consist of all theories related to childpsychology

1. Dr. Alvi Fatima
Jr II
Dept. of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry
1
*

2. 2
*
*Introduction
*Definition
*Theories of Child Psychology
*Psychodynamic theories
* Theories of learning and development of Behavior

3. 3
*
*Psychologic growth and development
generally proceed in a relatively
predictable, logical, step-like sequential
order.
*These processes are influenced by
genetic, familial-cultural, inter-personal
and intrapsychic factors.

4. 6
*Many theories have been proposed to
explain and identify the process involved in
personality development.
*Although these theories are treated
separately there are similarities, which allow
for comparison.

5. *
7

6. 8
*Psychology:
*Is the science dealing with human nature,
function and phenomenon of his soul in
the main (Welbury 1998)

7. 9
*
*Is the science that deals with the mental
power or an interaction between the
conscious and subconscious element in a
child.

8. 10
*
*An effective state of consciousness in
which joy, sorrow, fear, hate or the likes
are expressed

9. 11
*
*Is any change observed in the functioning
of the organism
(Shobha Tandon)

10. 12
*
*The means by which dental health team
effectively and efficiently performs
treatment for a child and simultaneously
instills a positive dental attitude in child
(Wright, 1975)

11.  To understand the child better.
 To know the problem of psychological origin.
To establish effective communication with the child and
the parent.
To gain confidence of the child and of the parent.
To teach the child and the parents importance of primary
and preventive care.
To have a better treatment planning and interaction with
other disciplines.
To produce a comfortable environment for the dental team
to work on the patient.
Importance of child psychology
13

12. A. Psychodynamic theories
1.Psychosexual theory – ( Sigmund Freud
1905)
2.Psychosocial theory – (Eric Erickson 1963)
3. Cognitive theory – ( Jean Piaget 1952)
Theories of child psychology
3
14

13. 15
B. Theories of learning and development of Behavior
1.Hierarchy of needs – (Abraham Maslow 1933)
2.Social learning theory – (Albert Bandura 1963)
3.Classical conditioning – (Ivan Pavlov 1927)
4. Operant conditioning – (B.F Skinner 1938)

14. 16
*
*Margaret S Mahler’s theory of
development

15. 17
*
Sigmund Freud (1905)

18. 20
*He attempted to explain the personality and
psychological disorders in an individual by understanding
the mind at its different levels, its motivation of conflicts.
*He described human mind with the help of two models.
Topographic model psychic model/triad
According to the topographic model, human mind
consists of :-
* Conscious mind
* Preconscious mind
* Unconscious mind

20. *
22
ID
SUPER EGOEGO

21. 23

22. 24
•The id is the only component of personality that is
present from birth
•This aspect of personality is entirely
unconscious and includes of the instinctive
and primitive behaviors.
ID

23. 25
• Id is the source of all psychic energy, making it
the primary component of personality.
•The id is driven by the pleasure principle,
which strives for immediate gratification of
all desires, and needs.
• If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the
result is a state anxiety or tension.

24. 26
*EGO:
*The ego derives from the id and tends to
maximize instinctual gratification while
minimizing punishment and guilt.

25. 27
*
• It is differentiated from the ego, and is
partially unconscious.
• Freud viewed the superego as the heir to
the Oedipus complex: Children internalize
parental values and standards around the
age of 5 or 6 years

26. 28
EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS GIVEN BY ANNA FREUD IN
1966

27. *29
*This is the transfer of desires of impulses onto a substitute person
or object.
*E.g if a student is scolded by a teacher , he/she may “take it
out” on a less dangerous substitute, i.e shouting at juniors ,
slamming a door or stamping feet etc.
*Feeling:
anxiety
anger
What we do:
*Direct the feeling away from its
actual target to another, safer target.

