Strategies for Managing Digital Technology in the Classroom

Copyright
Dave L. Edyburn
Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Diverse Learners Ac
hieve Academic Success, Second Edition
Vice President, Learning Resources: Steve Wainwright
Associate Director, Sponsoring Editor: Greer Lleuad
Development Editors: Shannon LeMay-Finn, Dan Moneypenny
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ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-529-3
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About the Author
Dave L. Edyburn, PhD, is associate dean for research in the Col
lege of Community Innovation and Education and professor of e
xceptional education at the University of Central Florida, Orlan
do. Edyburn’s teaching and research interests focus on the use o
f technology to enhance teaching, learning, and performance. H
e has authored over 175 articles, book chapters, and several boo
ks on the use of technology in special education. He is a past pr
esident of the Special Education Technology Special Interest Gr
oup in the International Society for Technology in Education, p
ast president of the Technology and Media Division of the Coun
cil for Exceptional Children, and past chair of the Online Teachi
ng and Learning SIG in the American Education Research Assoc
iation. Edyburn has served as editor of several journals, includi
ng Teaching Exceptional Children, Special Education Technolog
y Practice, Remedial and Special Education, Learning Disability
Quarterly, and the Journal of Research on Technology in Educa
tion. He is a frequent conference presenter and national worksh
op leader.

Acknowledgments
The editorial team and author would like to thank the following
peer reviewers for their feedback and guidance:
Susan Cherup, Hope College
Carolina Cowan, Ashford University
Renee Gugel, Ashford University
Kimberly Hall, Ashford University
Kathy Hoover, Ashford University
Jacki Kryger, Ashford University
Stephanie Kurts, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Kelly Olson Stewart, Ashford University
Adriane Wheat, Ashford University
The editorial staff would also like to thank Shannon LeMay-
Finn for her assistance in developing resource guide material.
· Knowledge Check
· Notebook
Preface
The objective of Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Div
erse Learners Achieve Academic Success is to provide you with
the opportunity to learn about selecting and using appropriate te
chnologies in your classroom. The emphasis is on the applicatio
n of technology that supports the inclusion, participation, and a

cademic success of all types of diverse learners.
As educators, our goal is to encourage the growth of learners w
ho are digitally literate, capable of thinking critically and creati
vely, and prepared to contribute meaningfully to society in the 2
1st century. This book provides you with the technology tools to
achieve that goal. Students come to our classrooms with variou
s backgrounds, skills, and motivations, and the tools provided in
this book are designed to help you value and respect those diffe
rences. As you read, you will be challenged to evaluate your ow
n beliefs and perspectives about technology and education. Upo
n completion of this book, you will have compiled a technology
tool kit that not only reflects your personal beliefs but engages
and promotes the success of all your learners.
Textbook Features
Inclusive Technologies includes a number of features to help yo
u understand key concepts, think critically, and apply technolog
y in a meaningful way:
Visual Aids: Images and figures help illustrate the concepts pres
ented, and tables provide information about valuable resources.
All visual aids in the text are organized in an easy-to-
read manner.
Study Resources: These resources are designed to help you orga
nize information and study the text; learning outcomes, bolded
key terms, and summaries of key ideas appear in each chapter.
Pause to Reflect Questions: Interspersed throughout the text, the
se questions are designed to help you monitor your own learning
and reflect on your personal beliefs about technology and educ
ation.
Critical-
Thinking Questions: Questions on intriguing topics are placed a
t the end of each chapter to promote deeper analysis and discuss
ion.
Pretests and Posttests: Each chapter contains multiple-
choice questions that you can answer to get real-
time feedback on how well you have mastered the content.
Relevant Web Links: Placed throughout each chapter, numerous

web links offer you the opportunity to explore additional resour
ces, examples, and applications related to the text.
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With Constellation, faculty and students have full access to eTe
xtbooks at their fingertips. The eTextbooks are instantly accessi
ble on web, mobile, and tablet.
iPhone
To download the Constellation iPhone or iPad app, go to the Ap
p Store on your device, search for "Constellation for Ashford U
niversity," and download the free application. You may log in to
the application with the same username and password used to a
ccess Constellation on the web.
Android Tablet and Phone
To download the Constellation Android app, go to the Google Pl
ay Store on your Android Device, search for "Constellation for
Ashford University," and download the free application. You m
ay log in to the Android application with the same username and
password used to access Constellation on the web.
Troubleshooting
While every effort has been made to ensure that the links remai
n viable, you may periodically encounter a broken link or an err
or message (404 Not Found). In these situations, it is advisable
to copy and paste the website name into Google as a new search
. Often this will solve the problem caused when an organization
reorganizes its website.
A specific web page may no longer be available when an organi
zation goes out of business. In this case, paste the URL into the
Wayback Machine (http://archive.org/web/web.php) to view an
archive version of the web page.

Chapter 5Managing Digital Technology in the Classroom
· 5.1 Technology Labs
· 5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
· 5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
· 5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
· 5.5 Digital Work Flow
AP Photo/Matt Rourke
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
·
Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use
computers in computer labs.
·
Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use
computers in the classroom.
·
Outline practical strategies for managing instruction when each
student routinely has access to a computer, tablet, or handheld d
evice.
·
Design a plan for the classroom that fosters the access and exch
ange of digital resources and assignments.
Introduction
With a few exceptions, most adults today have not experienced
classrooms in which technology is ubiquitous. As a result, the e
ducation profession has been slow to recognize the need to prep
are teachers to manage technology-

intensive learning environments.
Schools use many different approaches to provide technology. S
ome are legacy behaviors and systems from years past, when tec
hnology was expensive and had to be housed in a central locatio
n. The adoption of tablets and handheld devices offers increased
access to technology for learning while at the same time presen
ting new challenges for managing the learning environment. As
a result, we will explore a variety of management strategies that
you can use if you teach in a technology lab, a classroom with l
imited technology, or an environment in which technology is ub
iquitous. The purpose of this chapter is to help you develop plan
s for managing technology tools so that they effectively enhance
student learning.
Many teachers believe teaching in classrooms in which technolo
gy is ubiquitous is easier than in more traditional settings. Alth
ough it is true that some tasks are easier, effective use of techno
logy requires that teachers attend to a variety of classroom man
agement issues that they may not have encountered before. As a
result, you will be introduced to strategies that you may want to
adopt concerning digital work flow. That is, how does a teacher
’s work change when the curriculum and student learning activit
ies are all stored and managed online?Field Trip: Meet Eight Te
chnology-Using Educators
Visit this link to learn more about how and why teachers choose
to use technology in their classroom. Do any of these stories re
sonate with your goals?
“Teachers’ Views on Technology in the Classroom”
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/
11/21/technology/20101121-brain-teachers.h
5.1 Technology Labs
When computer technology first appeared in schools in the 1980
s, computers were placed in converted classrooms that were desi
gnated as computer labs. There were several reasons for this arr
angement. First, courses on how to use computers were develop
ed, requiring that students come to a particular classroom to lear

n how to use these new tools. Second, computers were expensiv
e. Therefore, it was not unreasonable to expect that students wo
uld come to a special classroom, much the same way that they c
hanged classrooms for physical education, art, home economics,
or industrial arts. Third, the electrical demands of operating mu
ltiple computers meant that the classroom housing the computer
lab often had to be rewired to provide sufficient electrical capab
ilities. Sometimes this also meant adding air-
conditioning to help reduce the heat buildup in the room that wa
s common when many computers were running. During the 1980
s it simply did not seem viable to place computers in each classr
oom. If you teach in a technology lab today, it is likely that it w
as the first computer lab space developed by your school.
The Evolving Use of Technology Labs
Computer labs support whole-
class instruction. Much of the curriculum in early computer clas
ses focused on computer literacy; that is, learning how to operat
e a computer; identifying the components, such as the keyboard,
screen, and disk drive; and learning to write simple programs u
sing languages such as BASIC and Logo (Lock & Carlson, 2000
). During this time, technology integration meant acquiring eno
ugh computers so that computer literacy classes could be taught
—
first as an elective course and subsequently as a required course
. However, as schools expanded their computer labs, the comput
er literacy curriculum began to evolve beyond word processing.
This change in the curriculum was related to changes in the mar
ketplace that merged word processors with other productivity so
ftware—
most notably, databases and spreadsheets. Software programs th
at integrate several productivity programs are known as product
ivity suites or integrated software packages. One example is Mi
crosoft Office.
Today many schools maintain computer labs to support required
computer course work. Typically, in such courses, students are

