2.4 chart on page 55

1. Section A

2. We use the past perfect to make the order of two past
events clear. The past perfect signals the earlier event.
The later event is often in the simple past. For example:
later event
so I took it and sat down.Somebody had left a newspaper on a chair,
earlier event
earlier event
his parents had already left.By the time Thomas arrived in Phoenix,
later event

3. We can also describe the later time with a time phrase.
For example:
earlier event
the population of the world had reached 3 billion.By the 1960s,
later time

4. We form the past perfect with had (+ not) + the past
participle form of the main verb. The past participle
form often ends in -ed or -en.
When we use two past perfect verbs together, it’s not
necessary to repeat the helping verb had. For example:
By the time we got there, they had eaten
all the sandwiches and all the juice.drunk

5. Section B

6. We often use the past perfect in sentences with
because, as though, or when. The past perfect signals
which past event happened first. For example:
She angry because he to call.was had forgotten
He as though at all.looked he’d hardly slept
When I him, he from college yet.met hadn’t graduated

7. The words before and after make the order of events
clear. We can use the simple past after these words.
The past perfect is not necessary.
I him he from college.met graduatedbefore
I him he from college.met graduatedafter

8. Notice the difference in meaning when we use the
simple past compared to the past perfect. For
example:
We when he there.left got
(He got there and then we left.)
We when he there.‘d left got
(We left and then he got there.)

9. Section C

10. We can use the past perfect progressive instead of the
past perfect to emphasize that an earlier activity was
ongoing or repeated. For example:
He was sure that someone his computer.had used
(Someone had used his computer at least one time.)
He was sure that someone his computer.had been using
(Someone had used his computer repeatedly or for an ongoing period of time .)
We form the past
perfect progressive with
had (+ not) + been + the
-ing form of the main
verb.