28. *
30
*This is where characteristics or desires that are unacceptable to a
person’s ego are externalized or projected on to someone else.
* E.g A person having aggressive feelings towards others may find it
unacceptable to admit that he/she has such feelings. Therefore these
may be projected onto others such as he/she may now feel that
others have aggressive feelings towards him/her.
What we do:
*Attribute your own undesirable impulses, feeling, or desires to
another person.
Examples:
*“I hate him” really means “I think he hates me”

29. *
31
*This is where a person displays behavior that is exactly opposite of an
impulse that he/she dare not express or acknowledge.
*E.g when you are not able to control your temper , you start laughing to
prevent anxiety.
What we do:
*In defense against the threatening impulse, express the opposite impulse.
Examples:
*Someone frightens you so you act super nice.
*If a person has bad experience of dental treatment, to
prevent anxiety you start thinking positive things about
treatment.

30. *
32
*An individual attempts to avoid current anxiety by withdrawing to
the behavior pattern of an earlier age.
* e.g a child with a history of nail biting may resort to the same
after growing up as well, in times of danger ,like he may start biting
nails.
What we do:
*Revert back to behavior of an
earlier stage
*Use childhood coping mechanisms
Examples:
*Temper tantrums, swearing, fighting,
suckling, crying

31. *
33
*This can take two forms,the expulsion of thought and memories that might
provoke anxiety from conscious mind(primary repression)
*The process by which hidden ID impulses are blocked from ever reaching
consciousness(primal repression)
What we do:
*Keep painful thoughts and feelings away from consciousness.
*Don’t think about it!
Examples:
*Early abuse
*Lies you have told
*Painful memories
Problems:
*Diverts needed energy
*Blocks out stressful situations that could be worked out

32. *
34
*This is an attempt to explain our behavior to ourselves and others,in ways that are
seen as rational and socially acceptable, instead of irrational and unacceptable.
E.g,after poor performance in exam, student may try to rationalize the same by
blaming the teacher of doing strict marking.
What we do:
*Make up excuses for inadequacies, failure, or loss
Examples:
*If I had wanted to try hard, I could have done it
too.
*If I wanted to I could have a body like his/hers.

33. *
35
*This is where a person may deny some aspect of reality .
*E.g A patient with a big ulcer in mouth diagnosed as carcinoma may
not be able to tackle the situation and he may consult another doctor
for denial of diagnosis
*Ego feels anxiety from perception of strong external or internal
danger it can’t escape or deal with directly
What we do:
*Tell yourself it is not happening
*Tell yourself it is not your fault
*Conscious denial

34. *
36
*Acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially
acceptable way
EXAMPLE-sublimating your aggressive impulses
toward a career as a boxer; becoming a surgeon
because of your desire to cut; lifting weights to
release ‘pent up’ energy

35. *
37
*avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the
intellectual aspects
EXAMPLE
focusing on the details of a funeral as opposed to
the sadness and grief

36. 38

37. *
39
*Mouth -- Erogenous Zone.
infant's needs, perceptions, and modes of expression are
primarily centered in the mouth, lips, tongue, and other
organs related to the oral zone.
*Sucking, gumming, biting, swallowing & eating.
*Both insufficient and forceful feeding can result in fixation
in this stage.

38. 40
This is a dependent stage since the infant is dependant on
adults for getting his oral needs fulfilled.
Satisfation of oral desires eg. Suckling of milk by mother helps
in the development of trust
In later periods of life it results in successful achievements of
needs.

39. *
41
* Constant chewing on gum,
pens, pencils, etc.
* Nail biting
* Overeating, Drinking .
* Pessimism, attention seeking behavior.
* Aggressive, dominant.

40. *
42
*Erogenous Zone : Anus.
*Gratifying Activities: prompted by
maturation of neuromuscular control over
sphincters, particularly the anal sphincters,
thus permitting more voluntary control over
retention or expulsion of faeces.
OBJECTIVE
*Toilet training.
*Sense of shame.
*Period of striving of independence.

41. 43
*Freud believed that one of the most important achievements
in the socialization process is toilet training.
*Orderliness,
Obstinancy,
Stubbornness,
Frugality.

