1. PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER
Photovoltaic Power: Viability as a National Energy Source
Brian Rasmussen
4039351
EVSP320
Energy and Resource Sustainability
Dr. Daniel Reed
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Photovoltaic Power: Viability as a National Energy Source
INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic (PV) power is one of the most viable and sustainable resources that are
available to our economy today. Powered by the sun, this resource is unlimited and does not
destroy or take away from other natural processes. The earth receives about 1,000 watts of
solar energy per square meter from the sun (Nersesian, 2010, p327). Plants have been
harnessing this technology since the dawn of time.
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
Electricity production is the primary focus of the photovoltaic or solar power although it
can be used for heating. The basic principle behind a PV electricity panel is that the solar
cell is made up of two semiconductor layers that is exposed to sunlight (Bent, Baker, Orr,
2002). One layer has a large portion of electrons and the other has a deficiency of electrons
(Nersesian, 2010, p325). When the two materials are put together and exposed to sunlight it
creates a direct current (DC) that is finally converted to alternating current (AC) and
transferred to a power grid (Nersesian, 2010, p325).
How PV Works
How photovoltaic energy works is that the PV can be either stand alone or be connected to a
grid to generate electricity (Goetzberger, & Hoffmann, 2005). There are also three different
generations of PV cells as well as many innovations that can be used to increase the efficiency of
those cells. One of the innovations of optical to electrical onsite power generation that is in the
works is using concrete integrated dye-synthesized PV (Hosseini, Flores-Vivian, Sobolev,
Kouklin, 2013).
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First Generation PV is a single junction cell that works by using screen printed single or
multi-crystal silicon wafers. The single crystal PV will produce at about 18-21% efficiency and
cost more than the multi-crystal version. The multi-crystal version accounts for about 63% of
the world market and costs less. The drawback with these is that they only work at about 7-14%
efficiency rates (Nersesian, 2010, p329). The lower overall costs make this type of cell more
attractive at about four dollars per Watt and costs continue to decrease as production streamlines.
Cost concerns in both material and costs resulted in the invention of second generation PV
designs. This type uses amorphous SI, Culn (Ga)Se2, CdTe/CeTES, or polycrystalline-Si
mounted on low-cost glass or similar surfaces (Bagnall & Boreland, 2008). The fabrication costs
decrease compared to first-generation and efficiencies increase to around 18.4%.
There is a third generation PV which uses triple junction thin film and produces energy at up
to 32% efficiency (Bagnall & Boreland, 2008). This type is expensive and used mainly on space
craft or satellites.
Large scale PV arrays can be designed to track the sun to maximize sun exposure which
increases photon exposure by 20% (Bagnall & Boreland, 2008). Arrays designed without
tracking mechanisms can incorporate specially designed nanostructured glass to improve
efficiency by about 10% (Bagnall & Boreland, 2008). This increases costs, but as printing
options continue to improve, these costs will soon fall to become more feasible. These
technologies and others could be available within the next 1-5 years that would significantly
increase efficiencies and decrease costs (Bagnall & Boreland, 2008).
Panel Alternative: Concrete
Another alternative to the traditional panels is PV concrete. This would be more in line with
large buildings that use large amounts of decorative concrete. This could be done using TiO2
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impregnated dyes to impregnate photo-catalytic concrete (Hosseini, Flores-Vivian, Sobolev,
Kouklin, 2013). This technology is still in the development phases, but has had successful proof
of concept experiments conducted. This technology would incorporate batteries into the
structure of the buildings to store energy for use during the night (Hosseini, Flores-Vivian,
Sobolev, Kouklin, 2013). This technology is also used in paints and can have efficiencies of up
to around 10%. This technology incorporates a junction between the conductive carbon
nanotube and the TiO2. This is still an improving technology and the team points to
incorporating thin-film in lieu of the dye to improve efficiency and lower costs (Hosseini, Flores-
Vivian, Sobolev, Kouklin, 2013).
