1. August 25, 2016
MARINE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ASSESSMENT OF THE
BAJA CALIFORNIA REGION IN THE CALIFORNIA CURRENT SYSTEM
Authors:
Chirag Barai
Allison Lee
Lynn Massey
Prestyn McCord
Ben Meissner
Laura Walsh

2. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS (Chirag Barai)
2.1 Mangroves
2.2 Kelp Forests
2.3 Pelagic Ecosystem
3.0 OCEANOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES (Laura Walsh)
3.1 Oceanographic Factors in the Regional Ecosystem
3.1 Physical and Chemical Factors Influencing the Regional Ecosystem
3.2 El Niño as a Factor in the Regional Ecosystem and Harbinger of Global Climate Change
4.0 STATE OF THE ECOSYSTEM (Prestyn McCord)
4.1 State of the Coastal Ecosystem
4.2 State of the Pelagic Ecosystem
5.0 MARINE FOOD PRODUCTION (Ben Meissner)
5.1 Artisanal Fisheries
6.0 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT (Lynn Massey)
6.1 Marine Protected Areas
6.2 Fisheries Management
6.3 Protected Species
7.0 GOVERNANCE (Allison Lee)
7.1 Levels of Governance
7.2 Governing Agencies
7.3 Legal Instruments and Permit Control
7.4 Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
7.5 Shifts Towards Future
8.0 SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES
8.1 Fishing Communities in Baja California, Mexico
8.2 Strategies to buffer against vulnerability and climate change among fishing communities
8.3 Adaptation
9.0 ECONOMIC EXPLORATION
9.1 Fisheries
9.2 Tourism
9.3 Ecosystem Services
9.4 Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
9.5 Deep-Sea Exploration
10.0 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
11.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
12.0 REFERENCES

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In this report, we provide an overview of ecological, management, socioeconomic, and governance
issues related to marine coastal and pelagic ecosystems along the Pacific coast of Mexico’s Baja
California peninsula (“Baja” or “BC”). BC is a 700-mile long peninsula that harbors many unique
marine ecosystems that are rich in biodiversity. BC’s marine resources, including its diverse fisheries
and coastal habitats, are a major source of livelihood for local people. However, as the impacts of
climate change threaten ecosystem stability, and as governance challenges continue to propagate a
poor management structure, the natural resources of the region face an uncertain future.
Based on an evaluation of the issues discussed in this report, we recommend five policies or
practices that should be prioritized to aid in the conservation and management of marine habitats and
resources in BC:
1. Unify the management of all marine resources, including fisheries and aquaculture, under
CONAPESCA, which should then institutionalize regional management units inclusive of
relevant local stakeholders for each region. This would reduce overlap and contradictory
regulations, which currently often govern fisheries and aquaculture in Mexico.
2. Newly institutionalized regional management units should collaborate with CONAPESCA to
refine the permit and concession systems, to gather financial resources for artisanal sector and
fleet vessel monitoring systems, and to introduce a system of legally enforceable and
integrated fisheries management plans. All refined systems should be unique to their region.
This will help continue the movement toward decentralization and regionalization of
institutional arrangements.
3. When refining the permit system, particular attention should be given to implementing
regulations that protect artisanal fisherman against the effects of climate change and
competition from commercial and recreational fishing.
4. Enhance support programs and subsidies to develop other sectors such as aquaculture and
ecotourism.
5. Create a stronger vision for fisheries in Mexico by embracing them as part of the national
identity and by inspiring pride in responsible marine resource management.
We are confident that these five recommendations will enhance the management of BC’s valuable
marine resources and will help sustain its unique ecosystems for generations to come.

4. 3
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Located at the southern limit of the California Current System (“CCS”), Mexico’s Baja California
peninsula is characterized by coastal upwelling that brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to support an
extraordinarily diverse marine region of kelp forests, coastal lagoons, wetlands, coral reefs, barrier
islands, mangrove forests, and a wide array of pelagic and benthic fisheries (Cruz-García et al., 2015;
Durazo, 2009; Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008).
The people of BC depend on marine resources for their livelihoods primarily through artisanal
fishing but also through industrial fishing, with more than 150,000 families depending on fishing for
their primary source of income (FAO, 2003). Artisanal fishing provides a critical source of protein to
local people (Sievanen, 2014), and commercial fishing and aquaculture contribute considerably to
Mexico’s economy. BC produces nearly 50% of total national fisheries product, with 27 of Mexico’s 43
fisheries located along its western coast (Ramírez-Valdez et al., 2014).
Although fisheries have played an important role in BC for many decades, the management
of BC’s fisheries has only recently become a priority. The marine resources of the region are managed
by a multitude of government agencies that lack effective communication, coordination, and financial
resources to enforce policies. Due to these bureaucratic inefficiencies, current management strategies,
including the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) and restrictive permits, are often
ineffective and lead to overfishing, poaching, and conflicts among relevant stakeholders. While there
are some successful examples of ecosystem-based, bottom-up management with local stakeholders
playing a substantial role in managing relevant marine resources, the majority of BC’s fisheries remain
over-exploited.
At the same time, BC’s thriving coastal and marine environments are deteriorating as a result
of overfishing, urban development, pollution, agriculture, poor resource management, and climate
change impacts. This means that the delicate interactions between a unique combination of
atmospheric conditions, oceanographic factors, and chemical characteristics that support productivity
in BC are in jeopardy. While the long-term effects of climate change on the region remain unforeseen,
the intensity of storm events are likely to pose a major problem for productivity in various habitats.
These and other factors carry great potential to disturb fish abundance and result in a loss of fish
recruitment and nursery habitats along the coast (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008; Sievanen, 2014). Ocean
acidification is likely to be another major consequence of global climate change that will have
reverberating effects throughout marine food webs in the region.
The disruption of ecosystems and fisheries will carry significant consequences in BC because
marine life provides great economic and social value to its coastal communities. In this sense, one of
the greatest challenges now facing BC is the prevention of further loss of biodiversity and the effective
and sustainable management of its coastal and marine resources. The following sections provide a
perspective on the current state of BC’s marine ecosystem, their significance to local communities, and
likely disruptions and changes they will face. We conclude with recommendations that will improve
BC’s ability to manage and conserve local marine resources and ultimately ensure a viable future for
its coastal communities for generations to come.