42. *
44
*It was not included in the original theory proposed
by Sigmund Freud
*Was later added by Klein in the book WHEN
THEORIES TOUCH- A HISTORICAL AND
THEORETICAL INTEGRATION OF
PSYCHOANALYTIC THOUGHT.

43. *
45

44. *
46
*Probably the most challenging
stage in a person's psychosexual
development .
*"Oedipus Complex"
*"Electra Complex”
* involves the child's unconscious
desire to possess the opposite-sex
parent and to eliminate the same-
sex one.
*Castration anxiety.

45. *
47
*This stage is a foundation for gender identity..
*There is a sense of curiosity & the child realizes
the sexual qualities without embarrassment.

46. * 48
*If mother rejects the child individual will
become solitary, and generally have a poor sense of
self-worth concerning his sexuality.
*If mother prefers the child a high sense of
self-worth, which may cause him to suffer once he
enters the ‘real world’.

47. *
49
*Resolution of any defects occurs in this stage.
*The phase ends in Puberty.

48. *50
*Maturation of ego.
*Greater control over instincts.
*Consolidation of sex roles.
*Mastery over skills.
*Same sex friendship, sports.

49. *
51
*Preadolescent, early adolescent, middle
adolescent, late adolescent and Post
adolescent periods.
*Erogenous Zone -- Genital
*Gratifying Activities: heterosexual
relationships.
*Interaction with the Environment:
Marked by the pursuit of relationships,
Acceptance of adult role, Social expectations & values,
mature personality.

50. *
53
*If people experience difficulties at this stage, and many
people do, the damage was done in earlier oral, anal,
and phallic stages .
*A more specific defect from a failure.

51. *
54

52. * 55
*MERITS OF FREUD THEORY:-
One of the earliest and the most comprehensive
theories of life long psychological development.
DEMERITS OF FREUD THEORY:-
He formulated this theory by his extensive studies
on adult psychological patients and hence its
extrapolation to children are not very justified.
This theory is based on obsessed observations of
the psychologist.

53. 56
*DEVELOPMENT OF CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY ACCORDING TO
ERIKSON’S CONCEPTS AND
PRACTICAL APPLICABILITY

54. *
57
*Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a
German-born American Developmental psychologist
and psychoanalyst.
*Known for his “THEORY ON PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT "of human beings.
*Coined the phrase “IDENTITY CRISIS”
*MODERN PSYCHOANALYST

55. 58
Erikson concentrated on child’s development covering the
entire span of life cycle from infancy to childhood through old
age.
Erikson explains 8 developmental stages in which
PHYSICAL , COGNITIVE , INSTINCTUALAND SEXUAL
CHANGES
Triggers
INTERNAL CRISIS (turning points)
Results
Psychosocial regression or growth
Development of specific virtues

56. 59
*Therefore , each stage is characterized by a different
psychological crisis/conflict ,which must be resolved by
the individual before he can move on to the next stage.
*Each conflict has bipolar outcomes.
*If the person copes with a particular crisis in a maladaptive
manner the outcome will be more struggles with the same
issue later in life.

57. 60

58. *1. TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST
Infancy – age 0 to 1 year
61
*The infant forms the first trusting relationship with the
caregiver (the mother).
*The infant ideally experiences living in a predictable , secure
world in which his basic needs are consistently satisfied
INFANT
Well handled, nurtured and
loved
Badly handled, delay in essential
needs
Trust , security and basic optimism Insecurity and mistrust

59. *SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION
62
*Development of the virtue : HOPE
*As a result , people who have higher levels of
hopefulness undertake a large number of goals in their
life , aim difficult targets and face difficult situations with
ease and confidence ( like serious illness , poverty , injury
and the end of life ).

60. 63
DENTAL APPLICATIONS :
* This stage identifies with the
development of separation anxiety in
the child
* Therefore, to provide dental treatment at
this stage , it is preferable to do it with
the parent present or the parent holding
the child.
* Once the child loses trust, it will be very
difficult for the dentist and staff to gain
confidence of the child and will require
special efforts.

