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Alade,_Boluwatife_seminar_write_up.docxbyAlade,_Boluwatife
_seminar_write_up.docxORIGINALITY REPORTPRIMARY
SOURCES
EDUC 703
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: INSTRUCTIONS
Assignment Description
Collect six articles from peer-reviewed academic, professional
journals. Articles are to
be on topics as outlined below. All six articles are to be new to
you, meaning that you
have not used them in any previous assignments in this or
another course. Annotate each
article in a paragraph or two of at least 300 words. The
annotation is to include a brief
summary of key ideas in the article and a sentence or two of
critical analysis. The critical

analysis must be through the lens of course textbooks, video
presentations, and/or biblical
principles. Cite sources accordingly. After annotating the six
articles, write a 200-word
statement synthesizing the information. One of the purposes of
this assignment is to
prepare you to write your final Philosophical Model Analysis.
As such, a final aspect of
the assignment will be a preliminary thesis statement for that
upcoming assignment.
Specific Guidelines
ARTICLE TOPICS: Your articles will be collected in two sets
of three each. For the
first set of three articles, you will select articles related to an
educational thinker from
the Gutek textbook that aligns closely with your personal
beliefs about education. This
individual’s ideas should resonate with you more strongly than
any of the others you have
studied so far in this course. You need not fully embrace all of
the individual’s ideas, and
you may certainly have points of disagreement. Overall,
however, you should be drawn
to this individual’s philosophy of education more so than any
others in the Gutek
textbook. To clarify, all three articles in this first set should be
on the topic of the same
educational thinker.
For the second set of three articles, you will select articles
related to an educational
thinker from the Gutek textbook that represents ideas to which
you are opposed. This

educational thinker should be in a different philosophical camp
than the first one you
selected for your first set of articles. (For example, if your first
set of articles is on John
Dewey, your second set should not be on Jane Addams because
she is in the same
progressive camp. A better selection for your second set of
articles would be Aquinas or
Bagley because they are from opposing philosophical camps
than Dewey. See the chart
at the bottom of these directions for guidance if you are
confused by this.) Though you
may agree with and support some of the ideas or actions of this
second educational
thinker, there is a key element that you reject—something that
is antithetical to your own
core values or philosophy of education. All three articles in the
second set will be on the
topic of this same second educational thinker.
LENGTH: The total assignment is to be at least 2,000 words in
length. This does not
count the title page or the references themselves. Each of the
six annotations is to be at
least 300 words in length, and the final synthesis is to be at
least 200 words.
STRUCTURE: Download the Annotated Bibliography
Assignment template from
Blackboard; you may enter your information into the template.
The format requires the
components listed below:
• Title Page

EDUC 703
• Annotated Bibliography: six articles listed in current APA
reference format;
under each article, a paragraph of at least 300 words will be
inserted for the
annotation.
• Synthesis: paragraph of at least 200 words.
• Preliminary Thesis Statement: one or two sentences proposing
a thesis for the
upcoming Philosophical Model Analysis assignment.
• References: a page listing sources other than the articles
themselves, which are
already listed in current APA reference format in the annotated
bibliography
section above. This reference list will include Gutek (2011),
worldview articles,
video presentations, and any other sources you choose to
include in your
annotations.
DATABASES: Click on this link to explore Liberty University
online library resources.
Search scholarly journals. The six articles must be from
professional, academic journals.
Avoid searching for articles using generic search engines such
as Google, Bing, Yahoo!,
etc.
SUMMARY: This assignment will be submitted via a plagiarism
tool, so be careful to

summarize the material using your own words. Do not copy the
abstract of the articles as
this would be considered plagiarism.
ANALYSIS: Though the analysis portion may be brief, it is to
be more than just a simple
personal opinion. It is to apply other sources as a lens for the
critical analysis. For
instance, every analysis should cite at least one other source,
which may be current
course textbooks, video presentations, and/or biblical
principles. Cite in current APA
format accordingly.
SYNTHESIS: Under the sixth annotation, enter the heading
“Synthesis.” Write a
statement of at least 200 words. The synthesis is not like an
abstract or a comprehensive
summary. It is to be based your own conclusions after having
considered the ideas of
your two selected educational thinkers as presented in the six
articles and also as
presented in your course textbook(s), video presentations, etc.
The synthesis should
address how your own ideas have been impacted by these two
educational thinkers. How
have your ideas changed? What has been affirmed? Also, what
implications do you see
for current educational trends?
PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT: At the bottom of the
assignment, under the
synthesis statement, enter the heading “Preliminary Thesis
Statement.” Write one or two
sentences that you anticipate may serve as the thesis statement
to your upcoming

Philosophical Model Analysis assignment. You are encouraged
to read the instructions
to the Philosophical Model Analysis prior to proposing your
preliminary thesis statement.
Focus on philosophy and not educational practice. Do not
address specific
instructional practice or the learning environment in this thesis
statement. That may be
discussed later in the body of your Philosophical Model
Analysis to support and illustrate
your thesis statement. Here are some suggestions for your
preliminary thesis statement:
• Address the purpose and outcome of education rather than its
process or practice.
• Consider the long-range impact education should make on
individuals and on
society.
https://www.liberty.edu/library/
EDUC 703
• What knowledge is most worth learning and why?
• What values are most worth teaching and why?
• Based on observations of society, what outcome should
education have on
society?
The above suggestions are not offered as a formula for you to
follow. Most
importantly they are presented to help you avoid the most
common error in the
upcoming Philosophical Model Analysis, which is to focus on

instructional
practice rather than on philosophical ideas. Because
instructional practice should
flow out of philosophical beliefs, you are to start with a
preliminary thesis
statement that addresses philosophy.
Avoid first-person pronouns as much as possible. To do this,
think in terms of
ought and should and write in third-person plural as much as
possible.
REFERENCES: Insert a reference list of all the sources you
included in the analysis
section of your annotations. You need not repeat the references
for the annotated
bibliography articles themselves. Here, you are citing the
sources you used as a lens in
your analysis of those articles.
Submit the Annotated Bibliography by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on
Sunday of Module 5: Week 5.
Examples of Philosophic Categories
It is often difficult to apply philosophical labels to individuals.
Labels, however, assist in
understanding, comparing, and analyzing the ideas people hold.
Keep in mind that the
labels below are only approximations to assist in understanding
which educational
thinkers may be similar and which ones may hold opposing
philosophical positions. The

list below is only a partial list of thinkers addressed in this
course. These examples were
selected because of the relative ease in applying a label.
Educational Thinkers Philosophical Label
Some of these are approximations.
Addams, Jane Progressivism
Aquinas Scholasticism; Realism
Aristotle Realism
Bagley, William Chandler Essentialism; Traditionalism
Comenius, Johann Amos Pansophism; Realism
Dewey, John Pragmatism; Progressivism
Du Bois, W.E.B. Social Reconstructionism
Erasmus, Desiderius Idealism; Humanism
Freire, Paulo Critical Pedagogy; Liberation Education
Gandhi, Mohandas Social Reconstructionism; Critical
Pedagogy; Liberation Education
Mill, John Stuart Utilitarianism
Owen, Robert Utopianism; Socialism
Plato Idealism
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Naturalism; Romanticism
EDUC 703
Spencer, Herbert Social Darwinism
MYCOTOXIN, TYPES AND THEIR DECONTAMINATION
METHODS
CHPATER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. DEFINITION OF MYCOTOXIN
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by
filamentous fungi belonging to the phylum Ascomycota, and
they have great importance in the health of humans and animals,
being cause of acute and chronic diseases (Tola and Kebede,
2016; Misihairabgwi et al., 2019. According to Bennett (1987),
He suggested a definition of mycotoxins as natural products
produced by fungi that induce a toxic response when introduced
at a low concentration to higher vertebrates and other animals
via natural route. Some mycotoxin can have additional effects
such as phytotoxicity or antimicrobial activity. The Greek word
“’mykes’’ meaning ‘’fungi’’ and the Latin word ‘’toxicum’’
meaning ‘’poison’’ are the origin of the word mycotoxin (Pittet,
1998). A variety of fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium,
Penicillium, and Alternaria colonize their host and produce
mycotoxins (Kagot et al., 2019). Presently, appromixately 400
compounds identified as mycotoxins, 30 are well recognized,
and they are considered a threat to human or animal health
(Alassane-Kpembi et al., 2017). The most important mycotoxins
are aflatoxins (AF), fumonisins, ochratoxin (OT), zearalenone
(ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), citrinin, and patulin.
Mycotoxins cannot be detected with the naked eye, but they can
be seen when viewed under the ultraviolet (UV) light,
moreover, they have no characteristic odor and they do not alter
the oragnoleptic characteristics of food (Winter and Pereg,
2019). Some mycotoxins are produced by more than one species
of fungi, while some are capable of producing more than one
mycotoxin. Moreover, there is more than one mycotoxin found
on a contaminated substrate (Zain, 2011). Favourable climate
conditions cause more fungal and mycotoxin contamination in
developing and tropical countries than in developed and
temperate ones (Ayofemi, 2019). In addition, downstream
processing such as poor harvesting practices, inadequate storage
and less than optimal conditions during transportation,
processing and marketing may also lead to fungi growth and
increase the risk of the major food spoilage agent induced by