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2.0 BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS OF BAJA CALIFORNIA
Given its position at the southern limit of the CCS, the Baja California region is often described as an
oceanic transition zone. Off BC’s Pacific coast, the relatively cold and fresh flow of the California
Current meets warmer and saltier tropical and subtropical waters (Durazo, 2009). As a consequence
of its unique geographic location, BC is home to a diverse array of coastal, near-shore, and off-shore
ecosystems, including salt marshes, lagoons, bays, coral reefs, kelp forests, and mangroves, among
others (Cruz-García et al., 2015). In this section, we provide a brief overview of some of the key
ecosystems found in BC. In particular, we focus on mangroves, kelp forests, and the pelagic ecosystem.
2.1 Mangroves
In the western Americas, mangroves encounter the northern limits of their distribution along the
coasts of Mexico’s Baja California peninsula and northwestern state of Sonora. On the Pacific coast of
BC, mangrove ecosystems are primarily located in three zones in Baja California Sur (BCS), the
northernmost of which is centered near Laguna San Ignacio (Whitmore et al., 2005).
The mangroves of BCS perform a number of important ecological functions — such as
providing a spawning and nursery habitat for several offshore species — and are home to significant
biodiversity (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008; Whitmore et al., 2005). Included among the diverse fauna
recorded in BCS mangroves are (i) at least 2 of the world’s 7 species of sea turtles, including green and
hawksbill turtles; (ii) more than 150 tropical and warm-temperate species of fish, including numerous
species of grunts, gobies, jacks, mojarras, and seabass; (iii) more than 200 taxa of intertidal and subtidal
macroinvertebrates, including crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods, and polychaetes; and (iv) certain
marine mammals, including the bottlenose dolphin, which is observed to use mangrove waters in BCS
as feeding areas (Whitmore et al., 2005).
In addition to fostering great biodiversity, BCS mangroves provide many notable ecosystem
services (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008; Ezcurra et al., 2016). For instance, coastal desert mangroves in
BCS sequester substantial amounts of carbon, often in amounts that are comparable to or greater than
what is sequestered by the much larger tropical mangroves located elsewhere along the Mexican
Pacific coast (Ezcurra et al., 2016).
2.2 Kelp Forests
The kelp forests of BC feature a number of key species of kelp that encounter their southern limits in
the region, including the canopy-forming species Macrocystis pyrifera, Pelagophycus porra, and Egregia
menziesii and the subsurface-canopy species Eisenia arborea (Beas-Luna & Ladah, 2014; Carr & Reed,
2016). Of the aforementioned varieties, the giant kelp, M. pyrifera, and E. arborea are the most common,
though M. pyrifera typically dominates kelp forests throughout northern and central BC (Carr & Reed,
2016; Edwards 2004).
As is the case in other parts of the CCS, kelp forest ecosystems in BC are home to diverse
biological communities. Recent transect surveys in northern and central BC kelp forests have
enumerated a variety of species of fish — including blacksmiths, black perches, California sheepheads,

6. 5
halfmoons, kelp bass, señioritas, and topsmelts (Ramírez-Valdez et al., 2014) — as well as various
benthic-dwelling invertebrates, such as red and purple sea urchins, bat stars, starburst anemones,
giant sea stars, and stalked tunicates (Torres-Moye et al., 2013). The surveys also revealed that the
understory areas of kelp forests in BC typically contain more fish species than the canopies, possibly
because the understory offers better food resources, provides enhanced protection from waves and
predators, and features more suitable spawning locations (Ramírez-Valdez et al., 2014).
A particularly notable feature of giant kelp populations in BC is their vulnerability to the El
Niño-Southern Oscillation. During the 1997-1998 El Niño, populations of M. pyrifera in BC experienced
widespread die-offs as a result of enhanced wave action and elevated sea surface temperature
(Edwards, 2004; Edwards & Hernández-Carmona, 2005). An important limiting factor on the recovery
of M. pyrifera populations following large die-offs appears to be the ability of the understory kelp E.
arborea, which exhibits faster recruitment following El Niño events, to competitively exclude it. This
observation may account for the finding that although the northern limit of M. pyrifera in the CCS is
relatively stable, its southern limit has varied over hundreds of kilometers in BC over the last several
decades. As M. pyrifera is the main habitat-forming kelp throughout BC, this can have significant
impacts on local patterns of ecosystem function and biodiversity (Edwards & Hernández-Carmona,
2005).
2.3 Pelagic Ecosystem
Ichthyoplankton
Ichthyoplankton studies off the Pacific coast of BC have identified more than 190 taxa and have found
that throughout the year, larvae of mesopelagic and bathypelagic adults typically account for most of
the abundance. By contrast, the larval abundances of coastal pelagic species and, in particular,
epipelagic species typically account for a much smaller share, in some seasons less than 10% of the
total (Jiménez-Rosenberg et al., 2010). In general, larval assemblages off BC tend to be dominated by
three species: Panama lightfish, Diogenes laternfish, and Mexican lampfish (Funes-Rodríguez et al.,
2006; Funes-Rodríguez et al., 2011; Jiménez-Rosenberg et al., 2010).
El Niño events are observed to affect the distribution and abundance of species throughout
BC (Jiménez-Rosenberg et al., 2010; Funes-Rodríguez et al., 2011). For example, during the 1997-1998
El Niño, larvae of temperate mesopelagic species declined along the peninsula, whereas larvae of
tropical species spread throughout the northern parts of BC. During the cooling events of the
subsequent La Niña phase, larval abundances of many temperate species were observed to have
increased (Funes-Rodríguez et al., 2011).
Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks
Landings and catch records from artisanal and commercial fisheries located along the coast of BC
provide an insight into the region’s pelagic ichthyofaunal, crustacean, and mollusk biodiversity.
Included among the important groups identified off northern BC records are jacks, sharks, red urchin,
whitefish, red lobster, billfish, sardines, anchovies, mackerel, and blue and yellowfin tuna. Records

7. 6
off southern BC reveal the importance of giant squid, sea basses and groupers, clams and oysters,
dorados, and scallops (Erisman et al., 2011).
Phytoplankton/Zooplankton
Phytoplankton and zooplankton communities off BC are influenced by seasonal and inter-annual
patterns as well as by larger-scale environmental processes (Gaxiola-Castro et al., 2008). In general,
phytoplankton chlorophyll-a concentrations off BC attain a maximum in spring as a result of enhanced
springtime coastal upwelling in the region. Zooplankton biomass is typically greatest in summer and
autumn and is generally characterized by an abundance of euphausiids and copepods (Gaxiola-Castro
et al., 2008).
During the El Niño/La Niña events of 1997-1999, the zooplankton community off BC
experienced important changes not only in abundance but also in community structure (Lavaniegos
et al., 2002). The abundance of copepods declined by approximately 11% whereas that of salps
increased by 4%, and although the overall abundance of euphausiids remained unchanged, the
abundance of temperate species was observed to have declined. Overall, zooplankton biomass
declined following the 1998 El Niño, despite the fact that chlorophyll concentrations increased during
the 1999 La Niña events. The exact reasons for this are unknown, but it is speculated that the El Niño
events may have induced a change in phytoplankton communities off BC, which then produced a
change in the zooplankton community (Lavaniegos et al., 2002).
Marine Mammals
Between 1981 and 2008, researchers from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
reported more than 11,000 marine mammal sightings in the Mexican Pacific region. Of those sightings,
approximately 8,500 were identified to the species level, and a total of 37 species of cetaceans and
pinnipeds were recorded. The data revealed that the southern tip of BC features the highest marine
mammal species richness of anywhere in the Mexican Pacific region (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2011).
Among the mammals recorded off the Pacific coast of BC are (i) the gray whale, which breeds and
calves in select lagoons off BC during the winter; (ii) the long-beaked common dolphin; and (iii) the
bottlenose dolphin (Mate & Urban-Ramirez, 2003; Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2011).
3.0 OCEANOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES
Throughout the CCS, atmospheric conditions and oceanographic factors interact to produce
mesoscale variability and intense coastal and offshore upwelling that support a wide range of biota.
Unique to Baja is its close proximity to equatorial mixing, and the intense temperature and salinity
gradients that result in this transitional area (Durazo, 2009; 2015).