61. *2.AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME AND
DOUBT
Toddler – age 1 to 2 years
64
*During this stage , children still dependant on others begin to
experience an autonomy of free choice .
*Develop motor ability , realize that they are different from mother
and father and begin to master self control.
*The battle for autonomy may be seen as stubborn refusal , temper
tantrums and the “yes-no” syndrome .

62. 65
*Toilet training – highly autonomous activity for a child.
(WELL PARENTED
CHILD) SYNTONIC
ATTRIBUTES
DYSTONIC
ATTRIBUTES
PRIDE, CONTROL
SELF ASSURANCE
AUTONOMY
SELF CERTAINITY
THE WILL TO BE ONSELF
SHAME
SELF DOUBT
DEPENDANCY
SELF CONCIOUSNESS

63. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
66
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : If parents encourage their
child’s use of initiative and reassure him when he makes
mistakes , the child will develop the confidence needed to
cope with future situations that require choice , control and
independence.
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if parents are overprotective
or disapproving of the child’s acts of independence , he
may begin to feel ashamed of his behavior or have too
much doubt of his abilities.

64. *DENTAL APPLICATIONS :
67
*Child is moving away from the mother but will retreat
to her in threatening situations.
Therefore , parent’s presence is essential in dental
clinic.
*Dentist must obtain co-operation from the child by
making him believe that the treatment is his choice not
of the parent / dentist.

65. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT
68
*Ages 3-5
*Child expresses desire to take initiative in activities
*Parents punish child for initiative: child develops
feelings of guilt that will affect self-directed activity
throughout life
*Basic strength: Purpose
*Courage to envision and pursue goals

66. 69
*Crisis mastered successfully
*Forms basis for curiosity, ambition and experimentation
*Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop
negative behaviors.
*These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of
frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and
may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and
overly assertive to parents.
*Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or
yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this
stage.

67. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
70
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : if parents are encouraging but
consistent in discipline , children will learn to accept
without guilt that certain things are not allowed and the
same time will not feel ashamed when using their
imagination.
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if parents are discouraging ,
children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to
believe that it is wrong to be independent.

68. *DENTAL APPLICATIONS :
71
*Child can be encouraged to view the dental visit as a new
adventure and encouraged to genuine success in it.
*If the visit fails – sense of guilt can develop.
*Inherently teachable – can be taught about things in
dental setup.
*Independence has to be reinforced rather than
dependence.

69. 72
*
*The child learn the basic skills, eg school skills
*The child who has been previously successful, is
trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative to
learn easily.
*Whereas the mistrusting child will doubt future
*The shame and guilt filled child will experience
defeat and inferiority

70. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
73
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : if children can discover
pleasure in intellectual stimulation , being productive ,
seeking success they will develop a sense of competence
.
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if not they will develop a
sense of inferiority.

71. 74
*At this age, children start recognizing their special talents
and continue to discover interests as their education
improves.
*They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that
interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic
ability, or joining the band if they are good at music.
* If not allowed to discover own talents in their own time, they
will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and
lethargy. They may become "couch potatoes" if they are not
allowed to develop interests.

72. *DENTAL APPLICATIONS:
75
*Cooperation with treatment can be obtained.
*Depends upon :
1.Whether the child understands what is needed to please
dentist/parents
2.Whether the peer group is supportive
3.Whether the desired behavior is reinforced by the
dentist.

73. IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE CONFUSION
76
*Ages 12-18
*Form ego identity: self-image
*Strong sense of identity: face
adulthood with certainty and
confidence
*Identity crisis
*Basic strength: Fidelity

74. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
78
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : if the adolescent solves this
conflict successfully he will come out of this age with a
strong identity and ready to plan for the future.
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if not the adolescent will
sink into confusion , unable to make decisions and
choices especially about vocation , sexual orientation
and his role in life in general.

75. *DENTAL APPLICATIONS:
79
*Challenging behavior management
*Any orthodontic treatment should be carried out if
child wants it .
*Approval of peer group is extremely important.