mycotoxin production (Khazaeli et al., 2014). Because of their
ubiquitious nature of fungi, mycotoxin have been increasingly
attracted the concern of health organizations where the
occurrence in foods cannot be ignored and already poses risks
to consumers (Jahanaian, 2016).
1.2. OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MYCOTOXIN
Approximately 25% of the world’s harvested crops are
contaminated with mycotoxin every year, resulting in massive
agricultural and industrial losses of billions of dollars as
reviewed by the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization and the World Health Oragnization (Marin et al.,
2013; Pandya and Arade, 2016). Mycotoxins are avilable in
various products such as animal feed, cereal crops, leguminous
plants and animal products. Animal feeds commonly harbour
mycotoxins are wheat bran, noug cake, pea hull and maize
grain. Concentrated animal feedstuff harbours the growth of
mycotoxin. Noug cake was justified the key source of aflatoxin
contaminant among these concentrtaed animal feeds. Because,
noug is indigenous and contributes up to 5% oil seed cap with
its oil content varying from 30% to 50%. The oil production
lines produce cooking oil by squeezing the nou seed and
extricating the oil while the remaining noug cake is sold as
animal feed to the feed processor or directly to the ranchers.
Noug cake is progressively utilized in Ethiopia for its high
nutrient content to increase animal productiivity and
profitability in small scale. It is additionally exported to North
America and Europe, where it is predominantly utilized for
bird-feed (Gizachew et al., 2016). Mycotoxin contaminated
intensity in leguminous crop varies geographically and
groundnut is the main source of mycotoxin (Pereira et al., 2014;
Marta and Bedaso, 2016). Groundnut seed is predominantly
infected with Asperfillus flavus and Aspergillus niger
(Gebreselassie et al., 2014). Cereal crops like barley like
barley, sorghum, teff and wheat are the main source of
mycotoxins. Mycotoxin can be transferred from feed to foodof
animal origin, as this food is an essential route of human

exposure. In addition to the toxicological effect in animals, they
carry and tranfer products derived from animals such as meat,
milk and eggs into the human food chain (Demissie, 2018).
They can also be distributed in pre hravest period (time of plant
growing), post harvest during processing, packaging,
distribution and storage of food products. Conclusively, all
crops and cereals that are stored improperly for a long time
under favorable temperature and humidity facilitate mold
growth and may be contaminated with mycotoxins (Ahmad and
Jae-Hyuk, 2017); no boundaries will restrict fungal growth and
mycotoxin production unless appropriate action is taken.
1.3. IMPORTANCE OF MYCOTOXIN
Mycotoxins have a wide range of negative and toxic effect in
animals affecting their overall health and productively.
Mycotoxin causes mycotoxicosis and causes major economic
losses in animals due to lower productivity, increased incidence
of disease and decreased reproductive performance (Enyiukwu
et al., 2014). The ingestion of mycotoxins can produce both
acute (short term) and chronic (medium and long term)
toxicities ranging from death to chronic interferences with the
function of the central nervous, cardiovascular, pulmonary
system and of the alimentary tract. Some mycotoxins are
carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive
(Adeyeye, 2016). Aflatoxin B for example, is one of the most
potent hepatocarcinogens known (IARC, 2002). In the last 30
years, mycotoxins have drawn worldwide attention, firstly
because of their potential effects on human health, secondly
because of economic losses accruing from condenmed food or
feed and decreased animal productivity and thirdly because of
the significant impact of mycotoxin contamination on
commodities traded internationally.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION OF MYCOTOXIN
AND CONTAMINATION OF FEED AND FOOD
A major difficulty in accessing the risk to human and animal
health of mycotoxins is the multiplicity of factors that affect the
production or presence of mycotoxin in food or feeds. The mere

isolation and confirmation in food and feeds of mycotoxic
fungal species does not indicate the presence of mycotoxins.
Upon the advancement of the precise and sensitive techniques
for qualitative and quantitative examination of mycotoxins,
researchers found that different factors function
interdependently to affect fungal colonization or mycotoxin
growth classified the factors as physical, chemical and
biological (D’Mello and MacDonald, 1997). Physical factors
iclude environmental conditions viz temperature, relative
humdity and insect infestation (Margherita et al., 2012).
Physical factors such as time of exposure, temperature during
exposure, humdity and degree of insect or other damage to
product before exposure determine contamination of mycotoxins
in the field or during storage. Chemical factors include the use
of fertilizer and fungicide. Stresses such as drought,
temperature increase and increase in relative humdity can
selectively alter colonization and therefore alter the production
of mycotoxin. Biological factors are based on the interaction
between toxic fungal colonizing species and substrates.
Although certain plant species are more vulnerable to
colonization, environmental conditions may increase the
vulnerability of other more resistant plant species (Margherita
et al., 2012). Factors can be either intrinsic, extrinsic,
processing each of which including moisture content, water
activity, substrate type, plant type and nutrient composition;
climate change, temperature, oxygen level; drying, blending,
addition of perservatives, handling of grains; insect interaction,
fungal strain and microbiological ecosystem respectively
(Gabriel and Puleng, 2013).
Climate change has been proposed as perhaps the most
imporatnt environmental issue facing the world and most
affected has been Africa (Paterson and Lima, 2010). In fact,
2016 was identified as the hottest year in about a century, and
consequently, a manifestation of this was Southern Africa’s
2016 El-nino drought episode, which resulted in agricultural
losses amounting to million of US dollars ($). These

imbalances, drastic changes in rainfall, temperature and
patterns may increase the risk of pathogen migration and
influence crop colonization by mycotoxigenic fungal genera
(Magan et al., 2011). Since production of mycotoxin is climate
dependent, changes in climate conditions have been suggested
and proven to lead to possible drastic modification in fungal
population and attendant mycotoxin production (Madgwick et
al., 2011; Vander fel-Klerx et al., 2016).
A recent study predicts this fungal pathogens and pest
proliferate from the equator to the Earth’s polar region at a rate
of 5-6km annually (Magan and Medina, 2016). Drought and
plant stress make crops more vulnerable to disease and fungal
attack, thus increasing mycotoxin contamination, which reduces
crop quality and yield, and decreases livestock production,
disease tolerance and fertility. Futrthermore, the adaptation of
known mycotoxic fungal species to climate change condition
could lead to a more aggressive and invasive behaviour of the
fungi resulting in the colonization of new territories, increased
mycotoxin production and possibly the potential for the
production of entirely new mycotoxin, which poses a significant
threat to food security, safety and health in Africa and other
developing countries (Magan and Medina, 2016; Medina et al.,
2017). Type of substrate can also play a part in selecting for or
against toxin producing strains of a given species, e.g. a high
proportion of Aspergillus flavus toxin producing strains isolated
from peanuts and cotton seed than from rice or sorghum. Food
or feed contamination with mycotoxin can result from
inadequate storage and/or handling of the harvested products.
Africa is the wrold’s poorest continent. Nearly one in five
people living in Africa are undernourished and/or hungry, the
highest incidence of such in the world. This can be of enormous
importance for the quality of food commodities consumed in
Africa (Hedden et al., 2016). There are insufficient resources to
implement appropriate technologies and systems to control the
proliferation of mycotoxin, and in dire need of food and
‘’quenching’’ hunger, the quality and safety of food ingested is