8. 7
3.1 Oceanographic Factors in the Regional Ecosystem
The major oceanographic factors characterizing the regional ecosystem can be summarized as a setting
of currents, atmospheric conditions, topography and bathymetry features that enhance upwelling and
mesoscale variability. The resulting highly productive marine hotspots aggregate forage and
predatory fishes, and thus lend themselves to economically viable fishing activities where catches are
relatively efficient and dependable.
The CC and its interactions with two other local currents provides the predominant
oceanographic contribution to upwelling. The near-surface CC is an Eastern boundary current that
transports cold water from high latitudes in the Eastern Pacific to lower latitudes (Durazo et al., 2003).
Near Baja, this equatorward flow interacts with the tropical, warmer waters of the poleward California
Undercurrent (CU). The resulting mixing produces a jet that terminates near Baja and can help
transport fish eggs and larvae and supports significant primary production by moving large quantities
of cold, nutrient rich water offshore (Checkley, 2009). Wind and Ekman transport interact with these
oceanographic conditions to promote the intense upwelling and mesoscale variability that support
the high productivity known to the pelagic zone (Allen, 2006).
The influence of this mesoscale variability and upwelling on local fauna is pronounced.
Primary producers in particular congregate in the pelagic ocean near Baja where nutrients; notably
chlorophyll, and cool water are transported to the photic zone (Espinosa, et al, 2012). These
phytoplankton and zooplankton provide a strong foundational food source for major local fisheries,
including sardines and anchovies (Espinosa, et al, 2012). Dominant fish species in the area are
dependent not only on these stable provisions of primary producers, but on the interplay of strong
currents in the region. Many of these fish are highly mobile throughout seasons and life stages, and
are therefore well-suited to navigating the strong currents in the pelagic near Baja (Silva, et al. 2014).
The topography and bathymetric features present in this region also enhance the formation of
eddies and upwelling. Of note are the Baja Peninsula Shelf and several major capes; including a
prominent one between Punta Baja and Punta Eugenia, which add dimensionality to the ocean
environment and create local marine hotspots for fisheries (Oleg, et al. 2003). Also present are a
number of seamounts composed of peaks that cause three dimensional tidal advection. The physical
features of these areas help support high concentrations of zooplankton, fish larvae and pelagic fish
(Hekinian, 1982).
3.1 Physical and Chemical Factors Influencing the Regional Ecosystem
Physical and chemical factors influencing Baja can be notably divided into two subregions north and
south of Punta Eugenia. This transition zone is a natural result of the mixing of equatorial water with
subarctic water from the North Pacific. Waters north of Punta Eugenia are therefore largely cooler,
with little temperature and salinity variability (Durazo, 2015). South of Punta Eugenia maintains two
seasonal climate regimes; one of which is colder during the winter and spring and warmer in the
summer and autumn. Here, there is much more temperature and salinity variability (Durazo, 2015).
The differences between these two regions help support various ecosystems; with mangroves

9. 8
constituting a notable portion of fisheries south of Punta Eugenia and pelagic fisheries maintaining
stability in the North.
Seasonal variability throughout the entire Baja region is also significant. The CC and CU have
different seasonal evolutions, and their contribution to upwelling varies throughout the year (Mateos,
2013). In spring, Ekman transport intensifies and produces strong upwelling and a deep density
gradient. pH at this time of year is much more variable due to the high biological activity associated
with upwelling. Maximum pH values have been observed in the summer, at which time the high rates
of carbon accumulated after the spring upwelling season are recycled (MC Juarez-Colunga). Due to
wind and current factors, the winter and spring seasons are colder and lower in saline, thereby making
the water at this time of year less dense.
While temperature does vary both seasonally and geographically, the water near Baja is
relatively cool compared to other near-equatorial zones because the cold, fresh water of the CC meets
with the salty, warmer water of the equatorial zone. This variance in temperatures and presence of
temperature gradients allows many species to survive and thrive more successfully at various life
stages (Papiol, 2016). Waters are warm enough for temperate and subtropical species like sardines and
mackerel to reproduce, yet cool enough to allow their adult counterparts to thrive as well as to support
the production of primary producers like phytoplankton. Temperature is important to many stages of
the life history of regional fish species, and also limits dissolved nitrogen concentrations that can be a
limiting nutrient for primary producers (Klingbeil, 1978).
Oxygen is another unique physical feature in the Baja ecosystem. While the near surface,
equatorward waters of the CC are oxygen rich, the subsurface poleward waters of the CU can bring
water with them that is oxygen poor (Durazo et al., 2003). Thus an extensive oxygen minimum zone
exists in the CC at intermediate ocean depths. This is the largest permanent OMZ on the planet, and
its most marked variations in thickness, intensity and vertical distribution occur off Baja. The core of
the OMZ is oxygen poor as to limit the presence of local taxa despite the availability of food associated
with the Eastern Boundary Current, but the lower OMZ boundary favors aggregations of benthic and
benthopelagic invertebrates (Levin, 2003). As regional currents interact through upwelling, oxygen
deficient water can be transported upwards in the water column; sometimes leading to denitrification
and fish die-offs throughout the water column.
Salinity and acidity are currently stable enough to support the thriving pelagic ecosystem. Off
Baja, the CC appears as a shallow salinity minimum (<33.7) at 50-150 m depth, formed by mixing of
various local currents. The CC also has a naturally lower carbonate saturation state due to the presence
of an OMZ, and is therefore more susceptible to acidity influxes as brought on by advection and other
movement of currents (Gruber, 2012). Salinity and acidity factors in Baja are most notable when
observing changes brought on by anthropogenic climate change, which will be discussed in a later
section.

10. 9
3.2 El Niño as Factor in the Regional Ecosystem and Harbinger of Global Climate Change
El Niño is a natural environmental variability that occurs about every three to seven years in the
months of December and January. The weather phenomenon can be explained by a combination of
air-sea fluxes and regional advection. It is associated with temperature increases, salinity changes,
decreases in coastal upwelling and anomalously high sea levels. We examine El Niño here as a factor
affecting the regional ecosystem on an interannual timescale, as well as a harbinger of many potential
oceanographic and chemical changes likely to be induced by global anthropogenic climate change.
El Niño occurs on an interannual time scale because westerly Pacific trade winds weaken and
cease to push warm, nutrient poor water westward. Warm, salty, low-oxygen water advected north
during El Niño events is not replaced by cooler, less salty water from the eastern tropical Pacific. Data
from the 1997 and 1998 El Niño events clearly indicate warmer and saltier conditions in the upper 600
m of the water column, with a reduced period of mesoscale activity and maximum subsurface
temperature and salinity anomalies (Durazo, 2015).
Large scale regime shifts in marine ecosystems can form in the aftermath of an El Niño event.
The high temperatures and reduced nutrient input to the photic layer can disrupt the sensitive larval
phase of some species and devastate phytoplankton communities. The decimation of primary
producer communities can reverberate throughout the food web and cause long-term effects on
midwater fish and seabird predators. In one local study, squid landings were found to have
substantially decreased during large El Niño events. The fishery took two years to recover, with a
growth rate negatively related to increasing temperatures (Oceanspaces).
This phenomenon has also been found to have a significant impact on sea level rise. The
warmer, low-nutrient water that characterizes the weather event means that it is less dense, which
causes it to expand. The resulting rise in sea level is observable from space, and can have a severe
negative impact on larvae, juveniles and fish inhabiting shallow water habitats like bays and estuaries
(Thompson, 2015). Because it is the pelagic zone that is so productive near Baja, sea level rise is not
the most disruptive impact of El Niño on local fisheries, but as its effects are exaggerated with climate
change, sea level rise could have a severe impact on the local coastal communities.
4.0 STATE OF THE ECOSYSTEM
Mexico is a vital region of primary production and is therefore at a particularly high risk of being
degraded due to human impacts (Durazo, 2009). There are also many specialized areas in this region
that provide coastal nursery habitats (such as kelp forests and mangroves) and feeding grounds in
pelagic areas to many commercially valuable fish species (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008). This section
will explore the factors at work in the pelagic and coastal ecosystems.