required to master a suite of productivity tools such as Office 3
65 or Google Classroom. In much the same way that a lab of typ
ewriters was required to teach typing in high school in years pas
t, technology labs are viewed as necessary infrastructure for hel
ping students master the tools of the 21st century. In many scho
ols the term computer lab has been updated with the term techno
logy lab to reflect the addition of other technological resources.
As a result of such innovations, today’s technology labs are als
o home to elective classes in digital art, digital photography, di
gital music, and web design. Sometimes large departments have
their own specialized technology lab (e.g., a digital design lab,
a geographic information system lab, or makerspace) where they
provide specialized software like Photoshop or Google Earth th
at requires more computing power than may be available on lapt
ops or tablet computers or that requires interfaces with specializ
ed peripherals (e.g., MIDI controllers).
Table 5.1 summarizes software applications commonly found in
K–
12 technology labs. Over time collections of instructional softw
are have diminished as more schools use web-
based apps and resources. Increasingly, desktop productivity sui
tes, such as Google Classroom and Office 365, are housed in the
cloud such that users can access their information from anywhe
re and across their devices (i.e., from their phone, tablet, or com
puter).
Teachers who take their students to a technology lab do so for s
everal reasons. One is to teach them how to use a new software
program or app. These types of large-
group training sessions are more effective than show-and-
tell presentations in the classroom because each student can foll
ow along to learn the mechanics of using a new software progra
m. A second reason that teachers reserve technology labs is to p
rovide students with time to conduct web research or write a rep
ort. Whereas some educators frown on using class time for this t
ype of work, it is important to remember that the digital divide
still exists and that all students do not have routine access to hi

gh-
speed Internet or a computer to write their papers. Finally, teach
ers may schedule a technology lab for their class to gain access
to software that has a limited number of licenses for use or to ta
ke advantage of other technology resources not easily accessible
outside of the lab (e.g., a scanner with optical character recogni
tion software).
The Decline of Technology Labs
In the early 21st century, some schools have closed their techno
logy labs. The decisions are often justified by any one of severa
l reasons.
AP Photo/The Messenger-Inquirer/Jenny Sevcik
If every student had their own laptop or mobile device to use in
class, what measures would you need to take to ensure your stud
ents remained on task?
First, changing demographics have put pressure on some school
s to add classrooms to reduce class size. Under such circumstan
ces, the space allocated to a technology lab is viewed as a luxur
y that can no longer be afforded. Second, in keeping with the e
mphasis on integrating technology into the curriculum, some ad
ministrators have justified closing technology labs based on the
increased number of computers available in classrooms. The dec
ision is justified by arguing that it is important to place technol
ogy in the classroom where it can be used more routinely becaus
e it will have greater impact than is possible with only periodic
visits to a computer lab. Finally, the ubiquitous nature of wirele
ss Internet and mobile computing has changed how we think abo
ut technology usage. Although computers were special when the
y first entered schools in the 1980s, it now seems quaint to thin
k that we have to go to a special room to use technology.
Whether your school has a technology lab or not may be the res
ult of any of the reasons mentioned earlier. Looking ahead, ther
e will continue to be a need for specialized technology labs in t
he short term if the curriculum involves software applications th

at require significant computing power (e.g., iMovie, Photoshop
) or the technology requirements are such that all students must
complete one or more technology courses. However, as we grow
more accustomed to mobile computing, we will likely see the n
eed for technology labs diminish as we seek to use technology c
loser to routine teaching and learning contexts.Pause to Reflect
As you think about your experience learning about technology,
have the majority of your formal learning experiences occurred
in computer labs? Or have you ever attended a professional deve
lopment workshop in which you were expected to bring your ow
n device so that you could interact with resources as the present
er demonstrated them?
5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
In the 1990s educational leaders began to recognize the value of
technology in education. That is, they saw that the computer lit
eracy curriculum was based on the notion that the computer was
the object of instruction, whereas the more interesting applicati
ons of technology involved what you could do with technology.
This led to language suggesting that the technology should be tr
ansparent (Siegel & Davis, 1986).
The change in focus from computer literacy, in which the comp
uter was deemed to be the important topic of study, to technolog
y integration, in which the computer was a transparent tool for e
xploring important educational outcomes, was a profound philos
ophical shift that contributed to the deployment of computers in
classrooms.
The One-Computer Classroom
Much like the historical nostalgia for one-
room schoolhouses, some teachers fondly recall the days of the
one-
computer classroom. Initial efforts to place computers in the cla
ssroom typically began with providing a single computer, often
on the teacher’s desk. This action was justified by the prevailin
g thought that the teacher was the most valuable resource in the
classroom, based on the argument that a scarce resource like a s

ingle computer would not make significant contributions to stud
ent learning as a result of each student touching the keys for a f
ew minutes each week (Dockterman, 1991). However, because e
fforts to provide more computers were often advanced through f
und-raising by parent–
teacher organizations, in many schools it was expected that com
puters were being placed in the classroom for student use and n
ot teacher productivity. You may observe similar arguments in s
chools today that have been trying to move beyond initiatives th
at sought to provide iPads to teachers but are still struggling to
find the funding to provide tablet computers to each student.
One of the benefits of the one-
computer classroom era was that it helped educators think about
the creative uses of technology in the classroom (Gimotty, 200
4). In one of the most popular books on early technology use in
education, Great Teaching in the One-
Computer Classroom, Dockterman (1991) suggested five possibl
e management approaches for the one-computer classroom:
· with large group instruction,
· with small collaborative groups,
· as a lecture/presentation tool,
· within a learning center, and
· as a tool to support teacher productivity.
AP Photo/Franka Bruns
This student is working on an interactive whiteboard. Do you th
ink the use of this kind of technology is beneficial to student lea
rning? Why or why not?
Although teachers were comfortable with large-
group (i.e., whole class) instruction, the major obstacle was the
lack of a projection system so that the entire class could see wh
at was on the computer screen. As a result, many teachers chose
not to use technology in the classroom because their preferred f
orm of instruction involved managing whole groups. Even today
you may see teachers who only use technology when providing
whole-

group instruction by using an interactive whiteboard. Despite th
is obvious infrastructure requirement, it was not until the late 1
990s and early 2000s that a majority of classrooms were equipp
ed with a computer and projection system.
Using technology in small collaborative groups involves project
-
based learning, in which students work in groups, both on and o
ff the computer. Each student has a role (e.g., project manager,
secretary, researcher), which allows the teacher to break up an a
ssignment into multiple parts as students act in their different ro
les within a project or across projects. These roles also serve to
distinguish who does what when the team works at the computer
.
An important insight about this approach is that it recognized th
at learning did not necessarily occur by touching the keys. Impl
ementing this approach in the classroom meant that the teacher
had to organize a group project, divide the students into groups,
and schedule each group for an adequate amount of time at the
computer to work on the project. Today we might think of a sim
ilar project that involves asking a group of students to make a p
oster using Glogster or produce a movie for YouTube.
Amornme/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
More schools are moving to use of the smart projector rather tha
n the traditional classroom projector. How will these tools impa
ct learning for all students?
Use of the computer as a lecture/presentation tool became possi
ble when projection systems and interactive whiteboards were a
dded to the classroom. In many situations this was justified as a
n upgrade of the overhead projector typically found in each clas
sroom. In fact, this often resulted from the computer being insta
lled in the front center of the classroom and the projection syste
m in the center of the room to display on the front wall. In other
cases projection systems were equipped to work with both the c
omputer and a VCR (and later a DVD player) to connect them to
a television/monitor. In these situations, the setup was often m

ounted in a front corner of the classroom. Depending on the eco
nomic status of your school district, you may find that these typ
es of infrastructures still exist.
Building a learning center around one to three computers is also
a common tactic in many schools. This approach lends itself to
thinking of the computer as simply another learning center withi
n the classroom. This type of setup is easy for teachers to mana
ge because it is a supplement to instruction. Unfortunately, in m
any cases it has led to the view that the computer is a place whe
re students can play games as a reward for completing their wor
k. However, when used appropriately, computer learning centers
in the classroom offer teachers and students a great deal of flex
ibility for using technology to augment instruction.
Finally, the profession has long recognized the value of technol
ogy in the classroom to support teacher productivity. However,
attempts to define a core technology tool kit that supports teach
er productivity have been inconsistent. As a result, teachers are
responsible for locating suitable tools beyond the typical office
suite, web browser, e-
mail system, and course management tools. Periodically, there i
s public outcry when technology purchases are perceived by a c
ommunity as only benefiting adults (i.e., administrators, school
board members, or teachers) instead of being accessible to stude
nts (Moore, 2013).Pause to Reflect
In your current school, can you find any evidence of the five ma
nagement approaches used in one-
computer classrooms still in use? As you think about the five ap
proaches to managing the one-
computer classroom, which are compatible with your personal i
nstructional philosophy?
Moving Beyond a Single Computer in the Classroom
The one-
computer classroom represents a developmental milestone in the
adoption of technology in education. Although the justification
for providing a single computer in the classroom was largely rel