76. INTIMACY VERSUS ISOLATION
Vs
80
*Ages 18-35 (approximately)
*Undertake productive work and establish intimate relationships
*Inability to establish intimacy leads to social isolation
*Basic strength: Love
*Mutual devotion in a shared identity
*Fusing of oneself with another person

77. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
82
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : adult individuals can form
close relationships and share with others if they have
achieved a sense of identity.
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if not they will fear
commitment , feel isolated and unable to depend on
anybody in the world .

78. *DENTAL APPLICATIONS:
83
*External appearances are very important as it helps in
attainment of intimate relation.
*Young adults seek orthodontic treatment to correct
their dental appearances (internal motivation)
*Treatment options must be fully explained to the young
adults (alteration of appearance can also interfere with
previously established relations).

79. GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION
84
*Ages 35-55 (approximately)
*Generativity: Active
involvement in teaching/guiding
the next generation
*Stagnation involves not seeking
outlets for generativity
*Basic strength: Care
*Broad concern for others
*Need to teach others

80. 85
*During middle age the primary developmental task is one of
contributing to society and helping to guide future generations.
*When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps
by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society,
a sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and
accomplishment- results.
*In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or
unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of
stagnation- a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of
productivity.

81. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
86
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : people can solve this crisis
by having and nurturing children or helping the next
generation in other ways .
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : person will remain self-
centered and experience stagnation later in life .

82. INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR
OR
87
*Ages 55+
*Evaluation of entire life
*Integrity: Look back with satisfaction
*Despair: Review with anger, frustration
*Basic strength: Wisdom
*Detached concern with the whole of life

83. *POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
88
*POSITIVE OUTCOME : if the adult has achieved a
sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within
himself and with others he will accept death with a sense
of integrity .
*NEGATIVE OUTCOME : if not , the individual will
despair and fear death.

84. *9. OLD AGE
( Late 80s and Early 90s )
89
ERIKSON added a 9th stage in his book , “THE LIFE
CYCLE COMPLETED”
Worked over by his widow , Joan Serson Erikson
The 9th stage known as the “OLD AGE” takes into
consideration the increasing life expectancy in western
cultures.
Joan Erikson writes that in the ninth stage the old person
confronts all previous eight stages again.
On top of that, the negative pole now takes the dominant
role.
Due to increased loss of physical abilities , increased
development of mistrust , dependence , decreased autonomy .

85. *How do Erikson and Freud differ ?
90
1. Erikson places a greater emphasis on social and cultural forces
than Freud did !
* Freud believed that child’s socialization and personality are
determined mainly by parents whereas , Erikson places the
child in a broader social world of parents, friends , family ,
society and culture.
parents
friends
familysociety
culture
CHILD

86. 91
2. Erikson does not believe that failure at any particular
stage necessarily has irreversible consequences to
the fixations that Freud argued might occur.
Erikson argued that setbacks at any stage can be
overcome with suitable attention, care and love.
3. Erikson emphasizes the entire life span of an
individual , whereas Freud placed the greatest
emphasis on the first six years of life.

87. *MERITS AND DEMERITS
92
*MERITS:
*Emphasis is on social and cultural influences (as opposed
to biological or sexual);
*Acknowledges that life is filled with crisis;
*Focus is on identity formation.

88. 93
DEMERITS
*Erikson's 8 stages tended to focus on childhood rather then the
adult life through it was called a life span theory.
*It's also been argued that it applied to boys more than girls.
*Erikson's theory didn't take into consideration cultural differences
that may have affected an individual at one particular stage. For
example: toilet training begins at different ages depending on the
culture.