totally irrevelant (although still clearly contaminated).
Furthermore, limited public awareness of the danger posed by
mycotoxin contamination of produce has been identified as a
major factor responsible for its high incidence in Africa
(Chihombori-Quao and Arikana, 2017). Majority of farmers
produce and food handlers and/or processors are illiterate with
virtually no knowledge of toxigenic mould growth implication.
1.4. MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION OF FOOD AND
BIOLOGICAL FLUIDS
Food contamination with mycotoxin is more common in
developing countries where poor food quality control, warm
climate, poor production technology and crop storage conditions
are sufficient for fungal growth and toxin formation (Belqes et
al., 2019). Mycotoxin occurrence in food or feed is either
consequences of direct contamination of plant materials or
products thereof, or by carry-over of mycotoxins and their
metabolites into the animal tissues, milk and eggs after
contaminated feed intake (Escriva, 2017). As a consequence of
carry-over and bioaccumulation, mycotocin contamination was
reported not only in a number of agricultural commodities, food
or feedstuffs, but also in animal derived products and biological
fluids and tissues from animals and humans at geographically
diversed locations (Yang et al., 2014).
Table 1: Mycotoxin in food in some Africa countries
Country/Region
Food
Mycotoxin
References
Cameroon
Maize fufu
DON
PAT
ZEN
Abia et al., 2017

Cote d’Ivore
Garba
OTA
Anoman et al., 2018
Ghana
Ice-kenkey
Atter et al., 2015
Nigeria
Roasted groundnut
Roasted cashew nut
Garri
Sausage roll
tAF
Af
DON
T-2

Afolabi et al., 2015
Adetunji et al., 2018
Chilaka et al., 2018
Jonathan et al., 2016
Zambia
Peanut butter
Afs
Banda et al., 2018
Egypt
Fresh kariesh cheese
Damietta cheese
Awad et al., 2014
Abbreviation: AFB1, aflatoxin B1; AFB2, aflatoxin B2; AFG1,
aflatoxin G1; AFG2, aflatoxin G2, AF, aflatoxins; tAF,
totalaflatoxin; AFM1, aflatoxin M1; OTA, ochratoxin;
DON,deoxynivalenol; PAT,patulin; ZEN, zearalenone
Table 2: Mycotoxin in Biological samples from different species
Species
Biological sample
Mycotoxin
References
Human
Serum
OTA
Koller et al., 2016
Urine

OTA
Ali et al., 2017
Breast milk
OTA
Andrade et al., 2013
Massart et al., 2016
Chicken
Serum
DON
Devreese at al., 2014
Cow
Milk
Britzi et al., 2013
Rat
Serum, Urine, Faeces
EN A
EN A1
EN B
EN B1
Escriva et al., 2015
Donkey
Milk
Tozzi et al., 2016
Cattle
Urine
STG

Fushimi et al., 2014
Abbreviation: AFB1, aflatoxin B1; AFB2, aflatoxin B2; AFG1,
aflatoxin G1; AFG2, aflatoxin G2, AFM1, aflatoxin M1; OTA,
ochratoxin; DON,deoxynivalenol; STG, sterigmatocystin; EN,
enniatin (A. A1, B, B1)
CHAPTER TWO: MAJOR TYPES OF MYCOTOXIN
2.1. AFLATOXIN
Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites, and they belong to the
category of difuranocoumarins (Peterson et al., 2001; Adeyeye,
2016). Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus under warm and humid conditions,
which are commonly found in food or feeds (Richard, 2007;
Kumar, 2017). The optinum environment for aflatoxin growth is
33 and 0.99 (water activity).The toxins were the first mycotoxin
discovered in the early 1960 as the causative agent of the tukey
X epidemic which results in the death of 100, 000 turkey poults,
duckling which was traced to the consumption of mold
contaminated peanut meal (D’ Mello and MacDonald, 1997;
Wu, 2014). For all mycotoxins, aflatoxins are best known for
their significant effects on human and animal health. Four main
types of aflatoxins are the most studied among more than 20
known ones that are aflatoxin, and named after the fluorscence
they display in ultraviolet (UV) light (B for blue and G for
green). The hydroxylated metabolites of and are aflatoxin ()
and aflatoxin () which are present in the meat of animlas that
consumed aflatoxin contaminated feed, also animal products
such as milk and dairy products (D Mello and MacDonald,
1997; Kumar, 2017).
is considered the most toxic aflatoxin and the most potent
carcinogenic substances, thus classified as Group 1 human
caricinogen (IARC, 2002). Liver is the primary target organ of .
Pre harvest and post harvest factors are related to the
production of Aflatoxins. Thus, pre harvest weather conditions
associated with the periods of drought and stress during
flowering and fruit growth were reported to be the main factors
responsible for the increased infection with aflatoxins produced

by A. flavus and A. parasiticus in maize, cotton, pistachio and
nuts (Kebede et al., 2012). Due to their stablity to severe
processing of roasting, baking, extrusion and cooking, aflatoxin
also induce a great problem in processed food such as roasted
nut and bakery products and it can be found alone or
simultaneously, also co-occurring with other mycotoxins such
as OTA (Marin et al., 2013). Aflatoxin are linked to various
diseases, such as aflatoxicosis, in animals, pet and humans
around the world (Adeyeye, 2016), and they are considered to
be particularly harmful as they are carcinogenic, mutagenic
(DNA damaging), teratogenic, and immunosuppressive effects.
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Aflatoxin
Source: Zahra et al., 2019
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Aflatoxin
FUMONISINS
Fumonisins are fusarium toxins discovered in 1988 (Marasas,
1988) and constitute the large family of compounds (Antonio et
al., 2018) which occur in cereals mainly in corn originating
from pathogenic fungi, mostly Fusariumverticillioides and
Fusarium proliferatum which have a long chain hydrocarbon
unit (similar to that of sphingosine and sphinganine) which play
a role in their toxicity (Rheeder et al., 2002; EFSA, 2005).
Also, Aspergillus niger can produce fumonisins on grapes and
raisins (Frisvad et al., 2011). Today, 28 fumonisins have been
isolated, which are divided into four groups A, B, C and P
(Rheeder et al., 2002; Alberts et al., 2016). The fumonisin B
(FB) analogue, which include, and, occur in nature with the
highest frequency, whereas , is usually found in the highest
concentrations (Alberts et al., 2016). Fumonisins cause health
effects in animals, especially in the liver and kidney, although
data for the healtheffects of fumonisins in humans remian
limited (JECFA, 2018). can cause leukoencephalomacia in