ated to the expense, this approach continues in many schools in
areas with significant poverty, as well as many alternative and c
harter schools. Arguments for the absence of technology often u
se Dockterman’s (1991) insight that the most valuable resource
in the classroom is the teacher. Nonetheless, there is clear evide
nce that society and educators are expecting 21st-
century schools to become more technology intensive in order t
o better prepare students for a life outside of school that is incre
asingly technological.
One management strategy that has been developed to provide m
ore technology in the classroom involves the use of computers o
n wheels (COWS). COWS are portable carts that store laptop co
mputers, Chromebooks, or iPads. The cart can be shared within
a department or group of teachers by simply pushing it from one
classroom to another when curriculum activities require it. The
cart has a charging system built in so that the devices are charge
d when they are not being used. And each evening the cart can b
e moved to a secure location for storage. COWS are an excellent
strategy for schools with limited classroom space for a dedicate
d technology lab and provide considerable flexibility in making
technology available to teachers and students when and where it
is needed.
One of the key questions that emerged during efforts to place te
chnology in schools where it would be used most effectively cen
tered on the issue of instructional goals. That is, what was the le
arning outcome that teachers desired from student use of compu
ters? This question often tripped up teachers, since the early rati
onale for using computers was to enable students to know more
about computers. However, the notion of technology integration
and transparency shifted the focus away from the technology it
self to more important instructional goals and thereby supported
efforts to integrate technology into education by asking educato
rs to find engaging and motivating applications that contributed
to content knowledge (Grabe & Grabe, 2007).
Once teachers were able to answer this question, it became easie
r to request, and to receive, additional technology resources. In

some cases, this led to what has been called one-to-
one initiatives—
that is, pilot programs designed to provide each student with a c
omputer to maximize the quality of the learning experience. We
will now turn our attention to schools and classrooms in which a
ccess to technology is ubiquitous and routine.
5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
Ubiquitous technology refers to situations in which technology i
s readily available everywhere. Although computers have been a
fixture in homes and schools for many years, it wasn’t until the
early 2000s that large-
scale projects began to provide each student with a computer an
d study its impact. As a result, one-to-
one access, whereby each student has ready access to his or her
own device (e.g., laptop, tablet, smartphone), is still considered
a special initiative within a school district and a point of pride.
To date there is little evidence to suggest that one-to-
one classrooms are widespread; it appears that less than 50% of
American classrooms feature one-to-
one technologies. In this section, we explore several initiatives t
hat have contributed to what we know about technology-
intensive environments.
Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow
The earliest and most ambitious research to study the impact of
ubiquitous technology was a project sponsored by Apple Compu
ter beginning in 1985. The project, known as the Apple Classroo
ms of Tomorrow (ACOT), provided teachers and students in fiv
e schools with two computers each, one for use at home and one
for use at school. This project received a great deal of attention
because it inspired educators to think of educational possibiliti
es that could be afforded when students had routine access to te
chnology. To understand the context, remember that this project
began in the early days of microcomputers, in classrooms using
Apple IIc computers (the most portable computer of the day), a
nd before the Internet as we know today existed!
The longitudinal study explored a variety of issues related to da

ily use, impact on teaching and learning, and a host of impleme
ntation factors. One of the most problematic issues was that stu
dent desk space was too small for both desk work and computer
work, which led to some classroom management challenges (e.g
., the computer would be set on the floor when completing desk
work). The research continued in the early 1990s and provided s
ome of the most important foundational evidence about the impa
ct of ubiquitous technology on teaching and learning (Baker, Ge
arhart, & Herman, 1994; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Haymore, 1994; D
wyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1992). Much of what we know ab
out technology integration, professional development for teache
rs, and planning for technology-
based instruction can be traced to the ACOT research.
The visibility of the ACOT project served as a powerful incenti
ve for the educational technology profession to consider the imp
ortance of not merely integrating technology into the curriculum
but also using technology to foster the larger agenda of educati
onal reform to improve student learning. In the late 1990s educa
tional leaders were connecting the dots between new powerful l
aptop computers and possibilities afforded by the Internet. This
led to new efforts to replicate the ACOT research by issuing stu
dents laptop computers via one-to-
one initiatives, whereby students could use a school district–
issued laptop computer at school and take it home as needed.
One-to-One Laptop Initiatives
AP Photo/The Herald-Palladium/Don Campbell
These students are part of the One-to-
One Computer Initiative. If your school could take part in the in
itiative, how would you ensure that your students were meeting
the desired learning outcomes?
Innovators have called attention to the profound implications m
obile learning technologies have for education (Bjerede, Atkins,
& Dede, 2010; Breck, 2007). One of the most notable large-
scale efforts was directed by Nicholas Negroponte, a professor a
t the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose vision invol

ved creating a $100 laptop for education (http://one.laptop.org).
Although Negroponte failed to meet the $100 threshold, when h
is computer did become available, users could buy two for $400,
with one computer being donated to schools in developing coun
tries. School districts like that in Birmingham, Alabama, purcha
sed 15,000 devices in an effort to address the achievement gap b
y creating technology-
intensive learning environments (Warschauer, Choen, & Ames,
2012). In 2012 Google offered its Chromebook for $99, in effect
achieving Negroponte’s vision (Dawson, Cavanaugh, & Ritzhau
pt, 2009; Muir, Knezek, & Christiansen, 2004). These projects t
ypically involved providing each student in an entire grade with
a laptop computer and expanding the project each year by addin
g additional grade levels. These projects were notable for their
partnerships with computer manufacturers and their commitment
to extensive teacher professional development before the laptop
s were deployed.
Based on the lessons learned from ACOT, administrators recogn
ized that enhanced learning outcomes would not be achieved by
simply dispensing technology. Rather, technology provided a co
ntext for rethinking teaching and learning. Further, teachers nee
ded ongoing support and assistance to deal with concerns (Dono
van, Hartley, & Strudler, 2007) and implementation issues that
arose (Clausen, Britten, & Ring, 2008; Grignano, Poftak, & Roc
kman, 2004; Levin, 2004).
To date, the research evidence concerning the educational outco
mes of one-to-
one initiatives is mixed. Some studies have shown very positive
learning gains (Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Murphy, Kin
g, & Brown, 2007), while others have pointed to very modest ga
ins that raise questions about the investment (Dunleavy & Heine
cke, 2007). And some studies have shown negative outcomes or
no significant difference between the laptop and control classro
oms (Grimes & Warschauer, 2008). Some studies have discover
ed other benefits such as gender equalization in technology skill
s (Kay, 2006) and significant gains in student engagement that s

uggest promise for improving student achievement (Russell, Be
bell, & Higgins, 2004; Swan, van’t Hooft, Kratcoski, & Unger,
2005). To date, most studies indicate the potential of one-to-
one initiatives that need additional attention to the quality of im
plementation and the need for more research. However, there is
little evidence concerning the impact for urban low–
socioeconomic status (SES) students (Grimes & Warschauer, 20
08; Mouza, 2008); this therefore illustrates that the digital divid
e is still operating. Despite the mixed research support for one-
to-
one initiatives, schools continue to make significant investment
s in mobile technologies.
Bring Your Own Device
One of the latest developments in managing technology in schoo
ls relates to the persistent failure of educational systems to fund
technology at a level sufficient to provide each student with a p
ersonal computing device. As a result, schools have used initiati
ves known as bring your own device (BYOD) to encourage stud
ents to bring their own mobile device to school (Alberta Educati
on, 2012). The rationale for these initiatives is found in the stat
ement that “21st-century learners need to be learning with 21st-
century tools.” Readers interested in a practical guide to BYOD
are encouraged to download the following document.
Field Trip: BYOD
Visit this site to explore a guide book for educators on impleme
nting a BYOD initiative in your school. As you explore, are ther
e issues that need to be considered that you had not previously t
hought about?
Bring Your Own Device: A Guide for Schools
https://open.alberta.ca/publications/9781460103388
Not surprisingly, BYOD is appealing to school districts, since it
moves the cost for purchasing technology from school budgets t
o family budgets. However, other concerns are also driving thes
e decisions. First, schools are trying to take advantage of device
s students already own, such as smartphones and tablets. This tr
end is an extension of the ubiquitous computing initiatives that

began with the ACOT research. Second, educators believe that s
tudents are more likely to be responsible for technology if it is t
heir own personal device. As a result, in the short term you are l
ikely to hear much more about BYOD initiatives in your school
district and state.
Despite the excitement about the potential of BYOD, there are s
everal drawbacks. First, schools will have to develop policy and
procedures to assist families who cannot afford to purchase and
maintain the technology. To date, this has not been addressed o
n a large scale in low-
SES districts. Second, districts need to develop better access an
d security systems to support the wide variety of devices and op
erating systems that students may bring to school. Typically, thi
s is not a problem for districts that have installed new networks,
but such efforts can require a considerable investment in infrast
ructure. Additionally, school districts may need to change existi
ng school board policies, which in most school districts ban stu
dent use of cell phones during school. And, finally, teachers ma
y need additional professional development about how to manag
e personal technology devices and develop meaningful instructi
onal activities for using mobile technologies (Kolb, 2011; Schro
ck, 2013; Swan, Kratcoski, & van’t Hooft, 2007).
Pause to Reflect
Would you like to teach in a classroom in which each student ha
s his or her own device? Would it make a difference if the devic
e was a computer or a smartphone? What implications might ubi
quitous technology have for teachers when planning and deliveri
ng instruction? How would you feel about being asked to help a
student with a device you have never used before?
5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
Regardless of the type of computer configuration found in a sch
ool, teachers will need to prepare students before they can begin
using technology routinely in the classroom. Only after student

