Consumer Attitudes Explained

Consumer Behaviour
Eighth Canadian Edition
Chapter 7
Attitudes
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc.
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When you finish reading this chapter, you will understand why:
7.1 It is important for consumer researchers to understand the
function and importance of attitudes.
7.2 Attitudes are made up of three components: affect,
behaviour, and cognition.
7.3 We form attitudes in several ways.
7.4 We use attitude models to identify specific components and
combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude toward a
product or brand.
7.5 Under some circumstances, attitudes can predict behaviour.
7.6 Social norms can impact the degree to which consumer
attitudes will influence their behaviours.
Chapter Objectives

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Learning Activity -7
Vocabulary Parking Lot -7
Attitudes
Forming Attitudes
Functional Theory of Attitudes
ABC Model of Attitudes
Attitude Commitment
Internalization
Identification
Compliance
Consistency Principle
Cognitive Dissonance
Self-perception theory
Post-purchase dissonance
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Learning Activity -7
Vocabulary Parking Lot -7
Social judgment theory
Balance theory
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The Power of Attitudes

Attitude
Lasting, general evaluation of people, objects, advertisements,
or issues
Attitude object (AO)
Help to determine a number of preferences and actions
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LO 7.1 It is important for consumer researchers to understand
the function and importance of attitudes.
Functional Theory of Attitudes (1 of 4)
Katz: Attitudes exist because they serve some function
Determined by a person’s motives
Attitude functions:
Utilitarian
Value-expressive
Ego-defensive
Knowledge
Marketers emphasize the function a product serves for
consumers (what benefits it provides)
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Marketers emphasize the function a product serves for
consumers (what benefits it provides)

Buckley’s, an Ontario-based company, highlights the utilitarian
function by focusing on the rewards it can provide (It works!)
and making fun of the unishments associated with it (It tastes
awful!).
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Katz: attitudes exist because they serve some function
UTILITARIAN
FUNCTION:
Relates to rewards and punishments
VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION:
Expresses consumer’s values or self-concept
EGO-DEFENSIVE
FUNCTION:
Protect ourselves from external threats or internal feelings
KNOWLEDGE
FUNCTION:
Need for order, structure, or meaning
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Marketers emphasize the benefits a product serves for
consumers
Example: Study of football fans identified three
clusters:ClusterSports Marketer’s StrategyDie-hard team
fansProvide greater sports knowledge
Relate attendance to personal valuesThose who enjoy cheering
for winning teamPublicize aspects of visiting teams, such as
sports starsThose who look for camaraderieProvide improved
peripheral benefits (e.g., improved parking)
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The ABC Model of Attitudes
Attitude has three components:
Affect: The way a consumer feels about an attitude object.
Behaviour: Person’s intentions to do something with regard to
an attitude object.
Cognition: Beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object.
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LO 7.2 Attitudes are made up of three components: affect,

Hierarchies of Effects
Impact/importance of attitude components depends on
consumer’s motivation toward attitude object
FIGURE 7–1 Three Hierarchies of Effects
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Hierarchy of Effects
High-Involvement Hierarchy
Consumer “bonds” with the product over time and is not easily
persuaded to experiment with other brands.
Seeks out a lot of information, carefully weigh alternatives, and
come to a thoughtful decision.
Low-Involvement Hierarchy
Consumer does not have strong brand preference
Consumers swayed by simple stimulus-response connections
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ZAJONC’S MODEL OF HEDONIC CONSUMPTION

According to the experiential hierarchy of effects, we act on the
basis of our emotional reactions.
hedonic motivations
emotional contagion
cognitive-affective model
independence hypothesis does not eliminate the role of
cognition in experience
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LO .2 Attitudes are made up of three components: affect,
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Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story Attitude Toward
the Advertisement
We form attitudes toward objects other than the product; this
can influence product selections.
We often form product attitudes from ads
Aad: Attitude toward advertiser + evaluations of ad execution +
ad evoked mood + ad arousal effects on consumer + viewing
context
Think about it: When you read a pleasant ad are you interested
in the product or the atmosphere?
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Ads Can Create Powerful Feelings

Commercials evoke emotion
Upbeat feelings: amused, delighted, playful
Warm feelings: affectionate, contemplative, hopeful
Negative feelings: critical, defiant, offended
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Forming Attitudes
Classical conditioning: Repeated often
Instrumental conditioning: Reinforcement, modeling
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LO 7.3 We form attitudes in several ways.
Attitude Commitment
Degree of commitment is related to level of involvement with
attitude object
INTERNALIZATION
Highest level: deep-seeded attitudes become part of consumer’s
value system
IDENTIFICATION
Mid-level: attitudes formed in order to conform to another
person or group
COMPLIANCE

