1. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS
Decision Making Under Chronic Stress
Brent D. Ewing
Truman State University
Date Submitted: April 20, 2015
Abstract
Overtraining, or under recovery, is more prevalent in individual and endurance related sports.
Such fatigue and chronic stress can lead to side effects similar to depression. Researchers agree
that chronic stress leads to poor decision making. Internalizing disorders marked by chronic
stress, such as depression, have detrimental effects on decision making processes. Research
provides mixed results regarding the effects of chronic stress on risk taking and reward
processing. However, chronic stress has been linked to poor issue interpretation and decreased
alternative seeking, which ultimately causes various decision making traps. Additional variables
such as social pressure and rumination have exhibited a decrease in decision making capabilities.
Those under chronic stress tend to implement previously failed approaches in similar situations.
Moreover, decision making faults caused by chronic stress have been shown to be reversible.
Additional research should be conducted to understand consequences of chronic stress in
athlete’s decision making processes.
Author Note
Brent D. Ewing, Masters of Arts in Leadership, Truman State University
Please address all correspondence to: Brent D. Ewing, 228, Truman State University,
Kirksville, Mo 63501, (641) 895-1095, bewing@truman.edu

2. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 1
Decision Making Under Chronic Stress
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of literature in regards to decision
making under chronic stress. An emphasis will be placed on the relationship between
depression, neuroticism, and the triad of personality traits: the cognitive (thoughts and beliefs),
the conative (tendency or disposition), and the affective (feelings or emotions) (Hilgard, 1980).
This subject is critical, especially in the field of coaching and athletics. In particular, endurance
and individual-sport athletes, are known to place high levels of stress on themselves, often
leading to overtraining or under recovery (Morgan et al., 1988; Kennta et al., 2001; Raglin,
1993). Such training can mirror or lead to extreme fatigue and depression (Armstrong &
VanHeest, 2002; Puffer & McShane, 1992; Hannah, 1979).
The link between depression and negative thinking has been studied extensively and can
find its roots in Beck’s cognitive triad. The cognitive triad, as described in Cognitive Therapy of
Depression, characterizes depression as negative thoughts about the self, the world and
environment, and the future. This theory is based upon the idea that an individual’s attitude and
behavior are connected to their view of the world (Beck, 1979). Therefore, it is believed that an
individual’s cognitions are related to their feelings and emotions (Beck, 1979).
Psychological stress is widely documented as a precursor to mood disorders such as
depression (Gold, Goodwin, & Chrousos, 1998; Post, 1992). Those who suffer from depression
show alterations in their ability to adapt to stress (Chrousos & Gold, 1992, 1998). According to
Simon (1967), “When emotion-producing stimuli are persistent as well as intense, they

3. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 2
sometimes become disruptive and produce nonadaptive behavior (36).” The following section
provides a general description of the body’s response to chronic stress.
The Stress Response
It is important to realize that chronic stress can have various effects on the human body.
The body reacts to stressors through the sympathetic nervous system’s fight-or-flight response.
This response coupled with cortisol, also known as the stress hormone, plays a crucial role in
depression and can have deleterious consequences. Cortisol is released from the adrenal glands
through a series of nerve and hormonal signals (Mayo Clinic, 2013). The release of cortisol is
caused by the amygdala’s ability to recognize a threat. Cortisol’s effects include: alterations in
immune system function, down regulation of the digestive system, the reproductive system and
general growth processes of the body, and changes in mood (Mayo Clinic, 2013).
Under normal circumstances, elevated levels of cortisol will decrease as the perceived
threat subsides. This allows for a functional stress response that can lead to adaptation (Viru,
1996). However, chronic stress causes a prolonged stress response, resulting in high levels of
cortisol for a significant period of time. This long-term activation can lead to health issue such
as depression (Morris, Rao, & Garber, 2012). In fact, it has even been shown to decrease
decision making abilities (Pabst, Brand, & Wolf, 2013; van den Bos, Harteveld, 2009; Leykin,
Roberts, & DeRubeis, 2011).
The following sections present side effects of chronic stress and their subsequent effects
on decision making. Such effects include: risk aversion, issue interpretation, alternative seeking,
systematic scanning, pressure, rumination, and repeat offenders.

4. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 3
Risk Aversion
Risk aversion plays a crucial role in decision making (Khaneman, 2013). Risk aversion,
also known as loss aversion, refers to people’s tendency to prefer avoiding losses rather than
acquiring gains (Khaneman, 2013). Daniel Khaneman, psychologist, and Nobel Memorial Prize
Winner, studied risk and loss aversion with Amos Tversky. The two teamed up to create the
Prospect Theory (2013). The Prospect Theory states that people make decisions based on the
potential value of losses and gains, instead of the final outcome. The theory separates the
decision making process into two stages: editing and evaluation (Khaneman, 2013). When an
individual is editing, the outcomes of a decision are ranked according to a certain heuristic, or
rule in which people use to make decisions (Indira Ghandi). A reference point is set based on
outcomes that appear to be equivalent. Outcomes that are lesser are stated as losses and outcomes
that are greater are stated as gains (Khaneman, 2013). The evaluation process consists of people
making decisions based on the potential outcomes and their probabilities. After this is
completed, the option with the highest utility is chosen (Khaneman, 2013).
However, according to Raghunathan and Pham, “sadness primes an implicit goal of
reward replacement (56).” This explains why those who are depressed or under chronic amounts
of stress, tend to be biased in favor of high-risk/high reward options (Ceccato, Kudielka, &
Schwieren, 2014; Raghunathan & Pham, 1999). On the other hand, Forbes, Shaw, & Dahl
(2007) found altered reward processing to be a predictor of internalizing disorders in risky
options that included high probability and high magnitude of reward. According to their study,
those with internalizing disorders are less likely to choose reward-related options even when they
are under conditions that promote the obtainment of large rewards (Forbes, Shaw, & Dahl,

5. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 4
2007). It is important to note that unlike Raghunathan and Pham, Forbes et al. included all
internalizing disorders in their study (i.e. depression and anxiety) without accounting for
differences amongst the individual disorders.
Issue Interpretation
Another key element of effective decision making is the ability to properly interpret
issues. Mittal and Ross (1998) found that framing a problem as a threat or opportunity has a
greater impact on issue interpretation among negative affect participants than positive affect
participants. Negative affect participants are more likely to interpret an issue as a threat rather
than an opportunity (Mittal & Ross, 1998). Further research suggests that neuroticism increases
stress vulnerability when conditions are interpreted as threatening (Schneider, 2004).
Consequently, poor issue interpretation due to stress can create framing traps that lead to
poor decision making. A framing trap is the idea that the way in which a problem is framed
affects subsequent decisions (Hammond, Keeney, & Raiffa, 2001). Such framing traps can
emphasize the status quo, creating bias towards certain choices. Furthermore, framing traps can
create anchors, causing our minds to give unbalanced weight to the information it receives first
(Hammond et al., 2001). This phenomenon may also be referred to as the priming effect, in
which a word or idea primes another word or idea (Khaneman, 2011). It is important to realize
the priming effect can be applied to actions and emotions, causing one negative action or
emotion to prime another.
The findings of Mittal and Ross suggest that framing an issue negatively or using a
negative primer may further disrupt issue interpretation among those with negative affect due to
their predisposed negative states. Khaneman (2011) states that such cognitive illusions are

6. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 5
created by our “system 1” or our learned associations, in which we have no sense of voluntary
control. These automatic cognitions are a breeding ground for biases and framing traps that
unknowingly affect our decisions.
Alternative Seeking
Research has shown that poor decision making under stress may be due to the lack of
alternative seeking (Keinan, Friedland, & Ben-Porath, 1987; Leykin et al., 2011). Keinan et al.
refer to this as premature closure, or “the making of a decision before all available alternatives
are considered (220).” This lack of alternative seeking can lead to decision making traps, such as
groupthink. Groupthink occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures
lead to a corrosion of “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment (Janis, 9).” Group
cohesiveness, insulation of the policy group, and lack of a tradition of impartial leadership are
the three observable causes of groupthink (Janis, 1982). These causes can lead to
overconfidence, closed-mindedness, and pressures towards uniformity (Janis, 1982). A lack of
alternative seeking can also be the result of estimating and forecasting traps (Hammond et al.,
2001). Overconfidence, an estimating and forecasting trap, can lead an individual to narrow a
range of possibilities causing faulty consideration of alternatives (Hammond et al., 2001).
A prime example of groupthink and overconfidence is The Bay of Pigs Invasion, in
which the CIA created a brigade of Cuban exiles with the intentions of invading Cuba and the
Castro regime. However, overconfidence, coupled with faulty assumptions and the lack of
alternative seeking under stressful conditions, led to a failed invasion that included several
Cuban exile deaths. Organizations and groups must be aware of such closed-mindedness,
especially under high levels of stress.

7. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 6
Systematic Scanning
Similar to premature closure, the lack of systematic scanning can have debilitative effects
on decision making. Research has shown nonsystematic scanning to be more prevalent under
stress (Keinan et al., 1987). Nonsystematic scanning refers to the disorganized and
nonsystematic consideration of decision alternatives. According to Janis (1982), a stressed
decision maker “in a paniclike state, searches frantically for a way out of the dilemma, and
rapidly shifts back and forth between alternatives (72).” This type of decision making along with
the lack of alternative seeking follows the Bounded Rationality Model (Simon, 1957) which
assumes that people typically settle for less than optimal solutions because decisions require
greater information processing capabilities than they possess. In such a situation, the search for a
solution is finished when a “good enough” solution is found.
Pressure
Research has also shown neuroticism to negatively predict performance under social
pressure (Byrne, Silasi-Mansat, & Worthy, 2015). Such results support the distraction theory,
which states, “pressure taxes highly neurotic individual’s cognitive resources, leading to sub-
optimal performance (Byrne et al., 22).” This implies that poor decision making may occur under
social pressure, especially in neurotic individuals. This could be due to preservation of group
norms or fear of going against the status quo. According to Hammond et al. (2001), the
possibility of being criticized for going against group norms is why people look for reasons to do
nothing.

8. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 7
Rumination
Rumination is the compulsively focused attention to the symptoms of a stressor (Nolen-
Hoeksema, 1991). According to Nolen-Hoeksema’s response styles theory (1991), rumination
causes an individual to focus on the causes and consequences of the symptom, rather than create
solutions to solve the problem. Furthermore, “Rumination does not lead to active problem
solving to change circumstances surrounding these symptoms (Nolan-Hoeksema, Wisco, &
Lyubomirsky, 2008).” Instead, individuals suffering from rumination fixate on their problems
and feelings, without ever making a corrective decision. Such effects of rumination have been
linked to depression (Papageorgiou & Wells, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994).
The continuous depressive cycle in those suffering from rumination creates severe
decision making complications. Part of this is due to ruminator’s lack of confidence in their
solutions. According to Nolen-Hoeksema, “‘Even when a person prone to rumination comes up
with a potential solution to a significant problem, the rumination itself may induce a level of
uncertainty and immobilization that makes it hard for them to move forward (as cited by Law,
2005).’” This may create a framing trap (Hammond et al., 2011), or the formation of a
preconceived tendency towards a particular decision.
Repeat Offenders
As previously mentioned, individuals with high levels of depressive symptoms seek out
less information and make use of fewer resources. In fact, those who use such poor decision
making techniques are more likely to use a previously failed approach in a similar situation
(Leykin et al., 2011). This is also referred to as habit formation, in which “choices of stressed
subjects become insensitive to changes in outcome value (Soares, Sampaio, Ferreira, Santos,

9. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 8
Marques, Palha, Cerqueira, & Sousa, 1).” According to Pfeffer and Sutton (2006), some beliefs
or theories can become self-fulfilling. This creates biased decision making strategies that
preserve the status quo (Hammond et al., 2001).
However, when those practicing poor decision making techniques were taught beneficial
techniques, the productivity of their decisions mirrored that of the less depressed (Leykin et al.,
2011). This suggests that poor decision making amongst the depressed is due to the failure to
use effective decision making strategies. Furthermore, it illustrates that poor decision-making
triggered by stress is reversible.
Conclusion
Chronic stress leads to significant deficiencies in decision making capabilities. Some of
the key decision making faults include: risk taking (Ceccato et al., 2014; Raghunathan & Pham,
1999), improper interpretation of issues (Mittal & Ross, 1998; Schneider, 2004), lack of
alternative seeking (Keinan et al., 1987; Leykin et al., 2011), faulty systematic scanning of
alternatives (Keinan et al., 1987), decisions made out of social pressure (Byrne, Silasi-Mansat, &
Worthy, 2015), ruminated decisions (Papageorgiou & Wells, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, &
Larson, 1994) and the implementation of previously failed decision making techniques (Leykin
et al., 2011). These decision making faults suggest the need for organizations to implement
strategies to overcome such difficulties. It is important to realize that poor decision making
processes used by those under stress are reversible (Leykin Et al., 2011).
These findings imply that coaches should create an atmosphere that allows for open
communication and feedback from their athletes in order to ensure proper decision making. The
use of training diaries may help the coach and athlete monitor training. In addition, it is

10. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 9
important to understand an athlete’s stressors outside of the sport. Additional sources of stress
such as academics and social life may be just harmful as the physical stress caused by training.
Coaches may benefit from a general guideline for prevention and management of athletes under
chronic stress. Further research should be conducted on how stress levels change throughout an
athletic season, including proper steps to alleviate stress before poor decisions are made.

11. Running head: DECISION MAKING UNDER CHRONIC STRESS 10
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