s master the basic operations of the technology and software can
attention shift to focus on the issues of learning and performan
ce. In this section, we will examine several issues in order to he
lp you think about how to effectively manage digital technology
in the classroom.
Student Training
It is extremely difficult and frustrating to try to learn a new tool
while also trying to meet a deadline. Therefore, it is essential t
hat teachers teach students how to operate software and apps be
fore beginning an assignment.
Just as teachers spend considerable time in the early part of the
school year teaching students the operating principles of the sch
ool and various classroom routines, they must also teach student
s how to operate the technology found in the school. For exampl
e, when visiting the computer lab, should students turn on the c
omputers at the beginning of the class period? Or are the compu
ters turned on during the first hour and turned off during the fin
al class period of the day? Likewise, does each student have to s
ign in using a user name and password, or are the machines ope
n access for anyone? How does a new student obtain a user nam
e and password? What happens when students forget their passw
ord? What happens when a BYOD device won’t connect to the n
etwork?
Teachers must be trained on the answers to these and similar qu
estions to effectively use technology. Student teachers often enc
ounter barriers in this area when they enter a school midyear, si
nce many of the operating procedures are reviewed with new fac
ulty at the beginning of the year. Log-
in procedures can be particularly challenging to manage as scho
ols implement more online learning initiatives and need to provi
de students with remote access to school servers and software.
Most schools require that students and families sign a document
agreeing to the school’s acceptable use policy (see Figure 5.1 f
or an example). As the name suggests, these policies outline acc
eptable and unacceptable use of school technology and the cons

equences for violating the policy. Teachers are required discuss
these documents with students and parents and expand on topics
such as security, privacy, and more.Figure 5.1: Sample accepta
ble use policy
The sample acceptable use policy shown here can be adapted for
classroom use, based on teacher and even student preferences.
Click through the four slides in the following interaction to see
a sample acceptable use policy.
Strategies for Introducing a New Technology Tool
When teachers are introducing a new technology tool, they may
need to use a variety of resources to learn how to use it effectiv
ely. For example, they may find materials created by the publish
er to be useful. This may involve a text- or video-
based product demonstration. Online tutorials like Lynda (https:
//www.lynda.com) are another common resource, which require
the user to read some information and click as directed to simul
ate the software use experience. Finally, teachers may create the
ir own learning guides that provide students with guidance abou
t how to complete certain activities within their software progra
m.
Quick start guides are an example of a learning support tool co
mmonly provided for commercial software. They summarize key
commands and tasks that users might complete. See Figure 5.2
for a teacher-
created quick start guide about how to use a specific website too
l to create web pages. Notice that these types of guides can be
made within a word processor and can include graphics made fr
om screen captures. When appropriate, it is an excellent idea to
have students make these types of tools as a way to help other st

udents learn a new tool. Students with disabilities may require s
pecific step-by-
step instruction guides like these to help them remember how to
complete a task.Figure 5.2: Example of a quick start guide
An example of a teacher-
made quick start guide for a web app that students will use.
The fundamental goal of ensuring that students and teachers can
independently use technology tools is to maximize time on task
engaged in learning. This goal applies to apps as well as specifi
c websites. Thus, when it is time to use a technology tool, no ti
me is wasted trying to figure out where it is or how to get it star
ted.
Help Seeking Within the Technology Classroom
Another management issue that teachers will need to consider w
hen using technology in the classroom involves thinking about
what provisions will be available for help seeking. That is, whe
n students forget how to save a file, how to apply a specific for
matting feature, and so on, what should they do first? When eve
ry student encounters multiple such problems, the number of qu
estions can quickly overwhelm a teacher. As a result, it is impor
tant to teach and model help-
seeking behaviors to prevent students from becoming dependent
on the teacher as the sole information source.
For example, you might suggest that students access the online
help system found within a program. Or they might search for a
YouTube video to guide them through a step-by-
step process. If that fails, they may want to turn to a peer for ad
vice. Some schools have training programs for peer technology
experts. These are students who receive advanced training in all
the features of a product like Microsoft Office and are shown h
ow to effectively offer technical assistance to others (rather tha
n just taking control of the keyboard and doing the task themsel
ves). Having a peer expert in the classroom can be very helpful.
Students with disabilities have especially benefited from servin

g as “experts,” which can foster a sense of self-
esteem from recognizing that they know more about a topic than
most others and are able to offer assistance to others when need
ed. Finally, some technology labs have implemented a system of
placing plastic cups on top of the computer monitors. The cup i
s routinely face down, but students turn it face up to signal to th
e teacher that they have a question. Since the sight lines are ofte
n impaired in technology labs, this signaling device is a useful c
lassroom management feature.
Managing Assistive Technology in the Classroom
The management of assistive technology in the classroom has re
ceived considerably less attention than general technology mana
gement issues. As a result, little is known about the attitudes, co
ncerns, and interventions of general education teachers concerni
ng the students in their classroom who use assistive technology.
Among the existing research, Banda, Grimmett, and Hart (2009
) provide strategies for students with autism spectrum disorder a
nd explain how activity schedules can facilitate transitions. Sim
ilarly, Mechling (2007) has studied the use of assistive technolo
gy for self-
prompting students with intellectual disabilities to complete dai
ly tasks. Further, Fitzgerald and colleagues have created a syste
m known as KidTools (http://kidtools.cepel.org), which provide
s behavioral supports for students and teachers (Miller, Fitzgera
ld, Koury, Mitchem, & Hollingsead, 2007). Unfortunately, beca
use most teachers have little knowledge or direct experience usi
ng assistive technology, students are left to troubleshoot on thei
r own or to seek the assistance of an assistive technology specia
list.
Troubleshooting
Despite a teacher’s best preparation, there will be times when a
technology malfunction creates a need for a Plan B. This may co
me about because the bulb on the computer projection system ha
s burned out, a computer is broken so that each student does not

have his or her own computer, a network is down so that a teac
her cannot access a required document or web page, or a power
outage has unexpectedly shut down the computers and caused st
udents to lose their work. In each of these cases, there will be s
ome disruption in the instructional lesson plan. As a result, it is
necessary to plan some alternative strategies.Pause to Reflect
Has a technology failure ever disrupted your teaching? What we
nt wrong? What did you do as a Plan B? Ultimately, how did yo
u resolve the problem?
What happens when a teacher was planning on using a PowerPoi
nt for the day’s lecture but the server is down? Is there a chance
that the presentation was saved on a USB drive? Do you remem
ber the lecture well enough to provide the information without t
he PowerPoint? Do you create a new schedule and hope that the
server comes up later in the day? Or do you tell students you wi
ll e-
mail them the PowerPoint later in the day? Although we cannot
anticipate the exact nature of these kinds of disruptions, we sho
uld always have a Plan B in case we encounter a problem. Here
are some ideas to consider when troubleshooting.
When Technology Disrupts Your Teaching
Motortion/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
1. First, don’t panic.
2.
Determine if the problem is the computer, keyboard, mouse, soft
ware, power supply, or connection to the Internet. This helps de
termine where to focus problem solving.
3.
Is there a problem getting the computer to start up? If so, check
the power connections and cables. Is everything plugged in? Is t
he power strip turned on? Can you try a different outlet? Are ot
her computers in the room working properly?
4.
Does the computer power on correctly but the keyboard or mous
e do not appear to be working? Check the cable connections and

try again. Or swap out a keyboard and mouse from another com
puter to determine whether there is a problem.
5.
Are you able to connect to a local area network or the Internet?
If not, use the network diagnostic control panel to see if you are
receiving an Internet signal. Could the local server be down? O
r could the disruption be from your Internet service provider?
6.
Were you working one moment and then everything just froze u
p? Can you save your current work before proceeding? If yes, th
is will provide a measure of safety. Can you quit the current app
lication you are in and restart the program? Then, check to see i
f the autosave feature of the software saved a temporary version
of your file before it shut down. At this point, you may need to
restart the computer to clear the memory and reset everything to
its proper working state.
7.
Is there a problem with the audio? If so, check the volume contr
ol settings.
8.
Is there a problem with the printer? If so, check to see that the c
ables are connected properly and that there is paper in the tray.
Also access the print monitor to determine if there are any print
jobs on hold that are creating an issue and blocking all new prin
t jobs. Finally, if there is still a problem, turn off the printer po
wer and restart it before trying to print again.
For additional troubleshooting tips, visit http://webpage.pace.ed
u/ms16182p/troubleshooting.Pause to Reflect
Given your experience, what suggestions would you offer to oth
er teachers about managing technology in the classroom? What
procedures and structures do you find most useful for ensuring t
hat students are on task? What recommendations would you mak
e regarding what to do when technology goes awry?
5.5 Digital Work Flow
Most adults grew up in an era when professional productivity in
volved moving paper around. However, it is now increasingly i

mportant to learn how to work digitally. Beyond the initial thou
ght that technology would make us more environmentally friend
ly by using less paper, digital work flow also provides a retrieva
l mechanism that was not previously available. Consider the exa
mple of airline boarding passes. At one time we needed to go to
the airport in person and check in to receive a piece of paper tha
t was used to provide admission to the appropriate terminal and
then entrance onto the appropriate airplane. Now we can forgo p
rinting altogether by checking in online and sending a digital bo
arding pass to our smartphone that can be scanned at the airport.
The digital boarding pass has been readily adopted by frequent
flyers because it eliminates the problem of finding a printer whi
le traveling between hotels and client work sites. However, in e
ducation we have not seriously examined the teaching and learni
ng work flow in the classroom.
Knowledge Management
Productivity experts (Allen, 2002; Sparks, 2012) have a variety
of suggestions for helping 21st-
century citizens deal with the ever-
increasing amounts of information. In particular, the problem of
managing an ever-expanding e-
mail inbox has been a significant vexation for productivity. Whi
le the notion of sharing information via e-
mail was initially viewed as desirable, most young people avoid
e-
mail in favor of sharing information via texting and social medi
a. Nevertheless, the fundamental issue remains: How do we man
age an ever-increasing amount of information?
Within education, the Council for Exceptional Children Preside
ntial Commission on the Conditions of Special Education Teach
ing and Learning (2000) drew attention to the urgent need to ad
dress the quality of special education work life by reducing the
paperwork demands of the profession. Despite this attention, the
IEP process continues to be an overwhelming paper-
based task for special education teachers to manage each year.