Lowest level: consumer forms attitude because it gains rewards
or avoids punishments
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Consistency Principle
Principle of cognitive consistency:
We value/seek harmony among thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours
We will change components to make them consistent
Think about it: Do you ever make choices that your know are
unhealthy, but do it anyway? Why?
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Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony Among Attitudes
Theory of cognitive dissonance
When a consumer is confronted with inconsistencies
among attitudes or behaviours, action is required to resolve the
“dissonance”
Example: Two belief statements about smoking:
“I know smoking causes cancer”
“I smoke cigarettes”
Consumer will resolve the dissonance by either satisfying urge

to smoke or stopping the behaviour
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Post-purchase dissonance
Post-purchase dissonance can occur in situations where the
consumer has a choice between more than one
favourable alternative
dissonance resolution to commit to the chosen object even more
after purchase
Marketers can reaffirm that the consumer made the right choice
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Self-Perception Theory
We use observations of our own behaviour to determine our
attitudes
We must have a positive attitude toward a product if we freely
purchase it, right?
Low-involvement hierarchy (after the fact)
Foot-in-the-door technique (start with small request)
Low-ball technique (ask for small favour)
Door-in-the-face technique (ask for big favour)

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Social Judgement Theory
Social judgment theory
We assimilate new information about attitude objects in light of
what we already know/feel
Initial attitude = frame of reference
Latitudes of acceptance and rejection
Assimilation and contrast effects
Brand preference
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Balance Theory (1 of 2)
Balance theory
Considers relations among elements a consumer might perceive
as belonging together
Involves triad attitude structures:
Person
Perception of attitude object
Perception of other person/object
Perception can be positive or negative
Balanced/harmonious triad elements
Unit relation and sentiment relation

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Balance Theory (2 of 2)
Consistency theories, such as balance theory, predict that
consumers will have more favourable attitudes to a product if it
is paired with a positively viewed stimulus such as the beaver, a
well-liked Canadian icon.
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Restoring Balance in a Triad
FIGURE 7–2 Alternative Routes to Restoring Balance in a Triad
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Basking in reflected glory
Consumers often like to publicize their connections with
successful people or organizations to enhance their own
standing.
Marketing Applications
Marketers use celebrity endorsers of products to create positive
associations –
Budweiser release of a limited edition “Fan Brew” beer for
Winnipeg Jets fans.
Can backfire if public opinion of celebrity shifts e.g., Tiger
Woods.
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Basking in Glory
Fans rushed to get their NBA Championship gear after the
Toronto Raptors won (lots of basking in
their glory)!
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Attitude Models
Attitude assessment can be complex
Product/service may have many attributes
Attitudes are affected by other factors (approval of others)
Attitude models help identify influencers of evaluations
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LO 7.4 We use attitude models to identify specific components
and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude
toward a product or brand.
Multi-Attribute Attitude Models
Multi-attribute models: Consumer’s attitudes toward an attitude
object depends on beliefs she has about several or many
attributes of the object
Three elements
Attributes of AO (e.g., college)
Example: scholarly reputation
Beliefs about AO
Example: University or College is strong academically
Importance weights
Example: stresses research over athletics
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Fishbein Model

Measures three components of attitudes:
Salient beliefs about AO
Object-attribute linkages
Evaluation of each important attribute
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Attribute Models
Table 7–1 The Basic Multi-attribute Model: Narveen’s Grocery
Store DecisionBeliefs (B)Attribute (i)Importance
(I)SafewayIGALoblawsLow prices5224Customer loyalty
card3551Free and accessible parking4444In-store deli5553Fresh
produce2334Attitude score727362
Note: These hypothetical ratings are scored from 1 to 5, and
higher numbers indicate “better” standing on an attribute.
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Strategic Applications of Multi-Attribute Model
Capitalize on relative advantage: Convince consumers that
product attributes are important in brand choice
Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages: If consumers

don’t associate certain attributes with the brand, make the
relationship stronger
Add a new attribute: Focus on unique positive attribute that
consumer has not considered
Influence competitors’ ratings: Decrease the attributes of
competitors
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The Extended Fishbein Model (1 of 2)
This Vietnamese ad employs social pressure (the subjective
norm) to
address people’s attitudes toward wearing helmets.
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LO 7.5 Under some circumstances, attitudes can predict
behaviour.
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The Extended Fishbein Model (2 of 2)
Theory of reasoned action: Considers other elements of
predicting behaviour
Intentions versus behaviour: measure behavioural intentions,
not just intentions

Social pressure: Acknowledge the power of other people in
purchasing decision
Subjective norm: What we believe other people think we should
do
Attitude toward buying: Measure attitude toward the act of
buying, not just the product
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behaviour.
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Obstacles to Predicting Behaviour in the Theory of Reasoned
Action
Fishbein model’s weaknesses include:
Doesn’t deal with outcomes of behaviour, including those
beyond consumer’s control
Doesn’t consider unintentional behaviour, such as impulsive
acts or novelty seeking
Doesn’t consider that attitudes may not lead to consumption
Doesn’t consider the time frame between attitude measurement
and behaviour
Doesn’t differentiate between consumer’s direct, personal
experience, and indirect experience
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behaviour.