Issues
There are two major issues that are affixed to PV power. First is operating at night. The issue
of operating at night is not hard to fix as a heat absorber can collect enough heat in six hours to
sufficiently heat water at 212 degrees for either or both a steam turbine and water tank that
would power a generator for the other 18 hours (Gonzales, 2012, p36).
The second is storing electricity during seasonally less sunny days. Batteries main issue here
is that they self-discharge. This is able to be overcome by using a hydrogen system that uses an
electrolysis unit to split water atoms and store the hydrogen and oxygen separately in pressurized
containers over the sunny summer months that can be later recombined or the hydrogen can be
used separately to be used as fuel during limited sun days to power a generator. The waste heat
can be used to heat the home or structure as well in the winter months (Voss, & Musall, 2012,
p22). This added benefit reduces the draw on any local power grid and opens the door to the use
of hydrogen power to increase overall efficiency of a hours or building (Nersesian, 2010, p347).
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IMPACTS
Environmental Impacts
Major costs associated with solar panels include silicon, aluminum, and steel (Bent,
Baker, Orr, 2002). These materials must be mined or recycled. The process to obtain these
materials can include strip-mining or other intrusive forms of acquisition. The recycling
alternative is the least impactful and would be better overall for the environment as it reduces the
total amount of waste that is put into dump sites. The PV cell once installed does not exude any
emissions (Bent, Baker, Orr, 2002).
Solar power can be used as either an electrical resource or as a thermal source . Thermal
solar energy can be used as passive systems, ventilation, water and other area heating, as well as
provide hybrid lighting to light building’s interior areas. Furthermore, the U.S. has the greatest
potential for solar energy harnessing of industrialized nations (Gonzales, 2012, 39).
Social Impacts
With the lack of major negative environmental impacts, including lack of greenhouse
gasses being produced, this seems to be a viable option for the United States as a major part of an
integrated alternative energy plan. The question is not why solar power, but why is it not a more
prevalent form of energy in the U.S.? From the 1950’s to the 1980’s the U.S. government did
not support the technological improvement of solar power as they chose to support nuclear
proliferation instead (Gonzales, 2012, p 39). This choice was due in most part to the focus on
weaponizing nuclear energy or focusing on improving fossil fuel technologies as opposed to
harnessing the solar potential. Other social impacts of limiting oil reliance include a reduced
footprint in the Middle East or other oil exporting countries (Gonzales, 2012, p61).
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This limited push in the past has created a situation that will require immense funding to
properly outfit buildings with sufficient PV sources to power the sprawled urban environment
that has been created in the United States. To assist in this, the government has given several tax
incentives as well as a 30% grant that was authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005
(Nersesian, 2010, p322).
Tax breaks and incentives are important as it takes about $16,000 to install a 2 kW panel
array that would be needed to power a single 2,000 foot home (Nersesian, 2010, p332). These
rebates may help the economics of the installation. If the rebate covered half of the cost and the
consumer was able to generate $16,000 over a 25 year period due to saved grid electrical
expenses, then that would equate a 2.8 percent return on that consumer’s investment. Money is
usually the deciding factor in either the business or consumer sector. By proving that there is a
profit or savings to be made it will assist in gaining the necessary support and momentum from
the population.
ANALYSIS
Photovoltaic power is definitely a sustainable option for use as a fossil fuel alternative. It
has been proven in places like Germany and Spain where they have build major subdivisions that
are entirely powered by solar power (Nersesian, 2010, p331).
This being said, PV is better suited for different parts of the country like places that get a
lot of sun like deserts, the Midwest, and large cities. This technology currently is best utilized as
a localized energy source and can be collected on every rooftop or in larger arrays that are tied to
a grid. The only constraints to this are limits due to capital, construction, manufacturing, or
power storage. Technology has come a long way to bridge the gap of efficiency as well as to
streamline the manufacturing processes that closes the difference in cost per Watt. The limited
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exposure to harmful fumes in the manufacturing processes can be mitigated through safety
procedures.