11. 10
4.1 State of the Coastal Ecosystem
There has been a trend of intensifying human disturbance off the coast of Baja that is increasingly
leading to biodiversity loss. This relationship has raised concerns over whether the ecosystems in
these areas will continue functioning sustainably and delivering the services, such as artisanal fishing,
on which the communities in this region depend (Mora et al., 2011).
In Baja, the community is tightly linked to the health of the ecosystem because the ecosystem
itself is linked to the health and prosperity of fisheries. Despite this inherent connectivity, vast
amounts of valuable coastal and pelagic habitat have been degraded due to overfishing, destructive
shrimp aquaculture practices, development from tourism (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008) and poor
management of natural resources (Micheli et al., 2012). All of these human influences have led to
costly externalities and to potentially irreparable impacts to fisheries because of the loss of critical and
delicate nursery habitats (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008).
For example, looking specifically at the coastal mangrove forests of Bahia Magdalena, Baja
California Sur, there has been pressure to remove the mangrove forest habitats in favor of shrimp
aquaculture farms and tourism developments. Pristine ecosystems such as these mangrove forests
are estimated to be disappearing at a regional rate of 3% per year because of human impacts such as
sediment loss or build up, deforestation and eutrophication (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008). This is a
troubling trend because coastal habitats not only support local communities by increasing the
populations of commercially valuable fish, they also provide invaluable and irreplaceable ecosystem
services such as waste filtering, food production, recreation, and transfers of energy between
terrestrial and coastal habitats (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008).
Because the value of these services can be less tangible than other economic opportunities that
could be maximized in the area, these mangrove habitats face direct human threats. The loss of these
vital habitats also goes hand in hand with another set of anthropogenic threats caused by climate
change: Physical parameters such as storms, warming trends, and sea level rise. As these factors are
intensified by climate change, the loss of buffering coastal habitats are expected to exacerbate these
impacts and inflict further damage on coastal ecosystems (Miller and Schneider, 2000).
4.2 State of the Pelagic Ecosystem
The trend seen off the coast in the pelagic environs of Baja tells a similar story. A history of overfishing
pelagic stocks resides in this region and currently more than 80% of Mexican fisheries have been found
to be either over-exploited or at their maximum sustainable yield (Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2012).
This stress, caused by decades of unsustainable fishing, has led to a decrease in the number of fish
species in the area while anthropogenic factors due to climate change are also taking a toll in the
pelagic ecosystem of Baja California.
The pelagic habitat is of critical importance to the food web as large species of commercially
and artisanally valuable fish such as billfish, sharks, and tuna depend on the nutrient rich waters that
the CC delivers to this area for their foraging activities (Gilly et al., 2013). Increasingly, El Niño-like
conditions are delivering less cold, fresh, plankton-rich water and more spicy (warm and salty) water

12. 11
that can lead to anoxia in this ecosystem (Ladah, 2003). The large oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) off
the coast of Baja is also predicted to expand in the future because of climate change. This OMZ plays
a vital role in providing a shelter for plankton in the daytime, but an expansion of this zone has in the
past had a negative effect on midwater fish assemblages (Gilly et al., 2013).
Fluctuations in oxygen, temperature, pH, and overall changes in currents have also
compromised the invaluable role the pelagic ecosystem plays in sustaining bottom level primary
productivity (Nam et al., 2011). As the effects of climate change worsen, the impacts on the ecosystem
and the health of fisheries in the area will continue to degrade without proper mitigation of human
activities. (Miller and Schneider, 2000).
5.0 MARINE FOOD PRODUCTION
The region of northwest Mexico is one of 62 major marine provinces of the world due to the sheer
magnitude of productivity gleaned from its fisheries and exceptionally biodiverse ecosystems. The
state of Baja California and the northernmost portion of Baja California Sur can be defined as a
cohesive region which we will be focusing on in this discussion of fisheries. Region 1 (Erisman et al,
2010), from Tijuana to Punta Abreojos, includes many fisheries that revolve around the port of
Ensenada for processing and distribution.
As previously mentioned, a majority of the fishing value in this region can be attributed to
the Baja Peninsula and surrounding waters. While fishing activity dates back to pre-Columbian tribal
fishing of green turtles in the gulf, today bears witness to a heavily modified system of food
production that incorporates valuable aquaculture practices as well as commercial and artisanal
fisheries under varying degrees of management (NOAA Report, 1997). Shrimp, both farmed and wild-
caught, as well as the increasingly valuable bluefin tuna ranches of the Ensenada region, constitute
Pacific Mexico’s two most valuable fisheries.
BC supports a range of small (artisanal) and large-scale (industrial) fisheries. Ensenada is the
largest industrial fishing port of the region, receiving catch from artisanal, commercial, and sport
fishing vessels. Since the 1950s, Ensenada has been the primary location for catch and processing of
tuna; most notably species like yellowfin, skipjack, and bonito, and in the 1980’s was considered the
tuna capital of Mexico. A U.S. embargo on tuna due to high dolphin bycatch considerably slowed
productivity of the market, leading to the development of a European market as well as a large push
for domestic consumption of tuna that continues to this day.
The 1990s brought a new demand from Japan for the high-quality meat of bluefin tuna, which
until then had been caught mostly incidentally. With the advancement in aquaculture practices in the
Mediterranean, Capture Based Tuna Aquaculture (CBTA) was brought to the Ensenada region of
Mexico in 1996 and has become an increasingly valuable fishery. The tuna are first captured offshore
by purse-seiners before being towed to pens off Ensenada where they are fed primarily on a stock of
fresh, locally-caught Pacific Sardines, as well as mackerel and squid. The estimated tonnage needed
to feed the farmed bluefin tuna is in the range of 30,000 tons, with time from capture to harvest running

13. 12
between four to nine months. Bluefin tuna is one of the most economically valuable fisheries in
Mexico, and CBTA is among the most rapidly growing forms of aquaculture (Zertuche-Gonzále et al.
2008).
While global restrictions on bluefin tuna catch prevent increases in wild catches, the tuna
ranchers off Ensenada operate on concessions granted by the Mexican government that allow them a
consistent portion of the total catch each year. The total bluefin tuna catch for the ranches is small;
4000 million tonnes spread across roughly 15 purse-seiners. There is a huge discrepancy between the
price of bluefin tuna in Mexico and its sale price once exported to Japan. While bluefin fetches final
prices of ~$17 USD/kg in Mexico, the average price in Japanese supermarkets or restaurants is
~$280/kg. It is estimated that Mexico only retains around 6% of the final market value from this fishery,
but is also highly reliant on the Japanese market as they sell the tuna almost exclusively overseas.
Changes in catch limits, environmental disruptions like winter storms and lethal red tides, could have
severe impacts on the economic value provided by CBTA (Zertuche-Gonzále et al. 2008).
While Mexico’s shrimp fishery is the most important in commodity in terms of value, exports,
and employment (FAO), the majority of its harvest and farming occurs either in the Gulf of California
or in the Pacific further south of Baja. For the purposes of this discussion, we will continue to target
Baja California’s most important commercial catches, which include bluefin and yellowfin tuna,
sardine, anchovies, and mackerel. Most notable species fished by small-scale fisheries up and down
Baja’s coast are red rock lobster, red urchin, whitefish, billfish, sharks, and jacks (Erisman et al, 2010).
The mean annual catch data from all local fisheries offices along the Pacific coast of the BC region is
56,788 tons, though we can expect this figure to fluctuate depending on the commercial catch recorded
in Ensenada. In 2010 the mean annual catch recorded through Ensenada was 53,849 tons from 61
different species (Erisman et al. 2010), yet the annual catch for all species has been as high as 96,159
tons in 2011 according to data provided by CONAPESCA. This is not to say that significant landings
are not reported at other ports in Baja such as San Quintin, Isla de Cedros, and Tijuana/Rosario, but
the bulk of Baja’s fish landings are brought through Ensenada.
Ensenada’s “small pelagic fisheries” reports landings in recent years for four different species:
Pacific sardine (80%), Pacific mackerel (11%), Northern anchovy (8%), and Jack mackerel (1%). Most
sardines are landed in Ensenada, otherwise a port on the Pacific side of Isla Cedros. The size of
Ensenada’s sardine fleet (which also fishes other small pelagics like anchovy in off years) has
downsized from around 60 boats in the 1970s, to only 9 boats operating in 2007. While most canneries
shut down by the 1970s, sardines are now sold fresh or frozen, as fishmeal, fish oil, and
pharmaceuticals. By 2006 the most important use of fresh sardines was supplying the CBTA farms.
While Mexico’s Pacific sardine fishery currently remains well below MSY, concerns are being raised
about recent increases in mortality rates and decreases in spawning biomass. This variability is widely
attributed to oceanographic conditions that are beyond management control and not always
predictable. If CBTA production increases significantly in coming years, plans to meet the
consequential sardine demand include upgrading outdated sardine fishing vessels out of Ensenada,

