de Crème A rich baked custard.
Pour Batter A batter that is liquid enough to pour.
Praline A confection or flavoring made of nuts and caramelized sugar.
Press A scaled piece of dough that is divided into small, equal units in a dough
divider.
Profiterole A small puff made of éclair paste. Often filled with ice cream and served
with chocolate sauce.
Puff Pastry A very light, flaky pastry made from a rolled-in dough and leavened by
steam.
Pulled Sugar Sugar that is boiled to the hard-crack stage, allowed to harden slightly,
then pulled or stretched until it develops a pearly sheen.
Pullman Loaf A long, rectangular loaf of bread.

52. Pumpernickel Flour A coarse, flaky meal made from whole rye grains.
Punching A method of expelling gases from fermented dough.
Puree A food made into a smooth pulp, usually by being ground or forced
through a sieve.
Retarding Refrigerating a yeast dough to slow the fermentation.
Rice Condé A thick, molded rice pudding, usually topped with fruit.
Rice Imperatrice A rich rice pudding containing whipped cream, candied fruits, and gelatin.
Rich Dough A dough high in fat, sugar, and/or eggs.
Rolled-in Dough Dough in which a fat has been incorporated in many layers by using a
rolling and folding procedure.
Rounding A method of molding a piece of dough into a round ball with a smooth
surface or skin.
Royal Icing A form of icing made of confectioners' sugar and egg whites; used for
decorating.

53. Rye Blend A mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.
Sabayon A foamy dessert or sauce mad eof egg yolks whipped with wine or
liqueur.
Sacristain A small pastry made of a twisted strip of puff pastry coated with nuts and
sugar.
St. Honoré (1) A dessert made of a ring of cream puffs set on a short dough base
and filledwith a type of pastry cream (2) The cream used to fill this dessert, made of pastry
cream and whipped cream and whipped egg whites.
Savarin A type of yeast bread or cake that is soaked in syrup.
Scaling Weighing, usually of ingredients, dough or batters.
Scone A type of biscuit or biscuit-like bread.
Scone Flour A mixture of flour and baking powder that is used when very small
quantities of baking powder are needed.
Sherbet A frozen dessert made of water, sugar, fruit juice and sometimes milk or
cream.
Short Having a high fat content, which makes the product very crumbly and

54. tender.
Shortbread A crisp cookie made of butter, sugar and flour.
Shortening 1) Any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten
strands. 2) A white, tasteless, solid fat that has been formulated for baking or deep-frying.
Simple Syrup A syrup consisting of sucrose and water in varying proportions.
Soft Wheat Wheat low in protein.
Solid Pack A type of canned fruit or vegetable with no water added.
Sorbet French for sherbet.
Soufflé 1) A baked dish containing whipped egg whites, which cause the dish to
rise during baking. 2) A still frozen dessert made in a soufflé dish so that it resembles a baked
soufflé.
Sourdough 1) A yeast type dough made with a sponge or starter that has fermented
so long that it has become very sour or acidic. 2) A bread made with such a dough.
Sponge A batter or dough of yeast, flour and water that is allowed to ferment and
is then mixed with more flour and other ingredients to make a dough.
Sponge cake A type of cake made by whipping eggs and sugar to a foam, then folding
in flour.
Sponge method A cake mixing method based on whipped eggs and sugar.
Spun Sugar Boiled sugar made into long, thin threads by dipping wires into the sugar
syrup and waving them so that the sugar fallsoff and sets into fine strands.

55. Staling The change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to the loss of
moisture by starch granules.
Stollen A type of sweet yeast bread made with fruit.
Straight flour Flour made from the entire wheat kernel, minus the bran and germ.
Streusel A crumbly topping for baked goods, consisting of fat, sugar and flour
rubbed together.
Strong Flour Flour with a high protein.
Strudel 1) A type of dough that is stretched until paper thin. 2) A baked item
consisting of a fillingrolled up in a sheet of phyllo or strudel dough.
Sucrose The chemical name for regular granulated sugar and confectioner's
sugar.
Swiss Roll A thin sponge cake layer spread with a fillingand rolled up
Syrup Pack A type of canned fruit containing sugar syrup.
Tempering The process of melting and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures in
order to prepare it for dipping,coating or molding.
Torte German word for various types of cakes, usually layered cakes.
Tunneling A condition of muffin products characterized by large, elongated holes;
caused by over-mixing.
Turntable A pedestal with a flat, rotating top, used for holdingcakes while they are
being decorated.
Two-Stage Method A cake mixing method, beginning with the blending of flour and high-ratio
shortening, followed by the addition of liquids. Also called the high-ratio method.
Vacherin A crisp meringue shell filledwith cream, fruits or other items.
Wash 1) A liquid brushed onto the surface of a product, usually before baking.
2) To apply such a liquid.
Water Pack A type of canned fruit or vegetable containing the water used to process
the item.

56. Weak Flour Flour with a low protein content.
Whole Wheat Flour Flour made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including bran and germ.
Young Dough A dough that is under-fermented.
Zabaglione An Italian dessert or sauce made of whipped yolks and Marsala wine.
Zest The outer colored portion of the peel of citrus.
CHAPTER 10: BAKERYQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What do you understand by he term syneresis in relation to bread?
Syneresis is the term given to a physical change that takes place in starch, gels etc, as they
age. It is this change that brings about the staling of bread that is a day or two old, a sensation
suggesting that bread contains less moisture. This change in starch is known as syneresis. It is
affected by conditions of humidity and temperature in which bread is stored.
2. Why is salt used in bread making?
Salt is used because:

57. - of its beneficial influence on flavor
- it strengthens and stabilises the gluten, thus giving bulk to the bread.
- it controls and prevents the excessive action of yeast
- it hampers the growth of harmful bacteria, which would spoil the flavor of the bread.
3. Why is bread knocked back once, sometimes twice during fermentation?
When dough is knocked back (punched), a fresh supply of oxygen is given to the yeast,
enabling it to work more vigorously and the excess of carbon di oxide is expelled. Also, during
knocking back, the films of gluten are sub divided and therefore more evenly distributed. It also
helps to relax the strained strands of gluten and this improves the texture of the bread.
4. Why is dough covered with a wet cloth during the period of resting?
The temperature of the dough is usually higher than the air surrounding it. The wet cloth helps
to steady the temperature and thereby stabilise the fermentation. If left uncovered, the dough
will warm the air that immediatelysurrounds it, causing it to expand and rise. A fresh current of
air replaces it and this air will cause the surface of the dough to dry and form a skin. This skin,
when mixed into the dough will cause ugly patches and will form cores, which are hard pellets
of uncooked dough that is sometimes found in bread.
5. Why should all the materials used in cake making be approximatelythe same
temperature?

58. By keeping all the materials at similar temperatures better aeration and easier, better and more
thorough amalgamationis affected. Consequently, cakes will have a better appearance, volume
and texture. Batters made with ingredients of varying temperatures become tough and
undersized.
6. Why do cake batters sometimes ‘curdle’?
Cake batters curdle when fat separate from the water in the mixture and breaks the emulsion. It
can occur due to:
- hasty preparation and quick additionof the eggs
- hard fat being used
- too many eggs being used
- high moisture content in the fat
7. Why do cakes sometimes sink in the center?
Cakes tend to sink in the middlebecause:
- too much handling during the baking
- too much baking powder is used.
- If too much fat and sugar is used (in relation to the flour)
- If the cake is removed from the oven before it is cooked (center is in a liquid or semi liquid
state)

59. 8. Why do the fruit in a fruit cake tend to sink to the bottom?
To prevent fruit (dry) from sinking, make sure they are dry (often, fruit like cherries are soaked in
sugar syrup) Moisture makes the fruit heavy and cause them to sink to the bottom. Coat the fruit
with a sprinkling of flour before adding them to the batter. This flour will absorb the excess
moisture. Fruits could also sink if the batter is too light to support the fruit during the baking.
Over beating of the butter and sugar or the eggs cause excess air to be incorporated thus
making the batter light. One more reason is the type of flour used. Harder flours are ideal for
fruit cake, as the extra gluten formed will be able to hold the fruit in place. Sufficient gluten can
also be developed for this purpose by working the batter after the flour has been added.
9. What happens to cake batters when put into the oven?
As soon as the oven door closed on the cake, the heat commences to melt the fat from the
outside of the cake towards the inside. The raising agent produces carbon di oxide. As the
temperature of the batter increases, some other starch cells begin to gelatinize. A skin forms on
the top (due to the evaporation of moisture from the surface) and beginsto color rapidly due to
the caramelization of the sugar. The batter now begins to rise. The egg coagulates and begins
to get firm. Gluten strands are strengthened. The entire product gets cooked to a firm sponge.
To check whether the cake is cooked, the following tests can be done:
- press the top center lightly and if it springs back, it is done
- insert a cake tester, wooden skewer or a small knife in the center of the cake and if it
comes out clean, it is done.
- If the cake begins to leave the sides of the pan, it indicates doneness.
10. Why is an acidic medium like lemon juice or cream of tartar added to flour while making
puff pastry?
An acidic medium is added to puff pastry because:

60. - The acid makes the gluten in the flour more pliable and extensible and improves the
ability to hold in the steam during the aeration while baking.
- Acids reduce the PH and this aids the pastry in acquiring greater volume and the layers
become more distinguishable, thinnerand better baked.
11. Why should the dough and the fat be approximately the same consistency when
making puff pastry?
Dough and the fat should be of the same consistency because if not, during the rolling,
whichever were softer would be rolled much thinner. This will result with the fat tending to ooze
out of the dough.
12. Why is puff pastry allowed to stand for half an hour before baking?
After a lot of the rolling and foldinginvolved during the pre preparation of puff pastry, it is
obvious that there will be considerable strength and elasticity in the gluten formed. This
elasticity will cause the product to ‘draw up’ if it is not allowed a good rest before the baking. If it
were baked immediately, the heat would soften it at once because of its decreased resistance
to the pull exerted by the gluten and will become misshapen. In some cases, the fillingwill also
ooze out.
13.What factors control the volume of choux pastry?
Egg albuminis extensible and will be inflated by internal pressures of gases, air and steam.
Thus the pastry increases in volume and expansion ceases when the egg white loses their
extensibility and gas holding power. Thus, the volume of choux pastry will depend only slightly
upon the strength of the gluten n the flour but more on the gas holding power of the albumin in
the egg. Therefore, fresh eggs are ideal for choux pastry, as the strength of the albumin is
greater than that of aged or older eggs.

61. 14 Why are ‘stale’ egg whites recommended in the making of meringues?
Stale refers to the fact that the egg whites have been exposed to air for some time. It does not
refer to old eggs. Stale egg whites have less moisture due to evaporation, hence they whip
better.
15. Why do Swiss rolls crack sometimes during rolling?
This happens because:
- Too littleegg in the mixture, hence less moisture hence less pliable
- Uneven spreading of the batter thus having thick and thin areas which will cause cracking.
- Warped baking sheets/trays
- Too hard flour
- Too mixture on the tray, hence too thick and this will crack while rolling
- Rolling is done too long after removing from the oven. This means evaporation of surface
moisture leading to dryness and eventual cracking of the cake.
Chef Brijesh Srivastava
brijsrivastav5@gmail.com
Ph. 9160403910
Ph. 8919330513