horses (Marasas, 1988), and pulmonary edema syndrome and
hydrothorax in pigs (Haschek et al., 1992).
The is classified possibly as a member of group 2B human
carcinogen (IARC, 2002; Ben-Taheur et al., 2017). is a deoxy
analogue of , less abundant than but has important
toxicological effect. , is present in the lower concentration and
has lower toxicological significance. Because of simi larities in
favourable fungal growth conditions, which consist of high
temepratures and humid climate (15-30, 0.9-0.995), fumonisin
often co occur with aflatoxin, especially in corn.
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Fumonisin
2.3. OCHRATOXIN
Ochratoxin (OT) can be categorized into three A, B and C, OTA
is the most abundant and harmful mycotoxin that contaminates
foods among the three (Jordan and Pattison, 1996; Alhamoud et
al., 2019). OTA was first identified and characterized from
fungus Aspergillusochraceus in South Africa, from which it
derives its name (Van der Merwe et al., 1965). Aspergillus and
penicillium are the two main genera of OTA producers with the
main producing species of Aspergillus section Circumdati,
Aspergillus section Nigri,Penicillium verrucosumPenicillium
thymicola and Penicillium nordicum (EFSA, 2006; Marin et al.,
2013). The non-chlorintaed analogue, ochratoxin B, which is
much less toxic, sometimes co occurs with OTA in food and
feed (Udovicki et al., 2018). Although OTA produced by
Aspergillus may likely occur during pre harvest, recent studies
(Limay-Rios et al., 2017) have highlighted OTA grains as being
mainly a storage problem.
Ochratoxin is linked to immunotoxic, genotoxic, neurotoxic,
carcinogenic, nephrotoxic and teratogenic effects, OTA
considered the most toxic one among the ochratoxin family
members. Moreover, it is classified by the IARC as possble
human carcinogen group 2B (Ostry et al., 2017), but the specific
mechanism of toxicicty is not fully understood. Increased

incidence of testicular cancer in animal is associated with
ingestion of OTA (Marin et al., 2013). Although OTA could
decompose in rumen, it has benn found in cow’s milk (Zhao et
al., 2020).
Ochratoxin A has been found in cereals, such as barley, rye,
wheat, in coffee and cocoa beans, rice, dried fruits, species, and
other plant products, with barley having a particularly high
likelihood of contamination worldwide (Reddy et al., 2010;
Aldars-Garcia et al., 2016). Ochratoxin production is observed
in the (water activity) range of 0.92-0.99, with the maximum
concentration being in the range of 0.95-0.99 depending on the
strains. The optinum temperature for OTA production is 20,
followed by the temperature of 15, with significantly lower
production at 30-37 (EFSA, 2006). Considering that Aspergillus
and responsible for the production of OTAs have a temperature
range of 12-47 for A. ochraceus and 0-31 for P. verrucosum,
OTA can be produced in all agricultural areas in the world (Lee
and Ryu, 2017).
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Ochratoxin A
2.4. DEOXYNIVALENOL
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is produced by fungi of the fusarium
genus, mainly by Fusariumgraminearum and Fusarium
culmorum, which are associated with fusarium head blight
(FHB) disease in cereals especially oats, barley, wheat rye,
maize and less frequently in rice, sorghum and triticale (EFSA,
2013; Pascariet et al., 2019); it can also contaminates cereal
derived product such as bread, pasta and beer. Among
trichothecenes (TC) mycotoxin, DON, also denoted as
vomitoxin, is the most important among the Type B
trichothecenes due to its natural occurrence in high level.
Because of its effect in human along with its resistance to food
processing great efforts with its presence in food have been
done (Patriarca, 2016). The most common route of exposure to
DON is through the food. Acute gastrointestinal diarrhea may

occur in animals after ingestion of highly contaminated animal
feed. Symtoms such as anorexia, suppression of body weight
gain, hepatotoxicity, dermatological problems and altered
nutritional efficacy appear after long term dietary exposure to
DON. The acute effects of DON on animals and humans are
similar (ESFA, 2013). The mutagenic and/or carcinogenic
properities of DON are not established by experimental or
epidermiological evidence and, thus classified DON as not
carcinogenic to human group 3 (IARC, 1993). The optinum
temperature for the production of this toxin occurs at 26-30 and
0.995(Milani, 2013).
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Deoxynivalenol
2.5. ZEARALENONE
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that primarily produced by
Fusariumgraminearum (Gibberella zeae) and Fusarium
culmorum infecting cereal and foods worlwide, mainly in
temperate climates (Tola and Kebede, 2016; Rai et al, 2019).
While contamination with ZEN is low in grains in the field, it
increases in storage conditions with moisture of more than 30-
40% (Tola and Kebede, 2016). ZEA is classfied as a group 3
carcinogen (IARC, 1993). ZEN is a non steriodal estrogenic
mycotoxin and works by mimicking the effects of the female
estrogen hormone, affecting conception, ovulation and fetal
development at concentration above 1mg/kg (Calori-Domingues
et al., 2016). ZEN can lead to hyperestrogenism, mainly
affecting the reproduction. The most susceptible specie to ZEN
infection is prepubertal swine. Swelling of the vulva, increases
in uterine size and secretions, mammary gland hyperplasia and
secretion, prolonged estrus, anestrus, increased incidence of
pseudopregnanacy, infertility, decreased libido and secondary
complication of rectal and vaginal prolapses, stillbirths, and
small litters are some of the tropical clinical symtoms of
hyperestrogenism (Tola and Kebede, 2016). The optimum
temperature for zearalenone production occurs at 25 and

0.96(Milani, 2013).
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Zearalenone
2.6. PATULIN
Patulin (PAT) is a secondary metabolite discovered in 1943
(Birkinshaw et al., 1943). In total, patulin is known to be
produced by 60 different fungal species such as Penicillium
expansum, Penicillium crustosum, Penicillium patulum
(Penicillium urticae, Penicillium griseofulvum), Byssoclamys
fulva, Aspergillus clavatus, whereas Penicillium expansum is
the most common PAT producer (Drusch and Ragab, 2003;
Walravens et al., 2014). Structurally, patulin is an unsaturated
heterocyclic lactone with the molecular weight of 154.12g/mol
and low volatility (Walravens et al., 2014; Vidal et al., 2019).
The strain determines significantly the amount of patulin
produced. Patulin causes animals to have immunotoxic and
neutrotoxic effects and there is no clear evidence that is
carcinogenic to human (Romero Bernal et al., 2019).
Patulin is found in fruits and vegetables, especially apples and
apple derived products in various parts of the world, and
occassionally in other fruits such as pears, orange, grapes and
their products (Chandra et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2017), if rotten
fruits, especially apples, are not removed during the processing
of fruit juices, patulin is transferred to juices (Romero Bernal
etal., 2019). Patulin was initially studied as a potential
antibiotic, but subsequent research demostrated its toxicological
properities to humans including nausea, vomiting, ulceration
and hemorrhage (Birkinshaw et al., 1943; Alshannaq and Yu,
2017). The optinum temperature for the production of patulin is
24 and 0.99 (Tannous et al., 2016).
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Patulin
2.7. CITRININ
Citrinin is a secondary metabolite originally isolated in 1931 by

Hetherington and Raistrick from a culture of Penicillium
citrinum (EFSA, 2012; Ostry et al., 2013. The toxin is a
derivative of benzopyran produced by some species of
Aspergillus and Penicillium especially Penicilliumcitrinum
(Milani, 2013). Citrinin is generally formed after harvest and
can be found mainly in stored grains, particularly barley, wheat
and rice, but also in other plant products, such as beans, fruit
and vegetable juices, herbs and spices, and also in spoiled dairy
products (JH, 2015). Citrinin is a nephrotoxic mycotoxin which
co-occurs in food entities, resulting in internal revelation (Ali et
al., 2018). It can affect the kidney and cause severe renal failure
(Degen et al., 2018). Citrinin may form at the optinum
temeprature of 20-30 and 0.75-0.85 (Milani, 2013).
Fig 1: Chemical structure of Citrinin
CHAPTER THREE: ECONOMIC IMPACT ON MYCOTOXIN
The consumption of contaminated food globally accentuates a
direct threat to food security, and the key elements contributing
to contamination are micororganisms, specifically, fungi which
produce mycotoxin. Approximately, 25% of the world’s food
and feed supply is contaminated with mycotoxin, which has a
negative effect on human and animal health, productivity,
livlihood, household security, income and substantial economic
loss (Enyiwkwu et al., 2014). The most significant effect of
contamination with mycotoxins in Africa has been shown on
human health (Marechera and Ndwiga, 2014). Although it is
ectrremely difficult to estimate in Africa, the net monetarized
effect of mycotoxin on human in Africa (including physical
pain, death (in severe cases), temporary or permanent disability,
loss of productivity, diagnostic costs, treatment, hospitalization
and health care, pain, stress and reduced quality of life) may be
enormous and demanding on national budget. In Senegal, a case
in point, the cummulation health related costs of Aflatoxins
(Afs) are estimated at no less than 12 million US$ of the
nation’s GDP (ECOACAP, 2014). Also, mycotoxin affects the