14. 13
sourcing sardines from other fisheries in Mexico and even formulating new diets for the bluefin tuna
that rely less heavily on fresh sardines.
5.1 Artisanal Fisheries
As mentioned earlier, the Baja California coast supports a range of artisanal fisheries, including spiny
lobster, abalone, turban snail, sea cucumber, red and purple sea urchins and kelp. While annual quotas
are set by federal agencies, those fisheries that do receive enforcement are managed on a local level,
and several cooperative regions have voluntarily implemented no-catch zones to allow for further
recovery. These cooperatives have been regarded as highly successful, especially for the spiny lobster
fishery certified sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council, the first developing country fishery
to do so. Total spiny lobster landings in 2011 were 1,898 metric tons, an annual value of $24 million
USD that actively employs 1,300 fishers, and directly benefits 30,000 people (Cunningham, 2013).
The red sea urchin fishery is considered to be an important source of jobs and income, due to
the high value fetched at market for the urchin gonads overseas in Japan. The red sea urchin fishery
between Tijuana and Punta Blanca is declared in exclusivity to several groups of artisanal fishermen.
Catches have fluctuated widely over the last several decades, and CPUE has only been recorded since
1988. The only way to harvest red sea urchins is by SCUBA, and regulations exist in the form of
seasonal closures, annual catch quotas, permitting, and a minimum carapace length of 80 mm.
Assessments are carried out by the National Institute of Fisheries (INP) to determine quotas for the
year. Some research on this fishery shows that managers have not taken full advantage of quantitative
methods and data analysis, and current quotas are high enough to potentially cause the collapse of
the fishery when combined with other factors like natural predation and oceanographic changes
(Jurado-Molina et al. 2009). This appears to be an example of potentially failed management, where
practical solutions could be implemented. Social sensitivities and livelihood considerations must be
taken into account in these decisions.
While some of Baja’s fisheries could benefit from longer time series of data and further
research, a number of artisanal fisheries in the region are managed effectively through a cooperative
effort involving government agencies, local stakeholders, and fisheries scientists. There is some
concern for the commercial fisheries of yellowfin, skipjack, and bonito, as the populations of these
highly migratory species are difficult to assess.
6.0 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT
6.1 Marine Protected Areas
Marine protected areas (MPAs) in Mexico are managed at different administrative levels of
government including federal, state, or municipal (Fraga and Jesus, 2008). The Comisión Nacional de
Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP) is the federal agency charged with implementation and
oversight of MPAs. Currently, there are a total of four MPAs on the Pacific west coast of the Baja

15. 14
region, including the southern tip of the peninsula. These include the Revillagigedo Archipelago
Biosphere Reserve (southwest of Baja peninsula), the Cabo San Lucas Protected Area (southwest tip
of Baja peninsula), Cabo Pulmo National Park (southeast tip of Baja peninsula) and Isla Guadalupe
Biosphere Reserve (west of Baja peninsula).
CONANP coordinates with three other decentralized federal agencies: The Comisión Nacional de
Acuacultura y Pesca (CONAPESCA), Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente (PROFEPA)
and the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO). Despite this
extensive involvement of multiple policy managers, studies have consistently shown that MPAs in
Mexico are generally ineffective for the following reasons:
● The complex arrangement of the decentralized agencies that manage MPAs suffer a lack of
communication, which causes confusion in MPA implementation;
● establishment of an MPA is delayed by the nature of the Mexican law, which mandates a four
and a half year period between the declaration of an MPA and its implementation;
● not all MPAs have a management plan, and those that do lack information on how different
species are protected and how to manage potential conflicts between stakeholders; and,
● lack of financial support limits human resources needed to update and improve management
plans as well as carry out monitoring and enforcement activities (Alvarado et al., 2016).
The lack of proper planning and design in MPA implementation has generally caused MPAs
in Baja and greater Mexico to fail in accomplishing their conservation goals, leading to “paper parks”
or MPAs that are administratively valid but functionally useless (Rife et al., 2012). However, one
important exception to this general observation is the Cabo Pulmo National Park, which is often
considered one of the most successful MPAs worldwide. The park is considered an excellent example
of ecosystem-based management, where local stakeholders including boat captains, dive masters and
local people collaborate to enforce regulations and conduct monitoring in the park, which has resulted
in the largest absolute recovery of fish biomass (>460%) in a marine reserve (Aburto-Oropeza et al.,
2011).
6.2 Fisheries Management
CONAPESCA is the central decision-making body that oversees fisheries policy implementation in
Mexico. CONAPESCA distributes fishing rights to commercial fishers and designates which species
can be fished, usually through a permit system but sometimes through the distribution of concessions.
Permits last from two to five years, and specify a species or species group, gear type, seasons and
geographic regions where fishermen can fish a given species. However, permits are distributed for
almost every fish within a given region and allow fishing activity over the entire region, therefore
fishing rights often overlap and create conflict among fishing communities (Jentoft and Chuenpagdee,
2015).