89. *
94

90. 95

91. 96

92. 97

93. 98

94. 99
*Piaget believed that every individual is born with the
capacity to adjust and adapt to both physical and socio-
cultaral environment in which he or she live in.
*He described two processes used by the individual in
its attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation.
*Assimilation is the process of incorporation of events
within environment into mental categories called
cognitive structures or schemas.
*Accomodation is the process of changing cognitive
structures to better represent the environment

95. • Both processes are used
simultaneously and alternately
throughout life.
• As schemes become
increasingly more complex
(i.e., responsible for more
complex behaviors) they are
termed structures.
• As one's structures become
more complex, they are
organized in a hierarchical
manner (i.e., from general to
specific).

96. • Assimilation and accommodation work like a pendulum,
swings at advancing our understanding of the world and
our competency in it.
• They both are directed to attain a balance between
the structure of the mind and the environment, and
that ideal state is called as equilibrium.
• As Piaget continued his investigation of children, he noted
that there were periods where assimilation dominated,
periods where accommodation dominated, and periods of
relative equilibrium, and that these periods were similar
among all the children he looked at in their nature and
their timing.
• And so he developed the idea of stages of cognitive
development.

98. *The sensorimotor stage
( from birth to two
years)• As the name implies, the infant uses
senses and motor abilities to
understand the world, beginning with
reflexes and ending with complex
combinations of sensorimotor skills
• Between one and four months, the
child works on primary circular
reactions -- just an action of his
own which serves as a stimulus to
which it responds with the same
action, and around and around.

99. 104
•Between four and 12 months, the infant turns
to secondary circular reactions, which involve
an act that extends out to the environment:She
may squeeze a rubber duckie.It goes quack.
•That is great, so do it again, and again.
She is learning procedures that make
interesting things last.

100. • Between 12 months and 24
months, the child works on
tertiary circular reactions.
• They consist of the same making
interesting things last cycle,
except with constant variation.
• Around one and a half, the child is
clearly developing mental
representation, that is, the ability
to hold an image in their mind for
a period beyond the immediate
experience
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby

101. *Preoperational stage (two
to about seven years).
• Children begin to think
symbolically and learn to
use words and pictures to
represent objects.
• They also tend to be
very egocentric, and see
things only from their
point of view.

102. • He is much more likely to
understand: "Brushing makes
your teeth feel clean and
smooth” and,
"Toothpaste makes your mouth
taste good” because these
statements rely on things the child
can taste or feel immediately.
• Another characteristic of thought
process in this stage is Animism-
investing inanimate objects with
life.
• For example while talking to a 4-
year-old about how desirable it
would be to stop thumb sucking .
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby

103. *Concrete operations stage ( 7
to11 yrs).• The word operations refers to logical
principles we use when solving
problems.
• In this stage, the child not only
uses symbols representationally,
but can manipulate those symbols
logically.
• But, at this point, they still perform these
operations within the context of concrete
situations.
• The stage begins with progressive
decentering.
• By six or seven, most children develop
the ability to conserve number, length,
and liquid volume.

104. • Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the
same despite changes in appearance.
• And he will know that you have to look at more than just
the height of the milk in the glass: If we pour the milk
from the short, fat glass into the tall, skinny glass, he will
tell us that there is the same amount of milk as before,
despite the dramatic increase in milk-level! .

105. • If we take a ball of clay and roll it into a long thin rod, or
even split it into ten little pieces, the child knows that
there is still the same amount of clay.
• And he will know that, if we rolled it all back into a
single ball, it would look quite the same as it did -- a
feature known as reversibility.
• By nine or ten, the last of the conservation
tests is mastered- conservation of area.

106. • In addition, a child learns classification
and seriation during this stage. Now
the child begins to get the idea that one
set can include another.
• Seriation is putting things in order.
The younger child may start putting
things in order by, say size, but will
quickly lose track.
• Now the child has no problem with
such a
task. Since arithmetic is essentially
nothing more than classification and
seriation, the child is now ready for
some formal education!

107. *
• Around 12 yrs of age, child enter
the formal operations stage.
• Here he become increasingly
competent at adult-style thinking.
• This involves using logical
operations, and using them in the
abstract, rather than the concrete.
We call this as hypothetical
thinking.
• Child is capable of understanding
concepts like health, disease,
preventive treatment etc. At this
child should be treated like an adult.