livestock industry. It makes anuimal prone to disease by
weakening their response to immune system and vaccination
against disease. In other ways, it can cause productivity loss in
the dairy cow industry, particularly in the case of aflatoxins,
additional losses involve the clearance time that farmers have to
wait to allow animals to excrete all from their system
(Marroquin et al., 2014).
Contamination can lead to direct econmic impact from importers
through limited yeilds, price discounts, restricted end markets
and export rejections. Microbial contamination has an adverse
economic impact in reducing food and fiber crops yield, and
food contamination with mycotoxin result in huge and universal
economic crisis (USDA, 2006; Geremew, 2015).mycotoxin
affect African agricultural trade name. Brand is am intangible
feature that distinguishes an entity from its compeitiors, and
comprises of expectations, imagination and loyalty to
customers. In the field of accouting, brand is regarded as the
most valuable asset on the balance sheet (Sharma, 2014; Soler
Labajos and Jumenez-Zarco, 2016). The damage caused by
mycotoxin to the brand can have a significant impact on
business performance, productivity and business prospects.
Unfortunately, mycotoxin has cause signioficant damage to
Afircan food and agricultural trade brand, particularly in the
export market. Some of the effect can be observed in the lack of
trust for African feed or food resources, rejection and redundant
scrutiny (which may lead to delay in transaction and perhaps
more food spoilage). Between 2007 and 2012, thirteen
consignments of groundnt and ground nut related products from
Nigeria were rejecyted by (EU) European Union (Atanda et al.,
2013). The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration
(NAFDAC) of Nigeria reported that up to 42 semi - processed
an processed food products of Nigeria origin destined for the
European Union rejected in 2015 and 2016 for failing to meet
the required standards (Ogunfuwa, 2018). Some of the items
were destroyed, subjected to official detention, withdrawn from
consumers from the market and re-dispatched. It should be

noted that the cost of rejected food shipment is significant to
about 10,000US$ per lot (Ogunfuwa, 2018).
3.1. HEALTH IMPLICATION OF MYCOTOXIN
Mycotoxin cause diseases in human and animals called
mycotoxicosis and its severity depends on the rate of toxicity
(Peraica et al., 1999). Mycotoxin is heat stable and endangers
human health, animal production and economy of the country.
Aflatoxins are acutely toxic, immunosuppressive, mutagenic,
teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds (Blanchard and
Manderville, 2016). Aflatoxin has carcinogenic, hepatogenic
and mutagenic effects on human health when ingested, inhaled
or absorbed through the skin, even at very low concentration
(Zain, 2011; Wei et al., 2014). Aflatoxin causes aflatoxicosis
that occurred in 1981, 2001, 2004 and 2005 in Kenya (Africa).
is a potent mycotoxin and it is known to be hepatotoxic and
hepatocarcinogenic (Geremew, 2015). The exposure of in
conjuction with a low protein diet cause a decrease in the
weight gain and kidney dyfunction in rats (Rotimi et al., 2018).
Animal production is significantly reduced in countries with
chronic aflatoxin contamination thus, minimizing the dietary
protein and milk quality. In most African countries, poor
knowledge about afaltoxin, adequate control measures to control
contamination in field and storage, and the negative health
effects of aflatoxin consumption are reported (Antonio et al.,
2018). Additional factors on health impact are prevalent poverty
and malnutrition (Kristine and Florian, 2018).
Fumonisin has been linked to esophagus cancer in human,
although it affects animals in which it causes
leukoencephalomalacia in equines and rabbits, pulmonary
edema, hepatoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Ochratoxin causes
neopropathy in humans; it is also the cause of Tunisian
neopropathy and human (BEN) Balcan endemic neophropathy
(Margherita et al., 2012). Ochratoxin A is carcinogenic and can
cause upper urinary tract disease (Blanchard and Manderville,
2016). It is known for its teratogenic effects on the foetus in the
womb, which possessess the ability to cross the placenta and

cause malformation of the central nervous system and damage
to the brain in rats (Malir et al., 2012). Deoxynivalenol causes
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, reproductive effects and toxicosis in
human (Ali et al., 2013; Pinton and Oswald, 2014). Citrinin
cause nephrotoxicity (Ali et al., 2018). It may affect kidneys
and can cause severe renal failure (Degen et al., 2018). Patulin
can be carcinogenic, immunotoxic and genotoxic on mammalian
cells (Zain, 2011). Zearalenone can cause hormonal imbalance,
reproductive effect and carcinogenicity when present in large
quantities (Reddy et al., 2010; Blanchard and Manderville,
2016).
CHAPTER FOUR: DECONTAMINATION METHODS
Reducing mycotoxin contamination in agricultural commodities
in many countries around the world is a very important problem
which has led to various preventive measures (Ayofemi, 2019).
All pre harvest strategies aim to prevent the development of
toxigenic fungi and, hence, mycotoxins. However, once
mycotoxins are produced, food contamination should be based
on post harvest practices (Luo et al., 2018). The
decontamination of mycotoxins from different agricultural
product is a global issue, both scientific and practical.
Mycotoxins have been shown to be eliminated by natural means
such as thermal insulation, radiation treatment, and low plasma
temperature, chemical methods such as oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis and absorption, and the biological methods with the
use of biological agents (Lyagin and Efremenko, 2019).
Physical and chemical decontamination has many limitation;
they cause loss of nutrients, and are time consuming and
ineffective, and require expensive equipment. In comparison,
biological methods proved to be more effective, more
specialized and more environmentally friendly (Wang et al.,
2019).
4.1. PHYSICAL APPROACH
Diverse practices are naturally used to remove mycotoxin. Some
of them are grading, sorting and removal of the obviously
affected parts of a lot. In additon, as physical treatments for

decontamination of mycotoxins, drying, washing, cleaning,
segregation, milling, boiling, roasting, radiation, extrusion,
microwave heating and peeling are used (Sarrocco and
Vannacci, 2018; Shi et al., 2018).
4.1.1. Sorting
Unprocessed cereals often contain dust and admixtures in bulk
trade. Broken and damaged kernels usually contain most of the
contamination of mycotoxin even though they constitiute 3-6%
of the bulk load (Karlovsky et al., 2016). After harvest, the first
processing of agricutlural goods often involves sorting, washing
or milling (Grenier et al., 2014). Undoubtedly, cleaning and
sorting constitute the first step of natural disinfection.
Techniques such as sorting may be regarded as superior method,
since they do not pose a risk of degrading productrs (Chilaka et
al., 2017). Sorting and removal of decayed and poor quality
fruits can significantly reduce the patulin level or content in
fruits products by up to 99% (Luo et al., 2018). Total FBs
decreased by 26% to 69% in maize after purification (Chilaka et
al., 2017). A decrease of 27% to 93% FB was observed after the
sorting of contaminated miaze. Infection with aflatoxin is
usually heterogenous, thus the separation of damaged nuclei can
effectively reduce infection. Ultraviolet radiation was also used
to reduce Afs in the sorting of cereal (Karlovsky et al., 2016).
4.1.2. Storage
Storage conditions play an important role in controlling
mycotoxin, since they affect the overall growth of fungi. In
particular, two main fcators, temperature and high humidity,
may promote both fungal growth and mycotoxin production
(Agriopoulou et al., 2020). Storage under controlled conditions,
such as packaging practices, temperature control, ventilation
and adequate humidity of the air, reduces fungal growth and
mycotoxin accumulation (Goncalves et al., 2019). In developing
countries, crop losses of 20% to 50% were recorded due to
inadequate storage prcatices (Neme and Mohammed, 2017).
4.1.3. Thermal processing
In general, mycotoxins are mainly stable compounds under