16. 15
Concessions are issued by CONAPESCA to fishing cooperatives every 20 years, with exclusive
location-based rights granted for particular species. Concessions given to each cooperative define the
allowable species, fishing zone boundaries and effort levels for each cooperative. Adherence to these
concessions and prevention of poaching is largely ensured by the cooperatives themselves. For this
reason, concessions tend to be more effective than permits because they represent a stronger form of
property rights.
The Baja California Regional Federation of Fishing Cooperative Societies (FEDECOOP) offers
an area-based catch share allocated to groups called Territorial Use Rights Fishing (TURF). This
program allows 13 fishing Cooperatives from ten Baja villages to manage a total of ten TURFs. These
TURFs are the tool for managing benthic species, including the Baja spiny lobster, abalone, sea
cucumber, and turban snail. This system is considered a successful example of ecosystem-based
management, as the ten villages that directly depend on fishing for livelihoods co-manage the TURFs
with CONAPESCA to ensure sustainable harvests, establish voluntary no-take areas and increase
market access to fishing communities (Cunningham, 2013).
6.3 Protected Species
Protective legislation for certain priority marine species in Baja (other than those implemented
through MPA management and restrictive permits) is in place for the gray whale and marine sea
turtles. The gray whale is a no-take species under Mexican law, in part because Bahia Magdalena-
Almejas provides one of the last three breeding grounds for the Pacific gray whale population (Cota-
Lieto et al., 2016). Bahia Magdalena on the Pacific Coast of Baja California Sur is an important feeding
and nursery ground for green, loggerhead, olive ridley, and hawksbill sea turtles. Despite Mexico’s
national protection laws, including a mandated compliance with turtle excluder devices (TEDs) for all
trawling vessels, sea turtles continue to be caught incidentally and illegally hunted for consumption
in large numbers (Volker Koch et al., 2006). Additional conservation efforts are primarily headed by
non-profit organizations and NOAA in collaboration with the Mexican government (NOAA NMFS,
2016).
7.0 GOVERNANCE
Mexican fisheries organizations are diverse, elaborate, and conducive to multi-scale governance
(Fraga & Jesus, 2008). Multi-scale governance requires the participation of stakeholders at local,
regional, national, and international levels. At the local level, fishing cooperatives are very common.
7.1 Levels of Governance
At the regional level, cooperatives are joined into federations or unions. Unions include other
stakeholders like those who hold individual permits. At the national level, federations are integrated
into confederations and represent small-scale fishing cooperatives. Organized small-scale fisheries (at
all levels) in Baja California Sur have been successful in implementing management such as fishing

17. 16
refugia and quota systems for abalone. They’ve also been successful fulfilling Marine Stewardship
Council (MSC) international standards for sustainable fishing (especially in the case of lobster fishing
in the Baja California Peninsula) and adhering to the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch
program for Yellowtail Jack fishery in Baja (Espinosa-Romero, 2014).
Since 1990, Mexico has made progress in reforming policies governing fisheries (OECD, 2006).
Previous to this time, the regulatory environment was not conducive to developing a sustainable
fishery sector and stalled the sector’s longer term economic prospects. According to several experts,
the country’s existing legislation that regulates access to coastal resources and their use is very
fragmented, incomplete, overlapping and, at some points, inconsistent (Fraga & Jesus, 2008).
7.2 Governing Agencies
Implementation and enforcement are achieved by at least eight uncoordinated government agencies,
all of which are responsible for some aspect of coastal and marine management.
The Secretariat for the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) maintains
jurisdiction over forestry, wildlife, endangered species, water, pollution and the 20-m federal
maritime-terrestrial zone. It is responsible for creating the national environment policy and is
supported by CONANP, which is involved in the establishment, management and enforcement of
federal protected areas. The Secretariat for Agriculture, Livestock Farming, Rural Development,
Fisheries and Nutrition (SAGARPA) is responsible for managing fishery resources through
CONAPESCA; the National Fisheries Research Institute (INAPESCA), is the scientific and technical
arm of SAGARPA. The Secretariat of Communications and Transportation (SCT) has jurisdiction over
the ports and navigation. The Navy Secretariat (SEMAR) is responsible for defending Mexico’s
territorial waters and also monitors ocean pollution. The Secretariat of Tourism (SECTUR) promotes
and regulates tourism related activities, and the Secretariat of Governance (SEGOB) has jurisdiction
over national islands and cays.
7.3 Legal Instruments and Permit Control
These agencies subscribe to over thirteen legal instruments, laws and regulations that conserve the
country’s biodiversity. The most important law among these is the General Law for Ecological
Equilibrium and Environmental Protection (LGEEPA) (Fraga, J. & Jesus, A., 2008). This law defines
the tools of the national environment policy within sustainably used natural resources and includes
economic benefit while preserving the ecosystem. Additionally, protected areas do have their own
established management plans and are ruled by a Regulation derived from the LGEEPA. Since 1962,
Mexico signed six international conventions and agreements on the conservation and regulation of
coastal and marine ecosystems which include matters of pollution, endangered species, Law of the
Sea, development and protection of the environment, and preservation of biological diversity.
There are many formal institutional arrangements and legal mechanisms to regulate coastal
and marine issues in Baja. Transferring power to States promotes stakeholder participation in
decision-making processes. Multiple councils made up of fishers, buyers and distributors revise and

18. 17
approve new regulations, provide advice and recommendations on fisheries management plans,
research programs, permits, concessions and subsidies.
Since the 1920s permit and concessions system controls access to Mexican fisheries. The first
fisheries law in Mexico (1925) used permits as their main management policy for harvesting a number
of species (e.g., sea-turtles, fin-fish, sharks, lobster, shrimp, bivalves, etc.) Historically, the permit
system was heavily influenced by the relationship between permit holders and fishers, much like it is
today. Permits are issued by the National Commission of Fisheries and Aquaculture (CONAPESCA)
and only permit holders can legally land the catch and report it at CONAPESCA. In order to sell the
catch in the market place, the landing document, aviso de arribo, and the fiscal document must remain
together. These invoice slips are proof of legal ownership of the harvest and in order to sell, buy or
transport harvest to regional or international markets, these invoices are necessary. Official Mexican
Norms (NOM) list specific regulation definitions and are published in the Federal Registry.
7.4 Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Since the 1980s NGO’s have had a powerful presence influencing new forms of governance. NGOs‫׳‬
work historically focused on environmental issues involving habitat protection, endangered species
(e.g., sea turtles and vaquita), and natural protected areas. However, their objectives are shifting and
they have gained importance for fisheries agencies and organizations. An example of this was seen
with the contribution of the Baja lobster fishery to the MSC certification in the early 2000s.
7.5 Shifts Towards Future
The Baja California peninsula produces nearly 50% of the total national fisheries product (Cota-Nieto
et al., 2016; DataMares 2016). Following multiple shifts in policy direction during the 1990s, the current
policy framework is now more appropriate to helping the sector move towards a more sustainable
and profitable future. Transparency of stock assessments, resource status and management measures
have continued to improve, together with the extent of fisheries surveillance. As Mexico continues to
de-centralize and regionalize institutional arrangements, better enforcement and resources for
stakeholder engagement at local levels can be achieved.
8.0 SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES
8.1 Fishing Communities in Baja California, Mexico
The entire region of Baja California is heavily dependent on small-scale artisanal fisheries, as they are
the major source of livelihood for the people of this region. It is estimated that over 150,000 families
in Baja depend on fishing for their primary source of income (FAO, 2003). Artisanal fishing is
inherently tied into the culture of Baja; it is a way of life as well as a substantial source of protein for
the people of the peninsula, for a sizeable portion of freshly caught fish is consumed locally (Sievanen,
2014; FAO, 2003). Although small-scale fisheries in Baja California have been active for decades, the