108. *
• Freud’s theories
overemphasized the
unconscious mind, aggression,
and childhood experiences.
• Many of the concepts
proposed by
psychodynamic theorists
are difficult to measure
and quantify.
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby
2013.5th Edition

109. • While most psychodynamic theories
did not rely on experimental research,
the methods and theories of
psychodynamic thinking contributed
to experimental psychology.
• Many of the theories of personality
developed by psychodynamic
thinkers are still influential today,
including Erikson’s
theory of psychosocial stages and
Freud’s psychosexual stage theory.
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby
2013.5th Edition
STRENGTHS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACHES

110. *

111. 116
• He suggested that environment causes behavior,
but behavior causes environment also.
• He called this concept as reciprocal
determinism.
• The world and a persons behavior cause each
other.
• Development of personality takes place as an
interaction among three things: the environment,
behavior and the persons psychological
processes.
• These psychological processes consist of our
ability to entertain images in our minds, and
language.

112. According to Bandura the steps involved in the modeling are:
1.ATTENTION:
• If we are going to learn anything, we have to be pay
attention. Likewise, anything that puts a damper on our
attention is going to decrease learning, including
observational learning.
• Main thing that influence attention involves
characteristics of the model. If the model is colorful and
dramatic, we pay more attention.
• If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be
particularly competent, we will pay more attention. And
if the model seems more like our self, we will pay more
attention.

113. 2. RETENTION:
• we must be able to retain what we have paid
attention to.
• This is where imagination and language come in.
• We store what we have seen the model doing in
the form of mental images or verbal descriptions.
• When so stored, we can later bring up the image or
description, so that we can reproduce it with our
own behavior.
3.REPRODUCTION:
• We have to translate the images or descriptions
into actual behavior.
• So we have to have the ability to reproduce the

114. 4. MOTIVATION.
• And yet, with all this, we are still not
going to do anything unless we are
not motivated to imitate, i.e. until we
have some reason for doing it.
Bandura mentioned following
motives:
a. past reinforcement.
b. promised reinforcements -
incentives.
• Of course, the negative motivations
are there as well, giving us reasons
not to imitate someone:
a. past punishment.
b. promised punishment (threats).

115. • Research has demonstrated that
one of the best predictors of
how anxious a child will be
during dental treatment is how
anxious the mother is.
• A mother who is calm and
relaxed about the prospect of
dental treatment teaches the
child by observation that this is
the appropriate approach of
being treated, whereas an
anxious and alarmed mother
tends to elicit the same set of
responses in her child.

116. *
• Described by the Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov.
• Who discovered during his studies
of reflexes that apparently
unassociated stimuli could produce
reflexive behavior.
• Pavlov's classic experiments involved
the presentation of food to a hungry
animal, along with ringing of a bell.
• The sight and sound of food normally
elicit salivation by a reflex mechanism.

117. 122
•If a bell is rung each time food is presented, the
auditory stimulus of the ringing bell will become
associated with the food presentation stimulus, and
in a relatively short time, the ringing of a bell by
itself will elicit salivation.
•Classical conditioning, operates by the simple
process of association of one stimulus with another,
and some times also referred as learning by
association.

118. • Classical conditioning can have a
considerable impact on a young child's
behavior on the first visit to a dental office.
• By the time a child is brought for the first
visit to a dentist, it is highly likely that
he or she will have had many
experiences with pediatricians and
medical personnel.
• When a child experiences pain, the reflex
reaction is crying and withdrawal
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby
2013.5th Edition

119. • In Pavlovian terms, the infliction of pain is an
unconditioned stimulus, but a number of aspects of the
setting in which the pain occurs can come to be
associated with this unconditioned stimulus.
• If the unconditioned stimulus of painful treatment comes
to be associated with the conditioned stimulus of white
coats, a child may cry and withdraw immediately at the
first sight of a white coated dentist or dental assistant.