thermal process condiitons which are most commonly used in
the prodction of food and feed. The folowing trhermal
processing factors are most important for thr degradation and
reduction of mycotoxin in food and feed; type of mycotoxin,
initial concentration of mycotoxin, temperature, degree of heat
penetration, pH, and moisture content (Colovic et al., 2019). If
raw materials are contamianted with some regulated and/or non
regulated mycotoxin there is a great possibilty that these
mycotoxin will also be contaminated in final products as they
are not completely destroyed during the thermal process (Neme
and Mohammed, 2017; Colovic et al., 2019). Different thermal
food and feed treatment processes that can have different impact
on mycotoxin include extrusion, cooking, frying, baking,
canning, crumbling, pelleting, roasting, flaking etc. Even
though these processes can significantly reduce the mycotoxin
concentration, their implementation usually does not lead to
complete elimination of mycotoxin. Among the thermal
tretaments, the utilization of high temperature processes
demostrated the greatest potential for reduction of mycotoxin
(Colovic etal., 2019).
A study in Kenya has shown a decrease in AFs in maize by
peeling. The final flour was less contamainated, although
mycotoxin DON and ZEN were detected on the surface of the
granules at high levels. Temperature and time may affect the
final product of mycotoxin content (Agriopoulou et al., 2020).
During the extrusion process, the processing temperature and
the moisture content of the granules affect the reduction fof AFs
by 50% to 80% (Shanakhat et al., 2018). In addition,
temperature of 150-200 significantly reduced AFB, resulting in
an average reduction of 79%, being more efficient at high
humdity (Rushing and Selim, 2019).
4.1.4. Cold plasma
Cold plasma has strong antimicrobial effects, and it is used to
eliminate pathogens in food processing (Shanakhat et al., 2018).
A review on the use of plasma in food processing highlighted
the potential of this new technique, which requires cautious use

at the same time. No research on potential plasma treatment for
the formation of toxic compounds has yet been conducted
(Schluter et al., 2013). Cold atmospheric pressure plasma
(CAPP) technology is a different for mycotoxin
decontamination that is of low cost and environemtally friendly
(Shanakhat et al., 2018; Wielogorska et al., 2019). Low pressure
cold plasma on nut surface has destroyed up to 50% of aflatoxin
(Basaran et al., 2008). The effect of argon cold plasma
atmospheric pressure on spores and the production of
Aspergillus niger contaminating date palm fruits with
mycotoxin was evaluated (Ouf et al., 2015). After only 10
minutes of treatment, substantial reduction of and mycotoxin
of up to 66% was achieved in maize using CAPP (Wielogorska
et al., 2019). The use of cold atmospheric plasma caused 93%
reduction in AFs, 90% reduction in trichothecenes (TC), 100%
reduction in ZEA and 93% reduction in fusoproliferin (FUS)
after 8 minutes of exposure (Hojnik et al., 2019).
4.1.5. Radiation
Radiation can be an industrial scale approach for removing
mycotoxin, providing energy to both food constituents and
contaminants: reactions occur and the molecular structure of
food constituent changes. Non ionizing radiation and ionizing
radiation can reduce or eliminate pathoge nic microorgnaisms;
but partially removes mycotoxin in food (Karlovsky et al.,
2016; Shanakhat et al., 2018). In irradiated distilled water and
fruit juices of orange, pineapple and tomato infected with ZEA,
ZEA toxcity was reduced. ZEA radiation was safe up to an
irradiation of 10kGy. A higher dose of radiation affected the
quality of the fruit juices (Kalagatur et al., 2018). In a recent
strudy, after irradiation at 50kGy with an electron beam in
naturally infected corn to degrade zen and OTA, decreases of
71.1% and 67.9% were recorded (Luo et al., 2018). In additon,
was reduced by more than 75% (at 6kGy) when gamma
irradiation was used for rice processing (Goncalves et al.,
2019). Apple juice irradiation for 5 mimnutes caused PAT
(83%) to decrease significantly (Walravens et al., 2014). While

radiation has been proposed as a promising approach to
mycotoxin decontamination, its effectiveness remains
questionable because after potential molecular reaction, it can
cause physical, chemical and biological effects (Shi et al.,
2018).
4.1.6. Mycotoxin binder
Mycotoxin binders are physical techniques used to
decontaminate feed, which can be used for human intervention
(Jans et al., 2014). Mycotoxin binder inhibits mycotoxin
absorption because they bind to mycotoxi n and don not allow
mycotoxins to enter the bloodstream from the gut. The use of
binding mycotoxin is an alternative physical technique to the
microbial degradation of AFs. Lactone ring cleavage is a
possible target of microbial enzymes, and its cleavage decreases
the toxicity of AFs (Gonzalez-Pereyra et al., 2019). According
to the research, activated carbon was used to remove patulin
from naturally infected milk. There has been a reduction in
mycotoxin levels but more studies are needed to ensure food
safety (Karlovsky et al., 2016).
4.2. CHEMICAL APPROACH
Given that all the positive sides of the chemical treatments
available to decontaminate mycotoxin contaminated feedstuffs
and compound feed, their drawbacks are also present, as the
products handled must be safe from the chemicals used and the
nutritional value of the products should not be altered or
degraded (Awad et al., 2010; Colovoic et al., 2019). Not all
agents are efficient to the same degrree against mycotoxins, but
science is still making efforts to find a wide variety of
chemicals that will be effective against a greater number of
mycotoxins on a higher scale (Puvaca et al., 2018). There are
now several chemical agents used for mycotoxin
decontaminationand can be classified into groups including
alkaline or bases, acids, reducing agents, oxidizing agents and
many others such as chlorinating agents, salt and miscellaneous
reagents (Colovoic et al., 2019).
4.2.1. Bases

Ammonia gas treatment of cereals is known as the ammonia
process, which has gained significant interest in the
docontamination of aflatoxin, fumonisins and ochratoxin, and
has been used in many countries for decontamination (Puvaca et
al., 2018). However, the efficacy of ammoniation varies on the
type of mycotoxin. Nevertheless, treatment with base is
forbidden in the EU for food intended for human consumption.
The efficacy of applied to laboratory animals for the purpose of
lowering fumonisin concentrations showed no promising results
since there was no decrease in toxicity when ammo nia was
supplied to livestock despite a decrease in concentration. In the
last several years in devoped countries, ammoniation has been
successfully used in maize grain decontamination in particular,
to reduce the amount off contamination of aflatoxin in feed
(Jalili, 2016; Karlvosky et al., 2016). Ammonization is typically
the most effcetive against, with , the remaining side product,
which is much less toxic than . Furthermore, the positive effects
of ammonia in feed and compund feed detoxification may be
comapred with high costy of methodology applied, and the
ineffectiveness of method against other myciotoxin. However,
this method can lead to reduction and degradation of food
quality due to excessive levels of ammonia in the food (Negash,
2019). Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are often
used in contaminated oil to degrade , although these chemicals
can cause secondary contamination and harm the nutritional
value of the products (Ji and Xie, 2020). The application of
mixture of glycerol and calcium hydroxide has greatly
contributed to the detoxification of mycotoxin (Luo et al.,
2018).
4.2.2. Acid
Feedstuffs and compund feed treatment with strong acids may
disrupt the biological activiity of , thus, converting into a
compund that is hemiacetal or hemiketal compounds the result
of adding an alcohol to an aldehyde or ketone, produced by
adding a second alkoxy group to the structure respectively (Luo
et al., 2014). Hydrogen chloride (HCl) treatment at pH 2