Knowledge management for teachers is largely an underdevelop
ed field (Caroll et al., 2003; Saba & McDowell, 2007). As a res
ult, we mostly rely on general strategies that have been found to
be useful in other professions. One of the foundational issues r
elated to knowledge management centers on the creation and ma
nagement of digital information. Once text has been created in a
word processor, it can be shared with others via e-
mail and posted on a server for downloading or archiving. More
over, as people rely more on cloud-
based tools such as Google Drive and Office 365, information is
accessible from each of their devices from any location. This is
a profound transformation in knowledge management that has y
et to be fully embraced by educators.
The goal of creating and managing information in a digital form
at is to ensure that it can be accessed and manipulated as needed
. Unfortunately, some people use their e-
mail box as a permanent storage folder for every message and at
tachment they have ever received. Although this system may wo
rk for some, it is largely ineffective. Productivity experts indica
te that we should act immediately on tasks that take less than 2
minutes and allocate regularly timed periods to take action on ta
sks that take 2–
10 minutes to complete in order to minimize the number of mess
ages in our e-mail inboxes with action pending.
One way that teachers can use this principle is to create an inbo
x in the online content management system or use a service such
as Dropbox (https://www.dropbox.com) through which students
can submit their assignments. Then teachers can provide feedba
ck on the assignments by using Track Changes within Microsoft
Word. After they have recorded the student’s grades in an elect
ronic grade book, they can return the assignment to the student
via e-
mail. Notice how this sample assignment has converted a paper
process to a transaction that has been completed entirely in an e
lectronic format. And because of the nature of server backups, i
nformation is seldom lost, and documents can be retrieved from

the system as needed in the future.
Naturally, this process takes some getting used to, and teachers
will need to prepare students to operate within a digital work fl
ow process (e.g., file naming conventions, where to upload assi
gnments). One frequent problem that some teachers encounter is
that students may save files in a noncompatible format that pre
vents teachers from opening the file. Therefore, it is important t
o teach students which file formats will be accepted and direct t
hem to online file conversion services like Zamzar (https://www
.zamzar.com) if needed.
Practical Strategies for Digital Work
The goal of modifying traditional classroom work into a digital
work flow requires an appreciation of the value of working elect
ronically, and clearly the transition process is painful for some.
Perhaps you recall hearing of professionals who had an assistant
print out e-
mails so that they could read them and then direct the assistant
on how to respond! Our students are increasingly familiar with
working in a digital environment and are comfortable completin
g forms online, submitting documents, and completing e-
commerce transactions without any need for paper printouts.
A good place for teachers to begin implementing a digital work
flow system in the classroom is by creating and using templates.
Think about a field trip permission form that you might create
and send home. Because the form is basically the same each tim
e, creating a file that serves as a template for this correspondenc
e saves a great deal of time, since you can go in and simply cha
nge the location and dates. Most productivity tools like word pr
ocessors, databases, and spreadsheets come with templates you
can use immediately for managing digital information.
Teachers have also found the use of digital logs helpful in keepi
ng track of events, materials, and more. Once you become disci
plined to record the entry, a log will show you a day-by-
day listing of the events (e.g., absences, behavioral outbursts, et
c.). Although logs are ideal for tracking basic information, if th

e goal is to do extensive searching, it might be better to store th
e information in a database. A practical tool for teachers who ne
ed to track information involves using a database like FileMaker
Pro (http://filemaker.com) that allows you to create custom dat
abases that function as an app. A practical tool for storing misce
llaneous information is Evernote (http://evernote.com). In both
cases the goal is to store information in an accessible digital for
mat, rather than trying to keep track of notes and random scraps
of paper.
Once teachers become comfortable with digital work, they often
find themselves accumulating an excellent collection of quizzes
, exams, and study materials. Such documents are extremely hel
pful when it comes time to make a study guide or design new qu
izzes. Simply open old documents and copy and paste selected it
ems into a new file. Distributing them via the class website allo
ws students to know where they can find these study resources
when they need them. All of this is part of the typical process of
helping students understand how to work effectively in the clas
sroom.
Finally, let’s consider an example using Google Sheets. A teach
er is interested in creating a survey that students will complete t
o provide information for an upcoming social science lesson. By
using the Google Forms tool (see Figure 5.3), the teacher create
s a simple survey. The app generates a URL that the teacher can
send via e-
mail to all of the students in the class. Students click on the link
and complete the survey. The teacher can go into Google and vi
ew the results of the survey as the raw data are captured in a spr
eadsheet and responses are graphed for visual analysis .
Notice that the entire process has been completed electronically.
If you have past experience in conducting survey research, you
will readily appreciate the time saved by not having to enter the
data from paper into the computer for analysis. This example il
lustrates the value of reconceptualizing educational practices th
at have traditionally been paper-
based into a digital work flow process.Figure 5.3: Survey result

s
Pause to Reflect
Think about recent transactions you have been involved in (such
as online shopping) that have been completely electronic. Is it r
easonable to think about how teaching and learning may be facil
itated through a digital work flow model? If so, why? If not, wh
y not?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
As more technology enters the classroom, the learning environm
ent is changing. Although some schools have limited classroom
technology that requires teachers to take their classes to labs, ot
hers have placed presentation technology (e.g., computer projec
tion systems, interactive whiteboards) in the classroom to suppo
rt teacher-directed instruction. However, the availability of low-
cost tablet computers and handheld devices is fueling a trend to
place technology in the hands of students. As districts move tow
ard implementing ubiquitous technologies, the classroom is subj
ect to a variety of new considerations about how to store, manag
e, and use technology when each child has access to digital tool
s. This means that teachers need support to design instruction th
at will take advantage of the power and potential of technology,
as well as assistance in troubleshooting when technology disrup
ts their teaching.
·
Technology labs are artifacts of the early days of educational te
chnology when computers were expensive and needed to be kept
in a central location where students would go to use computers.
·
In classrooms where there is only one computer, teachers often
use the computer for group instruction or professional productiv
ity. However, creative management strategies can be used to set
up three learning stations from one computer.
· In one-to-
one classrooms, technology is ubiquitous. To maximize the imp
act of this technology infrastructure, teachers must integrate tec

hnology into teaching and learning by developing meaningful le
arning activities that engage students and contribute to enhance
d learning outcomes.
·
In classrooms in which technology is integrated and used routin
ely, the technology becomes transparent. That is, the technology
is seldom noticed because the attention is focused on what stud
ents are able to do with it. Technology failures are an inconveni
ence, but the teacher and students can be well versed in how to
address such problems and move forward.
·
One important skill teachers may wish to acquire involves imple
menting digital work flow procedures in the classroom. That is,
it is possible to create procedures whereby teachers distribute as
signments electronically, students prepare and submit their wor
k electronically, and teachers evaluate student work and provide
feedback to students in an electronic format. Although some tea
chers are motivated to move in this direction because of its envi
ronmentally sensitive means of conserving paper, others recogni
ze the efficiencies found in digital work flow.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1.
You have been given the role of technology coordinator for your
school. How will you go about supporting teachers’ use of tech
nology? Review the following three-
article series, which provides some suggestions for technology l
eaders:
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 1: Managing the vi
sion. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(1), 46–50.
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 2: Managing the pe
rformance. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(2), 36–
39.
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 3: Managing the o

perations. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(3), 50–
53.
2.
Why does the configuration of technology in the classroom have
an impact on the management plan that teachers must use?
3.
Conduct a search to identify videos that may be used to introduc
e students to how to use a new piece of software or app.
4.
Select a software program or app and create a quick start guide.
5. Download and browse the following e-book:
The MacSparky Paperless Field Guide, by David Sparks (http://
www.macsparky.com/paperless). What ideas could you impleme
nt in your classroom to begin implementing the principle of digi
tal work flow? What are the pros and cons of such a system?
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Frasier, M., & Hearrington, D. (2017). Technology coordinator’
s handbook (3rd ed.). Eugene, OR: International Society of Tech
nology in Education.
An overview of the responsibilities of a school-
based technology leader who manages not only technology but p
eople and systems.
Schrum, L. M., & Levin, B. B. (2009). Leading 21st-
century schools: Harnessing technology for engagement and ach
ievement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Describes the importance and practical strategies for moving sc
hools to become 21st-
century learning organizations in which technology is used routi
nely and effectively to enhance student learning.
Web Watch
Classroom Management Technology Tools is a comprehensive c
ollection of tools and resources for managing technology in the
classroom.
http://ncsucedmetrc.weebly.com/classroom-management-
tech.html
The State Educational Technology Directors Association is a pr

ofessional association of state directors of educational technolo
gy that provides a means of staying up-to-
date on a variety of policy and implementation issues.
http://www.setda.org
Key Terms
acceptable use policy
bring your own device (BYOD)
computers on wheels (COWS)
digital work flow
one-to-one initiatives
technology lab
ubiquitous technology
Chapter 4Principles of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
· 4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.3 Universal Access to Text
· 4.4 Universal Access to Media
· 4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
·
Describe the consequences of lesson planning that focuses on th
e average student.
·
Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for le
arning.
·

Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of te
xt.
·
Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and video
files, and describe practical features that can be used in these ty
pes of media to make them universally accessible.
·
Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for lear
ning in your classroom using the principles of multiple means o
f representation or multiple means of expression.
Introduction
Schools have a long tradition of standardizing the format and fu
nction of education that has led to an expectation that the one-
size-fits-
all classroom will benefit everyone. However, diversity is a cha
racteristic of the human condition that needs to be valued and ce
lebrated. When the needs of diverse learners are not anticipated,
there is a relentless need for curriculum accommodations and m
odifications to retroactively try to meet their needs.
The goal of universal design for learning (UDL) is to proactivel
y value diversity such that supports are embedded in instruction
al materials before a student needs them. Not only does this hel
p facilitate the academic performance of students with disabiliti
es, who may be considered the primary beneficiary of accessible
design interventions, it also supports secondary groups of diver
se learners for whom we may not be able to identify such a need
in advance.
The design of curriculum and instruction is fundamentally differ
ent than the design of physical structures and environments. As
a result, teachers and instructional designers must be aware of t
he accessibility of the different containers they select for the ins
tructional materials they provide to diverse students. In this cha
pter, we will introduce methods that enhance the accessibility a
nd usability of text and media.
UDL is a discipline that is nearly 20 years old. Despite its short

history, the potential of UDL has captured the imagination of fe
deral policy makers, administrators, teachers, and parents. This
chapter will examine how UDL is being incorporated into federa
l legislation, policies, and laws, as well as suggest new directio
ns that are needed to ensure the widespread implementation of t
his important initiative to build flexible and engaging instructio
nal materials to meet the needs of diverse learners.Field Trip: M
eet Dr. David Rose, One of the Founders of UDL
Watch this video to learn about the historical foundations of UD
L.
Introduction to UDL
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve
a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard th
e phrase, “Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a pa
th to your door.” This statement speaks to the value of innovativ
e design for solving practical problems. However, design and in
vention are always contextualized within a time period and a sp
ecific culture, and they are subject to the limitations of contemp
orary technologies and materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible
to design tools, products, and information resources in ways tha
t make them accessible to diverse individuals. In this section, w
e will introduce principles from the field known as accessible d
esign. You will learn how designs that focus on the special need
s of individuals with disabilities can improve the user experienc
e for these individuals while also having secondary benefits for
everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as “design for the mean.”
As shown in Figure 4.1, using this approach, the designer is foc
used on creating a product that will reach the largest number of
people to ensure that it is commercially successful. When this h
appens, the needs of people at the ends of the bell curve are not

fully considered, because they are perceived as small segments
of the market. For example, consider the design of a wooden kit
chen chair for an adult who is of average height and weight. Ign
oring the segments of the population that fall outside of the mid
dle of the bell curve, in the margins, results in a chair that is no
t comfortable for people who are very short or very tall. In a bu
siness sense, the manufacturer made a deliberate decision to foc
us on the segment of the population where they could make the
most money.Figure 4.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve comme
rcial success by reaching a large percentage of people in the mai
nstream. The blue line represents the standard bell curve. The s
haded area below the peak indicates the target mass market of th
e average user.
In education, design for the mean takes on the form of a textboo
k that is written, purchased, and distributed to every student at a
specific grade level regardless of their reading ability or native
language. Similarly, design for the mean is the key instructiona
l principle when a teacher decides that all students will write a t
hree-
page book report to demonstrate that they have read and underst
ood a specific book. The problems associated with design for th
e mean are perpetuated on a daily basis when teachers use a trad
itional lesson plan book (see Figure 1.4 in Chapter 1) to develop
their lesson plans, because they restrict their thinking to the abi
lities and needs of the average student.
When teachers and instructional designers assume that everyone
is like them (e.g., of average height and weight, able to read at
grade level), the product they create will inevitably meet the ne
eds of only a limited range of users. Without an appreciation for
the fundamental ways that people are different (Hughes & Talb
ott, 2017), it is unlikely that teachers will be able to design prod
ucts that meet the accessibility and usability needs of all learner
s, because they will not understand the special needs of some. R
ose (2016) makes a compelling argument that we are living in a

n age in which mass customization and personalization has rend
ered the notion of “average” irrelevant. However, there is clearl
y much more to learn about how to meet the instructional needs
of diverse learners. Edyburn (2010) has argued that the develop
ment of “diversity blueprints” which describe the salient nature
of learner variance, are critical to the design process of product
s that meet the needs of all learners (see Table 4.1).Table 4.1: D
iversity and instructional design
Student performance variable
Range of diversity
Memory
Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-
term memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with info
rmation storage and retrieval and therefore may require explicit
strategy instruction.
Motivation
Students display varying levels of persistence in completing a ta
sk that may be related to their success with completing similar p
revious tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and dependency on
adults are important aspects to monitor. Over time, learners dev
elop intrinsic motivation for completing challenging tasks.
Sustained attention span
Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-
olds to 40 minutes for young adults. Attention-
deficit disorder may affect attention span. Over time, learners d
evelop expanded attention spans that allow them to focus on co
mplex cognitive tasks.
Speech and language
Speech and language begins developing in very young children
and provides a foundation for accelerated development once chil
dren become school age. Some disabilities will impair a child’s
oral communication skills and therefore may require other meth
ods of communication, such as a communication board or augme
ntative communication system.
Fine motor skills
Fine motor tasks require a level of hand–

eye coordination and fluency that is first learned as a preschool
er and evolves over time. Some disabilities will cause impaired
fine motor skills, which has implications for student work that
may involve handwriting, keyboarding, manipulating objects su
ch as turning pages in a book or using a computer mouse, etc.
Reading
Children’s early learning experiences frequently prepare them f
or formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by gr
ade levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a t
ext with the student’s independent or instructional reading level
. It is common to find a range of reading levels at every grade le
vel (some students will be reading at several levels below grade
level, and some will be reading at levels above grade level).
Problem solving
As in each of the other areas, children’s mathematical and probl
em-
solving skills will vary considerably at each grade level. Young
children and students who have difficulty with the conceptual pr
ocesses of problem solving benefit from the use of manipulative
s. Older students learn how to support their problem-
solving skills by using tools such as graphing calculators and sp
readsheets.
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts:
accessibility and usability. Accessibility refers to the inclusive
goal of designing tools, products, and information resources to
be usable by all people regardless of their skills or abilities. Usa
bility, in turn, refers to how easy it is to learn and use a product
. When considering any tool, product, or information resource, i
t is necessary to evaluate both its accessibility and usability (La
ngdon, Lazar, Heylighen, & Dong, 2014). A key principle of acc
essible design involves understanding that the special needs of i
ndividuals with disabilities can produce solutions that benefit ot
her groups.
For example, knowing that some people have a vision impairme
nt can translate into a design principle that all text should be adj
ustable, if necessary, by users so that they can enlarge the text t

o a size sufficient for comfortable viewing. Microsoft Word allo
ws users to change the size of the text on the screen by simply d
ragging a slider to make the text larger or smaller. Although vis
ion impairments are a specific disability, the same text enlarge
ment intervention can benefit most adults who experience decre
ased visual acuity as they age. This is a practical example of uni
versal design. That is, knowing that people have different levels
of visual acuity, product designers provide users with the oppor
tunity to adjust the size of the text to a level that they find “just
right” for their needs.
In summary, the fundamental problem of the design for the mea
n approach is that the resulting tool, product, or information ma
y be inaccessible for many individuals. That is, because the desi
gner focused on meeting the needs of only a specific segment of
the population, the product may not be accessible or usable by
many others (Carvalho, Dias, Reis, & Freire, 2018; Juárez-
Ramírez, 2017; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010). Again, consid
er what happens with a printed textbook that is written with the
assumption that all students read at grade level. Quite readily w
e can identify at least three groups of students whose needs will
not be met: students who are blind will not be able to access th
e printed textbook; students with reading disabilities will not be
able to independently read the information; and while gifted stu
dents will be able to read the information, they may not be suffi
ciently challenged to learn at a level commensurate with their a
bility. As a result, design for the mean involves assumptions ab
out the average student and therefore fails to meet the needs of
each student whose skills and abilities fall outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early 2
0th century. Clearly, the technical advances that allowed printin
g costs to be reduced such that each student could study from hi
s or her own textbook were an important development in educati
on. However, the historical one-size-fits-
all textbook is a poor match for the needs of diverse learners in
the 21st century because of the fixed layout, font size, reading l
evel, and language characteristic of printed text. This situation