120. 125
*In this case, the child has learned to associate the
unconditioned stimulus of pain and the conditioned
stimulus of a white coated adult, and the mere sight
of the white coat is enough to produce the reflex
behavior initially associated with pain.

121. *
• The basic principle of operant conditioning is that
the consequence of a behavior is in itself a stimulus
that can affect future behavior.
• In classical conditioning, a stimulus leads to a
response; in operant conditioning, a response
becomes a further stimuli.
• The general rule is that if the consequence of a
certain response is pleasant, that response is more
like to be used again in the future; but if a
particular respond produces an unpleasant
consequence, the probability that response
being used in the future is diminished.
Proffit W R:Contemporary Orthodontics. Mosby
2013.5th Edition

122. • Skinner described four basic types
of operant conditioning
distinguished by the nature of the
consequence .
A)POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT:
If pleasant consequence follows a
response, the response has been
positively reinforced, and the
behavior that led to the pleasant
consequence becomes more likely
in the future .
B) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT:
involves the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response. Like positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement also increases the likelihood of a response in
the future. The word negative merely refers to the fact that the response that is
reinforced is a response that leads to the removal of an undesirable stimulus.

123. C) OMISSION :
Involves removal of a pleasant
stimulus after a particular response.
For example, if a child who throws a temper
tantrum, has his favorite toy taken away for
a short time as a consequence of this
behavior, the probability of similar
misbehavior is decreased.
D) PUNISHMENT:
Occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is
presented after a response.
This also decreases the probability of
similar kind of behavior that prompted
punishment
in the future. Punishment is effective at
all ages, not just with children.

124. • In general, positive and negative
reinforcement are the most
suitable types of operant
conditioning for use in the
dental office, particularly for
motivating orthodontic patients.
.
McDonald.Dentistry for the child and
adolescent:eighthedition
• Both types of reinforcement increase the likelihood of a
particular behavior recurring, rather than attempting to
suppress a behavior as punishment and omission do.
Simply praising a child for desirable behavior produces
positive reinforcement, and additional positive
reinforcement can be achieved by presenting some
tangible reward

125. 130
1.Hierarchy of needs,
Maslow(1954)

126. 131

127. 132
*Maslow believed in the self actualization theory, i.e. the
need to understand the totality of a person.
*At the first level of Abraham Maslow’s motivational
hierarchy, are the Physiological motives, pertaining to
thirst, hunger sleep, and other drives necessary to the
maintenance of life.

128. 133
*If these requirements are reasonably
satisfied, then the motivation for safety
emerges, such as the need for security,
protection, and freedom from danger

129. 134
In our complex human society, complete satisfaction at
each level is not expected, but if the physiological and
safety requirements are generally satisfied, the
individual moves up to another position in the
hierarchy in which the Psychological or social motives
begin. At this point we find the motivation for love
and belongings, which include having friends, a
family, sexual relationships, and membership in a
group..

130. 135
*When the desire for love and belonging is
achieved, the individual is prompted to still
another level, called Self Esteem. Here the
motive is concerned with achieving a
significant status in a group. The individual
desire the respect, confidence, and
admiration of others.

131. 136
*Maslow was particularly interested in the highest level
in his hierarchy, which he called self-actualization
*Here the individual is concerned about doing what he
or she is best suited to do. Self actualization is the
desire to realize ones potential whatever it may be to
the full.

132. *CONCLUSION
“The dentist who fails to attend to the psychological needs of a child will
soondealwith anuncooperative patient”
- DavidCJohnsen
• Children should not be studied as embryonic adults, but in their essential
child nature so as to understand their capacities and know how to deal with
them
• Abasic knowledge of child management is of importance to the dentist not
only in solving acute treatment problems, but also in developing the adult
patient of tomorrow. The child’s early dental experiences will often be
reflected in his adult attitude towardsdentistry
• Henceevery dentist should know the emotional with social behaviourto
expectfrom children in different agegroupswithalsobe able to
communicate on a level consistent with the child’s view of the world for
the successfulmanagement of the child in thedental clinic

133. *