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Normative Influences
Two types:
Descriptive norms – norms that convey what others are doing
Injunctive norms – norms that convey what others think you
should do
Descriptive norms can be very powerful
Cialdini and colleagues reuse of hotel towels research
Especially combined with feedback – Opower
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LO 7.6 Social norms can impact the degree to which consumer
Attitude Change and Decisions
This ad tries to help motivate parents with options for healthly
eating and exercise.
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LO 7.6 Social norms can impact the degree to which consumer
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Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 6
Personality, Lifestyles and Values

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6.1 A consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she
responds to marketing stimuli and how the various theories of
personality differ.
6.2 Marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand
personality.”
6.3 Consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies.
6.4 Psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help
marketers understand and reach different consumer segments.
6.5 Every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its
members.
Chapter Objectives
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Learning Activity 6
Vocabulary Parking Lot 6
Personality - patterns that unique in term thinking, feeling and
behaviour

Extraverts - sociable, talkative, friendly, outgoing, humorous
Introverts - shy, lonely, solitary, talk-less,
Freudian Systems – Id, ego, superego
Trait Theories
Consumer’s innovativeness
Brand Personality
Dogmatism
Psychographics
AIO
Geodemography
VALS
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Personality
Person’s unique psychological makeup and how it consistently
influences the way a person responds to his/her environment
personality construct has been hotly debated
inconsistent behaviour
some aspects of personality tend to be relatively stable
Personality
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LO 6.1 A consumer’s personality can influence the way he or
she responds to marketing stimuli and how the various theories
of personality differ.
Much of human behaviour stems from a fundamental conflict
between a person’s desire to gratify his or her physical needs
and the necessity to function as a responsible member of
society…
Three symbolic systems:
Id: pleasure principle (the party animal)
Superego: our conscience (the conscience)
Ego: mediates between id and superego (the referee)
Freudian Systems (1 of 3)
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Marketing Implications
Unconscious motives underlying purchases
Implication is that consumers cannot necessarily tell us their
true motivations for choosing a product
Symbolism in products to compromise
id and superego
Sports car as sexual gratification for men
Phallic symbols, such as cigars
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The seductive synergy between the asparagus curl and the butter
curl suggests a natural ombination of food flavours and
textures. This is an example of bringing an inanimate object to
life in a way that gives it a personality.
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1950’s - Freudian ideas unlock deeper product and
advertisement meanings
Individual Consumers and in-depth interviews
This type of research is attached two ways…
Has great appeal to marketers looking to uncover consumer
insights.
Motivational Research (1 of 5)
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Ernest Dichter pioneered the in-depth interview technique
Dichter conducted in-depth interview studies on more than 230
different products
many of his findings have been incorporated in actual marketing
campaigns
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Table 6–1 Major Motives for Consumption as Identified by
Ernest DichterMotiveAssociated
ProductsPower/masculinity/virilityPower: Sugary products and
large breakfasts (to charge oneself up), bowling, electric tra ins,
hot rods, power toolsMasculinity/virility: Coffee, red meat,
heavy shoes, toy guns, shaving with a razorSecurityIce cream
(to feel like a loved child again), full drawer of neatly ironed
shirts, home baking, hospital careEroticismSweets (to lick),
gloves (to be removed by women as a form of undressing), a
man lighting a woman’s cigarette (to create a tension-filled
moment culminating in pressure, then relaxation)Moral
purity/cleanlinessWhite bread, cotton fabrics (to connote
chastity), harsh household cleaning chemicals, bathing, oatmeal
(sacrifice, virtue)Social acceptanceCompanionship: Ice cream
(to share fun), coffeeLove and affection: Toys (to express love
for children), sugar and honey (to express terms of
affection)Acceptance: Soap, beauty products
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Table 6–1 continuedMotiveAssociated
ProductsIndividualityGourmet foods, foreign cars, vodka,
perfume, fountain pensStatusScotch, fur coats, luxury
carsFemininityCakes and cookies, dolls, silk, tea, household
curios (to have a light, decorative, and heavily tactile
component)RewardCandy, alcohol, ice cream, cookiesMastery
over environmentKitchen appliances, boats, sporting
goodsDisalienation (a desire to feel a connectedness to
things)Home decorating, skiing, morning radio broadcasts (to
feel “in touch” with the world)Magic/mysterySoups (have
healing powers), paints (change the mood of a room),
carbonated drinks (magical, effervescent property), vodka
(romantic history), unwrapping of gifts
Adapted from Jeffrey F. Durgee, “Interpreting Dichter’s
Interpretations: An Analysis of Consumption Symbolism,” in
The Handbook of Consumer Motivations, Marketing, and
Semiotics: Selected Papers from the Copenhagen Symposium,”
eds. Hanne Hartvig-Larsen, David Glen Mick, and Christian
Alstead (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991).
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Criticisms
Lacks sufficient rigour and validity
Too sexually-based
Appeal
Develops communications that appeal to deep-seated needs