19. 18
management of these fisheries has only recently become a priority in the region. Furthermore, the
proper use and mitigation of this common resource is a difficult issue to broach, because the ways that
anthropogenic factors impact fisheries become woven together in a complex tapestry of social and
environmental issues. There are many stressors on ecosystems in the region that affect fishing
communities, which mainly include coastal development, land use, and other types of fishing
(including commercial and recreational) (Mora et al., 2011). Artisanal fishing as an ecosystem service
is of the utmost importance to the region, and as human impacts such as overfishing intensify, the
ability of local communities in Baja to adapt will become increasingly significant (Aburto-Oropeza et
al., 2008).
Vulnerability from a socioeconomic standpoint can be thought of as a function of the exposure
to a stressor and the adaptive capacity or ability to respond to it (Smit and Wandel, 2006). Aside from
growing competition from large-scale commercial fisheries and the intensifying of recreational fishing
(largely due to tourism), artisanal fisheries are also combating uncertainty due to climate change
(Arroyo et al., 2010). These issues can include changes in fish abundance and distribution (Sievanen,
2014) and loss of recruitment or nursery habitats along the coast (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008).
Clearly, there are multiple factors at work that are adding to the social vulnerability of artisanal fishing
communities in Baja (Sievanen, 2014).
8.2 Strategies to buffer against vulnerability and climate change among fishing communities
There are certain strategies that artisanal fishermen have undergone historically and are currently
implementing to avoid being vulnerable to losses from the ecosystem services they depend on. One
strategy is staying mobile and being prepared to move to new fishing areas as seasons change to
provide a more stable income. Another strategy includes diversifying income activities within
households among fishing communities to generate income outside of and within the fishery. Both
of these courses of action are widely practiced by the people of Baja to avoid effects of temporal
variations in fishery stocks and to reduce their vulnerability (Sievanen, 2014). In Baja California Sur,
some small cooperative fisheries switched from their staple stocks of lobster and abalone to include
other species like finfish, whelk snails, sea cucumbers, and sea urchin during and after El Niño events
(Sievanen, 2014).
In this region, it has been found that communities are equipped to deal with small shifts away
from normal environmental conditions. However, as climate change increasingly affects the
ecosystems that these communities depend on, individuals may not be able to adapt to conditions
outside of a certain threshold which they are familiar with. It is complicated, as the ways people will
adapt to environmental stressors will vary among individuals and even among different communities.
While some environmental shifts are glaringly apparent like El Niño events, most are more subtle and
can be shrouded by other factors like declining fish stocks, updated fishing regulations taking effect,
and fluctuations in the market (Sievanen, 2014).

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8.3 Adaptation
Because of the way policy is typically implemented in this region where the government does not
usually play a direct role in creating climate change adaptation strategies, communities have
developed bottom-up, local-scale practices to further their adaptation. The region of Baja California
is at a high risk of the extreme weather events and sea level rise that comes with climate change.
(Arroyo et al., 2010). It is difficult to foresee how climate change will impact fisheries, but it is possible
to consider how communities depend on ecosystem services and the deal with the stressors that shape
them. This may be a way to study how people modify their behavior to adapt to environmental
variability. Furthermore, focusing on normal variability rather than the less common large-scale
events like El Niño occurrences can highlight the specific factors that cause vulnerability at its root
and guide fisheries management in the right direction (Sievanen, 2014).
To adapt, fishermen are increasingly moving to new fishing locations around Baja and also
diversifying the species they catch. It seems that the issues threatening fishermen’s ability to adapt to
environmental variability are continued declines in catch and difficulties in accessing fish stocks
(Sievanen, 2014). As commercial fleets use more advanced technology and fishing regulation
increasingly favors recreational fishing in association with the profitable tourism industry, artisanal
fishermen are struggling to adapt successfully. This is increasing the vulnerability of the communities
that rely on fishing and is expected to become a more complex issue as the effects of climate change
grow (Shester and Micheli, 2011).
9.0 ECONOMIC EXPLORATION
While fishing off Baja California provides tremendous value to the state, the marine environment
offers a number of opportunities for economic productivity beyond commercial, artisanal, and
recreational fishing and their associated supply chains. Baja also has healthy sectors of tourism,
agriculture and valuable property along its 700-mile peninsula. Further opportunities lie in the
introduction of Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), potentially augmenting the current
model of tuna ranching to be more environmentally sustainable, economically productive, and
opportunistic in relation to pre-established supply chains with Asian markets, where the consumption
of ecologically useful crops like seaweed could be exported.
9.1 Fisheries
Fisheries are vital to Baja California’s economy. A recent economic review of Bahia Magdalena-
Almejas in BC Sur provides a good example of the economic potential of a given fishery comprised of
a wide catch variety (Cota-Nieto et al., 2016). Between 2001-2013, this bay produced 57% of the total
captures for the state of BCS, which consisted of tuna, sardines, billfish, clams, shrimp and more. This
generated more than 4,200 million pesos (~228 million dollars USD), which represented 41% of the
income generated by the entire fishing sector of BCS. From this we see a disproportionate amount of

21. 20
wealth being generated from these fishing hot spots, implying that protection and regulation is not
effectively applied in sweeping, general applications to entire regions or states.
Coast-wide landings of sardines have been steadily increasing since the 1980s off BC, however
future growth is difficult to predict. Sardines, in their many forms of sale from frozen, fresh, canned
and fishmeal, fetch prices ranging from $80USD to $200USD/MT, the higher prices assigned for use
as feed in CBTA. As the demand and price for bluefin tuna remains high, these intertwined fisheries
are very profitable for Baja California and deserve ample monitoring and management to sustain
operations, and prevent a collapse (sardine fishery) as seen with Baja’s northern neighbors. The rise
in CBTA production demands more sardines, and has raised their market value significantly.
9.2 Tourism
Baja’s tourism sector is currently supplying only one tenth of the state’s revenue, but has the potential
to grow if managed appropriately. Equally as important as the direct economic benefit from
ecotourism activities like scuba diving, whale watching, and hotels operating on sustainable models,
is the protection and rehabilitation of sensitive ecosystems that provide valuable ecosystem services
yet are not easily valued in dollar amounts. It would be most beneficial for the future of BC to create
infrastructure with a multi-pronged mission of attracting tourism both local and international, as well
as educate and conserve fragile coastal environments like mangroves and kelp forests.
9.3 Ecosystem Services
Baja California is highly dependent on the ecosystem services that the coastal environment provides.
Because so much of Baja’s economy is derived from fisheries, protection of the coastal habitats that
sustain fish stocks is crucial. Coastal habitats can include areas such as kelp forests and mangroves
and the value of these ecosystems as nursery habitats for fish species is invaluable. From an economic
standpoint, the fisheries-based value of one hectare of mangrove is estimated to be 200 times higher
than the standard value established by CONAFOR ($1,020 US dollars per hectare) and the removal of
one hectare of mangrove fringe would cost local economies about USD $605,290 over 30 years
(Aburto-Oropeza, 2008). There is also the added value that mangroves and kelp forests provide in
terms of carbon sequestration and buffering against storms and sea level rise, both of which are
ecosystem services that will become increasingly important as the effects of climate change grow
(Ezcurra, 2015).
9.4 Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
There exists a unique opportunity with the offshore tuna farms of Ensenada to integrate the growing
of tuna with seaweed farms, creating an additional revenue stream and addressing some of the issues
of excretion and organic enrichment of the surrounding environment due to tuna’s poor food
conversion rates. Seaweed and oysters can be used in offshore applications to mitigate the adverse