showed a 19.3% reduction in concentration 0of within 24
hours. Fromic, propionic and sorbic acids show their positive
influenece when it comes to ochratoxinA degration with
concentrations ranging from 0.25% to 1.0% after the exposure
to this particular acid over a period of time that is no longer 24
hours. Sodium hypochlorite may be successfully used as a pale
greenish- yellow dilute solution commonly known as liquid
bleach or simply bleach in the destruction of ochratoxin A
(Colovoic et al., 2019).
4.2.3. Reducing agent
Reducing agents such as sodium bisulfite have the affinity to
react with aflatoxin and trichothecenes. Their mechanism of
action involves the formation of sulphonate derivatives while
peroxide and heat enhance sodium bisulfite destruction of
(Hasan and Walshi, 2016). In addition to and trichothecenes,
the DON levels have decreased with reducing agents. The
conversion of sodium bisulfite from DON to DON-sulphonate,
which is less toxic than DON, has been recorded as an effective
method for overcoming the depressive effects of DON on the
ingestion of feed in certain species and categories of farm
animals. Temperature at 65 for 48 hours can block the primary
amino group of and prevent the toxicity of farm and laboratory
animal cell tissue cultures caused by the presence of fumonisin
in feed, but only in the presence of D- gluocose or D- fructose
reduction in sugar (Weltmann and von Woedtke, 2017).
4.2.4. Oxidizing agent
Oxidizing agents such as zone and hydrogen peroxide have been
used to decontaminate raw feed, and compound feed infected
with mycotoxin (Weltmann and von Woedtke, 2017). Over the
years, ozone treatment has been used to decontaminate food
products with vaet high success in addition to feed and
compound feed. Many of the above mentioned chemical
methods could be used to reduce mycotoxin levels with a high
percentage of efficacy in feed and compound food, but it should
not be overlooked that such chemicals should potentially cause
changes in the nutrionally, physical and sensory properities of

treated materials (Scholtz et al., 2015). Protection against in
poultry has been demostrated in research where chemically
oxidizing agent has been shown to react with a wide variety of
different functional groups, where infected corn has been
treated with electochemically produced effect of the zone when
a contaimianted cereal was treated with ochratoxin A (Machala
et al., 2010; Colovoic et al., 2019). Ozonation is a simple
technology that does not leave harmful residues after
application (Li et al., 2015). Ozone gas has been active in
degrading aflatoxin, especially and , because there is a C8-C9
double bond in their structures. in particular has proven the
most sensitive (Agriopoulou etal., 2020). Ozone is capable of
reducing mycotoxin toxicity and of enhancing microbiological
status. A degradation of 84% was recorded, when 10% of
hydrogen perioxide () was used to decontaminate contaminated
grains of ZEN at a temeprature of 80 during a period of 16
hours. The high degree of contamination of feedstuffs by these
microorganisms have resulted in substantial losses for
enterprises as these microorganisms generate mycotoxins on a
large scale, in addition to the decay of raw materials. By their
secondary metabolism, Aspergilluscarbonarius and Aspergillus
niger produce ochratoxinA (De saeger and Logrieco, 2017).
Ozone treatment under optimal conditions (55g for 6 hours)
showed a significant decrease in DON (29%-32%) and its
modified form DON-3-glucoside (DON-3-Glc) (44%).
Moreover, significant microbial decline in durum wheat was
observed, leaving chemical and rheological properities of
semolina and pasta from ozonated wheat unaffected (Piemontese
et al., 2018). After treatment with gaseous ozone, DON was
converted into 10 ozonised products. The rate of DON
degradation was positively correlated with the concentration of
ozone and the time for treatment. Specifically, the rate of
degradation of DON in solution reached 54.2%, for a treatment
time of 30 seconds and 1mg.ozone concentration. Degradation
of DON was significantly influenced by the mosture content of
the granules. The degradation rate of DON was 57.3% when

ozone contaminations of 60mg.were applied for 12 hours in
wheat with a mositure content of 17.0% (Li et al., 2015).
4.3. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Several researches from groups with different background and
research experience have made great accomplishments in search
for biological agents for detoxification of mycotoxins in the last
20 years (Hassan and Zhou, 2018). Biological method based on
the ability to remove or degrade mycotoxins in food and feeds
product by micoorganism such as bacteria, fungi and yeast (Xia
etal., 2017; Ben Taheur et al., 2019). The use of pure microbial
strains contributed significantly to the disinfectiom of in vitro
mycotoxins.in additon, the effcetiveness in reducing and
eliminating mycotoxins has also been demostrated (Sarrocco
and Vannaci, 2018). The methods are based on biological
transformation, enzymatic degradation or modification to less
toxic substances by mycotoxin. Mycotoxin can thus be
hydrolyzed, deaminated or decarboxylated, acetylated,
glucosylated, cleaved at their rings (Hathout and Aly, 2014).
4.3.1. Bacteria
Some bacteria are capable of binding mycotoxins in foods or
liquids (Ben Taheur et al., 2019). Degradation in afaltoxin in
laboratory conditions has been investigated in many cases over
the years, but there is currently no biological system to be used
for the entire commerial sphere (Afsharmanesh et al., 2018; Xia
et al., 2017). Interesting results were obtained for application of
Norcadia corynebacterium. This soil bacterium should remove
aflatoxin B, G and from a variety of food products, including
milk, oil, peanut butter, peanut and maize with no toxic by-
products left. It has been showed to be effective when removing
irreversibly from aflatoxin-contamianted compound feed for
broiler chicken nutrition (Colovoic et al., 2019). detoxification
through Enterococcus faecium is achieved by binding to the
bacterium’s cell wall component. Polysaccharides and
peptidoglycan of bacterial cell walls were shown to be
responsible for binding mycotoxins with microorganisms
(Umesha et al., 2017). In addition, DON mycotoxin bacterial

detoxification has evolved due to research efforts and advances.
Aerobic oxidation and partitioning of this mycotoxin into C-3
carbon carried by Devosia’s multiple species provides solutions
designed to reduce contamiantion with DON (Hassan and Zhou,
2018). For aqueous solutions, lactic acid bacteria; Lactobacillus
casei and Lactobacillus reuteri has proven effective for binding
to AFs. Lactobacillusamylovorus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus
in other in vitro tests presented a binding efficiency of up to
60%, demonstrating their ability for binding selected dietary
contaminants (Kagot et al., 2019). During fermentation of
whole- grain sorghum with Lactobacillus fermentum, reduction
of 98% and 84% T-2 were also demostrated (Adebo et al.,
2019).
4.3.2. Yeast and Fungi
The ability to degrade various mycotoxins ahs been demostrated
by the fungal species Aspergillus, Alternaria, Absidia,
Armillariella, Candida, Mucor, Trichoderma, Penicillium,
Peniophora, Clonostachys and Rhizopus (Adebo et al., 2015;
Alberts et al., 2017). It is of particular interest to use competing
yeasts, as the yeasts produce antimicrobial compunds with
beneficial impact on human and animals, while on
manysubstrates in bioreactors they may develop rapidly.
Moreover, unlike many filamentous fungi or bacterial
antagonist, yeasts do not produce other secondary metabolites
or allergens (Farbo et al., 2018; Tilocca et al., 2019).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is probiotic yeast that can
significantly degrade DON and decrease the rate of lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH) in cells stimulated with DON (Liu et al.,
2019). The use of non toxic strains of Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus on maize, cotton, pistachio and peanuts
yielded remarkable success in reducing the contaminatation of
aflatoxin. Regarding the fungi and their detoxification, it was
reported that they could also be broken down by fungi capable
of producing aflatoxins. This is because these fungi may also
degrade and probably convert and use degradation producrs as
an energy source under starvation condition (Kagot etal., 2017).