creates the need for accommodations and modifications to make
the textbook accessible to diverse individuals by converting it t
o a digital format that permits students who are blind to access t
he text through refreshable Braille, students with reading disabi
lities to listen to the text with a text-to-
speech tool, and gifted students to pursue more advanced topics
through hyperlinks.
One characteristic of innovation is the ongoing development of
new technologies. Therefore, if we consider the achievement ga
p to be a result of the limitations of traditional instructional des
ign in education, it is necessary to explore instructional designs
that are more inclusive (Coyne, Kameenui, & Simmons, 2004; E
dyburn, 2010; Westwood, 2018).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our under
standing of the design of physical environments for individuals
with disabilities. As a result, the term universal design is most c
ommonly associated with architecture (Preiser & Ostroff, 2011;
Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). These developments have provided i
mportant insights regarding the need to prepare architects and d
esigners to understand special needs to ensure that their designs
are accessible from the outset, rather than requiring costly buil
ding modifications later.
Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design prin
ciples is curb cuts. Originally designed to improve mobility for
people with disabilities within our communities, curb cuts not o
nly accomplished that goal, they also improved access for peopl
e navigating their community with baby strollers, bicycles, skat
eboards, and more.
Another well-
known example of accessible design in the built environment is
what is known as the zero-
entry swimming pool. This type of pool was created to provide a
ccess for individuals in wheelchairs but has proved to be excelle
nt for anyone seeking to enjoy the water without becoming com

pletely submerged.
MichaelAngeloBoy/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in wheelchairs
by providing better accessibility.
Readers may also encounter the term universal design in the con
text of the home remodeling industry if they are caring for an ag
ing parent. Home remodelers have discovered that specific types
of changes to the living space (e.g., kitchen, bathroom, bedroo
m) make a home more accessible and safer for aging adults. Ma
ny families explore universal design home remodeling options—
such as changing doorknobs, altering countertop heights, and m
odifying toilets and showers—as a cost-
effective alternative to nursing homes. Indeed, many of the univ
ersal design interventions for individuals with disabilities are th
e same interventions that facilitate the independence of older ad
ults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in
the 1990s as the underlying principles were applied to computer
s. Gregg Vanderheiden at the Trace Center at the University of
Wisconsin–
Madison spearheaded conversations among the disability comm
unity and technology developers concerning initiatives to includ
e disability access-
ibility software as part of the operating system. At the time, a p
erson with a disability needed to seek out the services and assist
ance of an assistive technology specialist to be able to independ
ently use a computer. Vanderheiden argued that many accessibil
ity needs could be addressed, not only for individuals with disab
ilities but also for older adults, by installing the specialized acc
essibility software on each computer when it was shipped, rathe
r than being added later as an accommodation.
Over time, the computer manufacturing industry found Vanderh
eiden’s argument persuasive and agreed to install an accessibilit
y folder within the operation system. As a result, since the mid-
1990s, every computer shipped in the United States has an acces

sibility control panel that allows users to customize the operatio
n of the computer to accommodate physical, sensory, and to a li
mited extent, cognitive disabilities. Thus, accessibility control p
anels on computers represent a powerful example of universal d
esign that moves the construct from simply focusing on the built
environment to one that illustrates the importance of making to
ols and information accessible.
The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a
statement that serves as a mantra for universal design: “Good de
sign for people with disabilities can benefit everyone.” While u
niversal design is often advocated as “design for all,” in practic
e this has been difficult to achieve. A more practical way to thin
k about universal design is “design for more types” (see Figure
4.2). This means that we seek to understand the accessibility an
d usability barriers that individuals encounter and create new to
ols, products, and information resources that are inclusive to mo
re individuals than would be the case with ordinary design for t
he mean approaches.Figure 4.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by e
xpanding the zone of accessibility and usability beyond a small
segment of the population (as contrasted with Figure 4.1) in ord
er to include as many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 2, over a lifetime each of us or someon
e we know will encounter limitations due to aging, disease, acci
dent, and/or disability that may impair basic life functions such
as hearing, seeing, self-
care, mobility, working, and learning. While some of us may be
born with a disability or disease that will require us to overcom
e limitations throughout our lives, others will need to learn how
to respond to challenges that arise from an accident or simply a
s a result of growing older.
In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and
limitations are fundamentally part of the human condition. In th

e classroom, it is important to think about learner differences as
part of the instructional planning process. For example, should
n’t we expect to find great variation in students’ knowledge and
skills? When we walk into any classroom, we should anticipate
differences among students relative to the following:
· attention span
· persistence
· reading ability
· handwriting legibility
· number sense and problem-solving skills
· oral communication skills
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both
obvious and hidden, as summarized in Table 4.2.Table 4.2 Acce
ss barriers can be visible or hidden
Access barriers
Obvious barriers
· Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or on crutches
· Print for a person who is blind
· Audio for a person who is deaf
· Video for a person who is blind
Hidden barriers
· Attitudes
· One-size-fits-all approaches
· Text that is fixed
· Poor design
· Time limits
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a
range that we think we can manage (e.g., “Oh, I can’t teach that
student; he’s blind.”). When we fail to recognize the range of di
versity found in the population, there will be a need for an acco
mmodation (e.g., “We’ll see if we can get a copy of the textboo
k in Braille.”).
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to diversity
, the goal of universal design is to proactively value differences
—

that is, to anticipate learners’ differences before they enter the c
lassroom so that we can support their academic performance bef
ore they fail. This is consistent with McLeskey and Waldron’s (
2007) description of the goal of special education as “making di
fferences ordinary.” As a result, we need not only to recognize
diverse learners in our classrooms but also to respond to their n
eeds before they fail. Universal design for learning is a speciali
zed application of universal design and is an approach that hold
s considerable promise for meeting the needs of diverse learners
.Pause to Reflect
Locate the accessibility controls on your computer, tablet, or sm
artphone. What adjustments can you now make with these tools
to improve the accessibility and usability of your device? Do yo
u know anyone else who could benefit from knowing about and
using these tools?
4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the phrase “universal design for learning” is gener
ally attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues
at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (Edyburn
& Gardner, 2009). However, an often overlooked fact is that th
e principles of UDL were developed during the period before an
d after the 1997 reauthorization of the IDEA. During that time,
both general and special educators were preoccupied with issues
associated with implementing inclusion. Although students wit
h disabilities had gained physical access to the general educatio
n classroom through inclusion, concerns were being raised abou
t how students would gain “access to the general curriculum.” A
n interpretive document about universal design for learning (Or
kwis & McLane, 1998) was disseminated extensively and served
to generate the first wave of national attention to the construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization containe
d several specific mandates relative to making the general curric
ulum accessible for students with disabilities.
·

statements of a child’s current level of educational performance
to specify how his or her disability affects involvement and pro
gress in the general curriculum
· IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-
term objectives or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be in
volved—and progress—in the general curriculum
·
a statement of the special education and related services and sup
plementary aids and services to be provided to the child
·
a description of any program modifications or supports for scho
ol personnel necessary for the child to advance appropriately to
ward the annual goals, to progress in the general curriculum, an
d to be educated and participate with other children both with a
nd without disabilities
·
IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent, if
any, to which the child will not participate with children withou
t disabilities in the general class and activities (p. 9)
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated wi
th access to the curriculum are encouraged to review Karger and
Hitchcock (2004). These issues were at the forefront of CAST’s
work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal grant to establish th
e National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum, which
became instrumental in garnering national attention for the pote
ntial of UDL.
As CAST’s insights about UDL were taking shape, staff member
s presented their work at the annual Office of Special Education
Project Directors’ Conference in 2000. CAST also used publica
tion outlets to describe its ideas about how universal design cou
ld be applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & M
eyer, 2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002
when Rose and Meyer published a book called Teaching Every
Student in the Digital Age, which became a classic work about
UDL. The authors elaborated on the conceptual framework of U