22. 21
environmental effects associated with aquaculture, and seaweed aquaculture is a multi-billion dollar
industry that is currently housed almost entirely in Asia.
For a port like Ensenada that already has strong ties to Asian markets, tapping into this new
aquaculture market seems like a promising strategy, especially if more concessions are granted to tuna
farmers and capacity increases for CBTA. The recent success in CBTA off the coast of Baja California
suggests that this region is particularly productive for the aquaculture industry, and as money pours
in from outdoor markets the management of any expansions must take a serious and balanced
approach to assure maximum benefits and sustainable operation.
9.5 Deep-Sea Exploration
Marine phosphate is of increasing international interest as a reserve of agricultural fertilizer. Odyssey
Marine Explorations (OME), a United States company that specializes in shipwreck exploration, is in
the process of securing permits for a phosphate mine to be located 40 kilometers off the coast of BCS.
The proposed “Don Diego” mine will dredge sediment to extract phosphate at 70-90 meters deep year
round. The area to be dredged has been divided into five ‘Active Operational Areas’ that will each be
dredged 24 hours a day for a 10 year period, totaling a 50-year operation. The process will involve
drawing sea deposits via a dredging pump to the ship where the phosphate is separated and the
remaining sea deposits are discharged overboard. Assuming a 40-week work year (accounting for
weather restrictions that halt work), the operation is expected to yield 4-6 million metric tons of
phosphate annually (OED, 2016).
While the mining operation is justified by the potential increase in terrestrial food production
in Mexico and allowing Mexico to be a significant phosphate exporter, the mining activity is highly
controversial. While the environmental impact statement (EIA) for the project claims there will be
minimal risk, the mining operation will inevitably cause damage to underwater ecosystems, including
physical destruction to benthic species, disruption of migration pathways for gray whales, and
disruption of potential foraging grounds for loggerhead sea turtles (CBD 2016). As of April 8, 2016,
SEMARNAT denied the application for the proposed mining operation, but OED will continue to
develop the project and attain proper permits.
10.0 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
Climate change is likely to have some impact on the ecosystem near Baja, although dramatic changes
will be somewhat tempered by the frequency of natural weather variability that already characterizes
the area. Global climate projections issued by the International Panel on Climate Change predict
extreme weather events to be more common; making the impacts of phenomena like El Niño a likely
harbinger of the effects induced by anthropogenic climate change. Despite a general consensus that
global sea surface temperatures are likely to rise, acidity will increase and hypoxic zones will expand,
the specific impacts of climate change on Baja are yet unknown. Widespread shifts in fish distribution

23. 22
and abundance are likely to result as a consequence of habitat change, but specific impacts remain up
for debate.
Currently, three primary hypotheses regarding shifts in oceanographic factors as a response
to climate change prevail. The current-transport hypothesis suggests that warming may cause
intensification of winds that increase upwelling and a further introduction of nutrient-rich subarctic
waters to Baja. The warming-stratification hypothesis instead suggests a warming of the coastal
environment that would decrease mixing and nutrient availability. A third ‘optimal environmental
window’ hypothesis suggests wind forcings could intensify as to increase upwelling but also disrupt
feeding strata for fish in the photic layer and even move plankton away from favorable continental
shelf locations (Oceanspaces). Because each theory has an independent prediction regarding
upwelling and the environment’s suitability for various species, it is difficult to determine the specific
and net effects anticipated of climate change in Baja.
We can deduce however, that changes in temperature, oxygen and salinity are likely to induce
dramatic responses in some species’ life history stages as well as in species interactions. Koslow et. al,
for instance has recorded a statistically coherent response of mesopelagic fishes to an expanding
hypoxic zone in the CC. This is an inverse relationship, and many midwater fish assemblages are
likely to experience population declines as hypoxic expansion continues (Koslow, 2015). Alternatively,
a fishery that may benefit from another impact of climate change; warming, is the sardine population
in Baja. These fish perform well in subtropical conditions, while other species with cooler affinities,
like rockfish are likely to decline (Baumgartner, et. al, 2007).
Some aspects of climate change are very likely to have a significant harmful impact on the
local ecosystem. Acidification for instance, is likely to occur as excess atmospheric carbon dioxide
dissolves in seawater and lowers its pH. With less calcium carbonate available to support lower
trophic level marine organisms that make shells and exoskeletons, the decrease in prey availability to
larger fish will likely disrupt the food web. This pertains specifically to the CC especially because its
low carbonate saturation state makes its thriving decapod populations very susceptible to these
changes (Papiol, 2016). Global warming is also likely to intensify extreme weather events like El Niño,
and will therefore exacerbate its disruption to fish communities.
These varying physical factors associated with climate change are likely to have varying
effects on different parts of the ecosystem. Highly productive mangroves that characterize Magdalena
Bay for instance, are very sensitive to the wave fluctuations that may be brought on by intensified
storms, as well as to changes in salinity that could be brought on by the redistribution of local currents
(Godoy, 2016). Kelp forests, which sustain rich and diverse fish assemblages, are also highly
susceptible to wave action, sea level rise and wind intensities brought on by storms. Acidification,
hypoxia, warming and salinity changes will all likely have a significant effect on species in the pelagic
on longer timescales.

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10.1 Climate Change: Impacts on Aquaculture, Communities
Climate change exacerbates a number of other stressors on local communities. Pollution, exploitation
and regulation cause major disruptions to Baja fisheries and communities, and the impact of climate
change should be viewed as an added pressure to this group of stressors. In this context climate
change impacts are especially difficult to estimate when we do not yet know the contributions that
will be provided by mitigation and adaptation attempts.
Currently, the most concerning potential impacts of climate change are enhanced storm surge
and wave activity. However, Baja already experiences natural weather variability that supports
variability of these factors, so local aquaculture pens are adapted to deal at least in part with this issue.
Hurricanes in the area are already frequent, causing the majority of existing pens to be located in
Northern Baja. However, as climate change enhances the effects of storm surge to new areas, some
pens could be affected.
A community’s response to climate change is often contingent on expected fluctuations in fish
abundance and distribution. The vulnerability of a community to climate change can be understood
as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, and most communities can cope with
small environmental changes. Because Baja is familiar with extreme weather events, the impacts of
climate change on communities – at least in the short term –are likely to be somewhat subtle. Evidence
dating back to at least 10,000 years ago suggests that coastal communities in this area have diversified
their resource exploitation, suggesting the area has a considerable adaptive capacity to deal with
variabilities related to climate change.
Although communities can deal with a certain degree of environmental variability, combined
stressors may be making it more difficult to respond to relevant changes. Political, economic and
ecological factors related to overexploitation is leading to a loss of access because of increased
regulations, as well as a lack of available permits and restrictions in fishing areas (Sievanen). This in
addition to the regional sentiment that illegal fishing remains unhampered, perpetuates overfishing
and a feeling of delusion about the likelihood of sustainable fisheries management being able to
counteract effects of climate change.
11.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Mexico has an extensive body of laws, regulations, and standards, but environmental management
continues to be highly fragmented and responsibilities are scattered between several independent
government agencies. It is crucial to promote cooperation and integrate components of the Mexican
legal framework to make the various parts fully compatible within the three levels of government. An
evaluation of regulations and progress toward sustainable ecosystem use is suggested in the following
recommendations:
1. Unify the management of all marine resources, including fisheries and aquaculture, under
CONAPESCA, which will then institutionalize regional management units inclusive of

25. 24
relevant local stakeholders for each region. This would reduce overlap and contradictory
regulations, which currently often govern fisheries and aquaculture.
2. Encourage CONAPESCA to collaborate with newly institutionalized regional management
units to refine the permit and concession systems, to gather financial resources for artisanal
sector and fleet vessel monitoring systems, and to introduce a system of legally enforceable,
integrated fisheries management plans. All refined systems should be unique to their region.
This will help continue the movement toward decentralization and regionalization of
institutional arrangements.
3. Refine the permit system to implement regulations to protect artisanal fisherman from the
effects of climate change and competition from commercial and recreational fishing through
greater support for artisanal fishing cooperatives and the individuals within them.
4. Enhance support programs and subsidies to develop other sectors such as aquaculture and
ecotourism.
5. Create a stronger vision for fisheries in Mexico by embracing them as part of the national and
cultural identity. This can be achieved by crafting awareness campaigns targeted at citizens to
convey the value of responsible marine resource management.
These recommendations will increase the effective management of Baja California’s unique and
valuable marine resources.

26. 25
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