Low concentration of mycotoxin and OTA in chicken diets can
be reduced with the addition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast
cell walls (Mendieta et al., 2018). The effectiveness of
mycotoxin reduction in patulin by Saccharomyces cerevisiaein
fermented foods by increasing fermentation time and
temperature was investigated. The yeast cells can remove PAT
through physical adsorption. The cell wall O-N/N-H protein and
polysaccharide bond interact with PAT, Kluyveromyces
marxianus for the binding of mycotoxin , OTA and ZEA (Zhang
et al., 2019).
The result indicated that mycotoxin can bind to the cell
membrane, especially Candida utilis (Jakopovic et al., 2018). In
another study, the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica decreased OTA
concentration to about half the initial level introduced into the
culture (Yang et al., 2016). In Africa, competiton is based on
the biocontrol of AFs in miaze containing non toxigenic
micorbial strains. Specifically, large amount of non toxic of A.
flavus and A. parasiticus enter the soil around the crops amd
compete with toxigenic strains (Sarrocco et al., 2019).
4.3.3. Food fermentation
Fermentation of foods increases their quality while granting
consumers highly desirable properities. Fermentation is a fairly
inexpensive approach to mycotoxin disinfection that can be used
to improve food additives, as well as to reduce and even remove
mycotoxins (Agriopoulou et al., 2020). Fermentation may be an
alternative and desirable technique to reduce mycotoxins
compared to costly amd impractical techniques, the nature of
metabolites and the toxicity of products produced after
fermentation should be carefully documented in order to
produce safe foods (Sarrocco et al., 2019).
4.4. USE OF ENZYME
Specific enzymes such as oxidase, peroxidase, laccase, esterase,
carboxylesterase, aminotransferase, lactono hydrolase having
the ability of degrading mycotoxins have been purified from
microbial systems. The enzymatic detoxifcation of mycotoxin
combines bot chemical and biological processing

characteristics. It has high performance and specialization with
application under mild conditions, and it does not cause toxicity
to organism. Enzymes are involved in non- stoichiometric
mycotoxin ratios as catalysts (Lyagin and Efremenko, 2017).
Some species of Aspergillus may produce an enzyme that can
naturally detoxify fumonisin includig those produced by
Fusarium. The activity of enzymes such as -1.3-glucanase and
chitinase against pathogens can differ depending on the
microorganism’s charcateristics the delay and decrease in
growth of fruit spoilage fungi are affected by the application of
-1.3-glucanase and chitinase (Cence et al., 2019). Inhibition of
Penicillium simplicissimum, A. niger complex, Penicillium
nalgiovense and A. flavus growth on salami surface samples
was induced by spraying - glucanase at 50% and chitinase at
50% and 40% concentrations. Thus, - glucanase and chitinase
may be safe alernative for the feremnted sausage industry to
control fungal spoilage (Cence at al., 2019).microbial maganese
peroxide, oxidase, catalase and laccase enzymes were used for
enzyme detoxification of , (Shanakhat et al., 2018; Sarrocco et
al., 2019). However, enzymes have an unexplored profile when
detoxifying food contaminants due to their favourable
toxicology and specialization. In the EU, no enzyme is approved
for the removal of mycotoxin contamination from feedstuff
(Shanakhat et al., 2018).
4.5. CURRENT TREND IN DECONTAMINATION OF
MYCOTOXIN
4.5.1. Nanoparticles
Adsorption plays important role in the decontamination of
mycotoxin. Several papers have proposed nanoparticles as an
effective decontamination alternative through adsorbent
phenomenon. Mycotoxin shows a structural diversity resulting
in different chemical and physical properties. Mycotoxins can
be classified as polar or non polar molecules, however, there are
several that fall in beween. AFLs and FUMs are highly polar,
while trichothecenes are polar and ZEA are non polar (IARC,
2012; Stroka and Maragos, 2016). Compared to copper and

silver nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles such as iron have a
strong capacity to adsorb (13-139ng/mg) (Asghar et al., 2018).
Magnetic carbon nanocomposites have been used to detoxify ,
chitosan coated nanoparticles were reported to decontaminate
PAT, and silver nanoparticles has been reported to degrade
Fusarium spp. and their main associated mycotoxins (Luo et al.,
2018; Tarazona et al., 2019). Using graphene oxide (GO)
nanocomposites allow mycotoxin level (FB, ZEA and DON) to
be reduced, with efficiencies ranging from 37% to 69% at pH
6.2 for 5.2 h at 40.6 (Pirouz et al., 2017). Carbon nanotubes can
act as adsorbents by reducing mycotoxin toxicity especially non
polar ones such as ZEA (Gao et al., 2015). Surface active
maghemite nanoparticles (SAMNs) constitute of stoichiometric
maghemite (-) showed chelating properities of citrinin and OTA
toward iron (III) presence (Magro et al.,2016). Monascus
suspensions were treated with 1g SAMNs, resulting in the first
removal of 70%of citrinin. A second treatment removed citrinin
below the analytical detection limits (0.25mg). SAMNs
represent an ideal material, as their synthetic protoxol is
suitable for being scaled up to an individual level and is carried
out in water without any organic solvent (Magro et al., 2016).
According to the recent research.a new photocatalyst
nanaoparticle [email protected] (upconversion nanoparticle) has
been synthesized, and used to degrade DON. The results showed
a decrease in grain products below the permissible limits (1
ppm) after 90 minutes and total degradation after 120 minutes
of illumination. The [email protected] composite material was
efficient and green, and the degradation products were only
slightly toxic or even non toxic. Thus, the degradation
technology can be used for mycotoxin decontamination (Zhou et
al., 2020). Removal of up to 80% of mycotoxins from
nanocomposite makes up mixtures of activated carbon,
bentonite and aluminium (Gonzalez- jartin et al., 2019).
4.5.2. Medicinal Plant extract
Decontamination method based on medicicnal plants are
attractive because they are generally cheaper, considered safe to

human and more enviornmentally friendly than chemical
treatment, different essential oils (EOs) and their main bioactive
compunds has been used for the antifungal and
antimycotoxigenic properities (Sanzani et al., 2016; Chaudhari
et al., 2019) and some mycotoxins have been shown to inhi bit
the production (Piemontese et al., 2018). Several researchers
reported that the oil of clove and its major ingredient, eugenol,
as well as the tumeric essential oil, inhibit Aspergillus growth
and production. The growth of Aspergillus flavus and
Penicillium citrinum and their toxins were inhibited by the
application of whole clove in culture media and rice grains
(Aiko and Mehta, 2015; Luo et al., 2018). Essential oils such as
lemon, grape fruits, eucalyptus and palmarosa oils influence the
effectiveness of ZEA toxin level reduction; it was concluded
that tested essential oils were effective in decontamination of
ZEA (Luo et al., 2018).
A recent scientific study showed the effect of Spanish paprika
smoker ‘’Pimenton de la Vera’’ on the development of
Aspergillus parasiticus and Penicillium nordicum and the
production of , and OTA. The addition of 2%-3% Spanish
paprika smoker in meat products such as fillets or sausage
preparations has helped reduce the growth and production of AF
and OTA mycotoxins (Sanchez-Montero et al., 2019). In
additom, capsaian, a natural compound, inhibited the production
of OTA in grapes from 28.9% to78.1% by Aspergillus section
Nigri strains, and by Aspergillus carbonarius of 61.5% (Kollia
et al., 2019).
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Contamination of food with mycotoxin poses a serious threat to
both human and animal health and global economy. Mycotoxin
decontamination beame manfatory after their harmful effect on
human and animal health were charcaterized and identified. It
can be achived using the physical, chemical and biological
approaches. Decontamination by nanoparticles is a new
approach, which are effective for the removal of mycotoxin.
The use of media to create public awareness is a good strategy

to enlighten and reduce mycotoxin contamination. Countries
should have thir own national policies to save public health
from toxic outcomes.
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