The lack of greenhouse gas emissions is an additional plus as there is no major
environmental impact after the panel is initially made until it is taken out of service and either
recycled or disposed of. Since the sun is the source of the energy, therefore, the resource is in
limitless in supply.
The positive impacts outweigh the negative impacts of this resource and it should be used
in more new construction and subsidies should be continued to support the retrofitting of older
buildings to reduce the draw on the existing power grid. The benefits are many; some of these
include the reduction of power draw to the conventional grid, the ability to supplement existing
power grids, and ability to be modular and scalable (Nersesian, 2010, p330). Since they are
small and self-contained, they can be set up in remote areas that are not feasible to support a new
power grid.
Pros
• Unlimited clean resource that does not emit greenhouse gasses
• High efficiency rate over time: many types of panels retain up to 92% efficiency
after 10 years and up to 80% efficiency after 25 years of use (Anonymous, 2011).
• There are many government subsidies to offset the initial cost
• Can be integrated into many forms of construction. Examples include concrete,
roof tiling, on building panels, etc.
• There are flush fitting solar panels to be used in roofing that are also easy to
install by builders and attractive additions to homes (Anonymous, 2011).
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• The use of photovoltaic concrete can offset the amount of land needed to support
buildings by reducing the need of external generating plants or the need of large
scale solar farms (Hosseini, Flores-Vivian, Sobolev, Kouklin, 2013).
• Not able to be weaponized and is not able to be dominated or controlled by a few
parties as opposed to nuclear or fossil fuels that are able to be used (Gonzales,
2012, p8).
Cons
• More expensive than fossil fuels
• Large amount of funding needed to retrofit buildings
• Needs large footprint for major generation farms (Bent, Baker, Orr, 2002).
• Secondary emissions of toxic gasses during construction and disposal phases
(Bent, Baker, Orr, 2002).
CONCLUSION
Photovoltaic power has been proven in many places across the world. This is a limitless
resource that emits no greenhouse gasses and can produce enough electricity to power individual
buildings. New technologies in PV have reduced the cost to return ratio and coupled with its
modularity, making it a viable and growing resource that will reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
This is an essential shift in focus that is being embraced by the government and utility companies
across the nation. The reduction in greenhouse gasses that will result in this shift will help
stabilize the air quality. Photovoltaic power will prove to be a key piece in the nation’s
alternative energy strategy.
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References
Anonymous. (2011). Photovoltaic Solar Roofing System. Chicago: Cygnus Business Media.
Accessed at http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/docview/857734253?pq-
origsite=summon
Bagnall, D. M., & Boreland, M. (2008). Photovoltaic technologies. Energy Policy, 36(12), 4390-
4396. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.09.070. Accessed at
http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/science/article/pii/S030142150800455
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Bent, Robert, Baker, Randall, & Orr, Lloyd (eds). (2002). Energy: Science, Policy, and the
Pursuit of Sustainability. Accessed at http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/reader.action?
docID=10064667
Gonzalez, G. A. (2012). Energy and Empire : The Politics of Nuclear and Solar Power in the
United States.(pp 8, 36, 39, 61). Ithaca, NY, USA: State University of New York Press.
Accessed at http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/reader.action?docID=10622362
Hosseini, T., Flores-Vivian, I., Sobolev, K., & Kouklin, N. (2013). Concrete Embedded Dye-
Synthesized Photovoltaic Solar Cell. Scientific Reports, 3, 2727. Accessed at
http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130925/srep02727/full/srep02727.html
Nersesian, R. L. (2010). Energy for the 21st Century : A Comprehensive Guide to Conventional
and Alternative Sources (2nd Ed).(pp 322, 325, 327, 329-332, 347). Armonk, NY, USA:
M.E. Sharpe, Inc.. Accessed at http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/reader.action?
docID=10425389
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Voss, K., & Musall, E. (2012). Net Zero Energy Buildings: International Projects of Carbon
Neutrality in Buildings. Basel, CHE: DETAIL. Accessed at
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/reader.action?docID=10831575
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