DL, pointing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about
brain development, learning, and digital media. Rose and Meyer
also called attention to the disconnect between an increasingly
diverse student population and a one-size-fits-
all curriculum, arguing that these conditions would not produce
the desired academic achievement gains expected of 21st-
century global citizens. Challenging educators to think of the cu
rriculum, rather than the students, as disabled, their translation
of the principles of universal design from architecture to educati
on are nothing short of a major paradigm shift (Edyburn & Gard
ner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as
a means of focusing research, development, and educational pra
ctice on understanding diversity and applying technology to faci
litate learning. CAST’s philosophy of UDL is embodied in a ser
ies of principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
·
multiple means of representation to give learners various ways o
f acquiring information and knowledge;
·
multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives fo
r demonstrating what they know; and
·
multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, ch
allenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Joesboy/iStock Unreleased/GettyImages
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about ecosystem
s. What are some other ways teachers can present information to
students without using a textbook?
Multiple means of representation may be understood as providin
g students with alternatives to learning information beyond sole
ly using a textbook. Teachers today have many choices when it
comes to presenting instructional content to students: Watch a Y
ouTube video, listen to a podcast, read text on a web page, use
Wikipedia to learn more about a topic, and so on. The key notio

n is to encourage teachers to use a wider palette of information
containers to reach diverse students by breaking out of the one-
size-fits-
all model, which assumes that all students learn in the same way
and need the same learning materials.
Multiple means of expression draws attention to the need to pro
vide students with multiple options for demonstrating what they
know. Some teachers recognize the value of this principle as th
ey allow students a choice of writing a paper, preparing a slide s
how presentation, recording a video, and so on. The key notion i
s to provide students with choices in how they demonstrate what
they have learned and the media they use to express themselves
. Twenty-first-
century educators will likely need to alter their instructional pra
ctices to place students in the role of Goldilocks: that is, allowi
ng them to try multiple options to determine which option is “ju
st right” for ensuring that their performance meets increasingly
high standards. Principles of fairness dictate that equity is achie
ved when every student receives what he or she needs (Welch, 2
000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is mul
tiple means of engagement, which is based on the learning princ
iple that deep learning is only accomplished through sustained e
ngagement. Access to the curriculum is a prerequisite to engage
ment. However, sustained engagement is achieved by activities t
hat are interesting, motivating, and at the right challenge level,
what Vygotsky (1962) calls the zone of proximal development. I
ndeed, research has demonstrated the relationship between deep
learning and high levels of performance and expertise (Csikszen
tmihalyi, 1990; Schlechty, 2002; Kaufman & Duckworth, 2017).
CAST (2011) elaborated on the core principles through the deve
lopment of UDL Guidelines. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, each o
f the three core principles has been expanded to include three gu
idelines that speak to the instructional design features that are n
eeded to implement each principle. Teachers and instructional d
esigners can use these guidelines as they create instructional ma

terials.
Figure 4.3: CAST’s UDL guidelines 2.0
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means o
f representation, action and expression, and engagement, teache
rs can help shape more informed, goal-
oriented, and determined learners.
The following interaction walks you through the UDL guideline
s.
Policy Foundations
The impact of UDL can be traced through U.S. federal special e
ducation law. Thus, in the 2004 reauthorization of the IDEA, wh
ich governs special education, the term universal design was def
ined by its reference in a previous federal law:
The term “universal design” is defined in section 3001, item (19
) of Public Law 105-
394, the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as “a concept or phi
losophy for designing and delivering products and services that
are usable by people with the widest possible range of functiona
l capabilities, which include products and services that are direc

tly accessible (without requiring assistive technologies) and pro
ducts and services that are interoperable with assistive technolo
gies.” (U.S.C. § 3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition
of universal design as it was included in the Assistive Technolo
gy Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term “universal design” means a concept or philosophy for
designing and delivering products and services that are usable b
y people with the widest possible range of functional capabilitie
s, which include products and services that are directly usable (
without requiring assistive technologies) and products and servi
ces that are made usable with assistive technologies. (U.S.C. § 3
002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher Educatio
n Opportunity Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-315, § 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN.—
The term “universal design” as the meaning given the term in se
ction 3 of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 (29 U.S.C. 300
2).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING.—
The term “universal design for learning” means a scientifically
valid framework for guiding educational practice that—
(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in
the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills,
and in the ways students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accom
modations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achieve
ment expectations for all students, including students with disab
ilities and students who are limited English proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of UDL evolved from a concept or
philosophy in 1998 to a scientifically validated framework in 20
08. Evidently, the work CAST (2011) compiled to support vario
us components of UDL design principles was mischaracterized b
y lobbyists and written into federal law (Edyburn, 2010). Where
as the body of knowledge concerning UDL has expanded in the
past 10 years, researchers conclude that there is insufficient res

earch evidence to support claims that UDL is a scientifically val
idated intervention (Capp, 2017; Crevecoeur, Sorenson, Mayorg
a, & Gonzalez, 2014; Edyburn, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2018; Ok,
Rao, Bryant, & McDougall, 2017; Rao, Ok, & Bryant, 2014).
Over the past 20 years, UDL has captured the imagination of pol
icy makers, researchers, administrators, and teachers. UDL prov
ides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-
all mold and therefore expands the opportunities for learning for
all students with learning differences. Recognizing and respond
ing to diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL practi
ces. Finally, in an era with increased expectations for education
al outcomes, UDL is an important and timely strategy for enhan
cing student academic achievement. The mantra that evolved fro
m our understanding of the value of curb cuts, “Good design for
people with disabilities benefits everyone,” provides a powerfu
l rationale for exploring large-
scale application of UDL in education.
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school stude
nts, an experienced educator can reasonably anticipate that 5–
7 students will have below grade-level reading skills, 3–
5 will have learning disabilities, 1–
2 will have vision or hearing difficulties, and 2–
4 will have a primary language other than English. The current
model of curriculum accommodations requires that these student
s first be identified as having special needs before special suppo
rt services can be provided.
The promise of UDL suggests that instructional materials can be
designed to provide adjustable instructional design controls. On
e way to think about these controls is to consider a volume cont
rol slider that is adjustable to be off or some level between low
and high. Tomlinson (1999) speaks of this concept as equalizers
. As illustrated in Figure 4.4, universal design control panels co
uld be included in all instructional software and be accessed by
students and teachers when an adjustment is needed. Just think
of it: Do you need reading materials at a lower readability? Just

go into the control panel and reset the slider, and the same infor
mation could be presented at a lower reading level.
Figure 4.4: Model of equalizers
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to adj
ust the difficulty of curriculum and/or the type of supports that
are activated to help diverse learners.
Many people find it difficult to visualize what universally desig
ned curricula might look like. Table 4.3 identifies digital resour
ces that can help us understand the potential of UDL. As you ex
plore each resource, consider how the resource was designed to
support the success of all learners by embedding supports that c
an be used by any learner as needed. Also consider the followin
g questions:
·
Would these instructional materials be helpful to a single studen
t? (If so, it might be considered assistive technology.)
·
Would these instructional materials be helpful to a small group
of students? (If so, it might be useful as a response to interventi
on Tier 2 intervention.)
·
Would these instructional materials be of value to the entire cla
ss in order to reach those who we know will struggle, as well as
many other students whom we cannot identify in advance? (If so
, it might be considered universal design for learning.)
Table 4.3: Instructional designs that proactively value differenc
es
Instructional challenge

Finally, consider the difference between traditional textbooks (c
reated with a design for the mean perspective; see Figure 4.1) a
nd digital learning materials that feature embedded supports tha
t can be used by any learner (created with a design for more typ
es perspective; see Figure 4.4).
Pause to Reflect
If we begin with the design premise that not all learners who ent
er a classroom will be reading at grade level, why might a websi
te that (a) has curriculum content written at multiple reading lev
els, (b) has text-to-
speech available, and (c) has second language translation availa
ble be more accessible and engaging than a traditional textbook
? If such instructional materials were routinely available, what
does this type of digital curriculum say about a school’s commit
ment to UDL as a strategy for meeting the needs of diverse lear
ners?4.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in printed textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is
a certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. Th
e margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide
a striking contrast against the white paper). While the characteri
stics of print and books have changed little since the invention
of the printing press, we now know that to some people the boo
k is a difficult container in which to access information.
For example, consider a child who was born without arms. How
does he turn the pages of the book or carry the book from his de
sk to his locker? What about a child who has a vision impairmen
t and needs the text enlarged to be able to see the print? What a
bout a child whose first language is not English—

of what use is an English textbook to her? And what about the st
udent who cannot read independently at grade level?
helenaak/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
By converting printed text into digital format, you can make tex
t more accessible to students. What are other advantages to stud
ents accessing text digitally?
Typically, the first step in making the information accessible is
to scan the text into the computer to create a digital version of t
he text. Digital text is inherently flexible. That is, the size, font,
and color of the text can be readily altered (e.g., consider how
you can change the appearance of text in your word processor).
In addition, digital text can be manipulated in ways that provide
physical, sensory, and cognitive access.
To meet the needs of diverse learners, it is becoming increasingl
y clear that 21st-
century curricula should be developed, stored, and used in a dig
ital format. Print-on-
demand tools can be made available and used as needed. Howev
er, notice how the traditional paradigm has been flipped. Rather
than creating print books that have to be converted into digital
format, books should be created and distributed in electronic for
mats and printed when the need arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make t
ext universally accessible. The goal is to present resources, strat
egies, and tools that you can use in your classroom to ensure tha
t your students will have universal access to text-
based information.
Text Creation
Today almost all information is created through the use of a key
board and a computer. This means that most text is “born” digit
al. As you learned while mastering your word processor, it is ea
sy to save, change, and print documents when the text is saved i
n a word processor. As a result, few people who have mastered t
he basic mechanics of a word processor want to go back to usin

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