Helps with exploratory research
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Karen Horney
Proposed people can be described as:
Moving toward others (compliant)
Moving away from others (detached)
Against others (aggressive)
Non-Freudian Theories (1 of 2)
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Carl Jung
believed that people are shaped by the cumulative experiences
of past generations
collective unconscious
universally shared ideas and behaviour patterns (archetypes)
Non-Freudian Theories (2 of 2)
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Brand Asset Valuator Archetypes
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Traits
Identifiable characteristics that define a person
Types of traits include:
Extroversion
Innovativeness
Self-consciousness
Need for cognition
Trait Theories
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Inner and Outer Direction -Trait TheoryIdiocentrics
(individualist orientation)Allocentrics
(group orientation)
ContentmentMore satisfied with current lifeLess satisfied with
current lifeHealth ConsciousnessLess likely to avoid unhealthy
foodsMore likely to avoid unhealthy foodsFood
PreparationSpend less time preparing foodLove kitchen; spend
more time preparing foodWorkaholicsMore likely to work hard
and stay late at workLess likely to work hardTravel and
EntertainmentMore interested in traveling to other culturesVisit
library and read more
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When Traits are Useful
Personality traits often interact with situational factors to
predict how consumers will behave.
public self-consciousness
need for uniqueness
need for cognition
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Brand Personality (1 of 3)
Brand Personality
Set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person
Consumers infer strong differences in a wine’s personality
based on the
design of the bottle’s label.
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LO 6.2 Marketers can use a variety of techniques to create
“brand personality.”

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Brand Equity
The extent to which consumers hold strong, favourable, and
unique associations with a brand in memory
This visual for Harley-Davidson conveys personality
characteristics that resonate with the average Harley rider.
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Brand Behaviours and Personality Trait Inferences
Table 6–2 Brand Behaviours and Possible Personality Trait
InferenceBrand ActionTrait InferenceBrand is repositioned
several times or changes its slogan repeatedly.Flighty,
schizophrenicBrand uses continuing character in its
advertising.Familiar, comfortableBrand charges a high price and
uses exclusive distribution.Snobbish, sophisticatedBrand is
frequently available on a special deal.Cheap, unculturedBrand
offers many line extensions.Versatile, adaptableBrand sponsors
a show on PBS or uses recycled materials.Helpful,
supportiveBrand features easy-to-use packaging or speaks at
consumer’s level in advertising.Warm, approachableBrand
offers seasonal clearance sale.Planful, practicalBrand offers
five-year warranty or free customer hotline.Reliable,
dependable
Adapted from Susan Fournier, “A Consumer-Brand Relationship
Framework for Strategic Brand Management” (doctoral
dissertation, Department of Marketing, University of Florida,
1994), Table 2.2: 24.
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Animism
Inanimate objects are given qualities that make them somehow
alive
Two types of animism can be identified to describe the extent to
which human qualities are attributed to a product:
Level 1: the object is associated with a human individual
Level 2: Objects are anthropomorphized—given human

characteristics
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Brand Personality (Anthropomorphization)
Geico creates a distinct brand personality by the use of
anthropomorphization.
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Brand personality is a statement of brand positioning
Some brands re-position to gain new interest in their products
Think about it: Do you respond to re-positioned products as if
they were new?
Personality of Positioning
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Lifestyles (1 of 2)
Lifestyle
Consumption patterns reflecting a person’s choices of how one
spends time and money
the way he or she has elected to allocate income
or in terms of their broad patterns of consumption
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LO 6.3 Consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing
strategies.
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Lifestyles (2 of 2)
Lifestyle marketing perspective
Recognizes that people sort themselves into groups on the basis
of the things they like to do, how they like to spend their leisure
time, and how they choose to spend their disposable income
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strategies.

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Forms of expressive symbolism
Self-definition of group members = common symbol system
Terms include lifestyle, taste public, consumer group, symbolic
community, status culture
Each person provides a unique “twist” to be an “individual”
Tastes/preferences evolve over time
Lifestyles as Group Identities
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strategies.
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Product Are the Building Blocks of Lifestyles (1 of 2)
Product usage in desirable social settings
Marketers encourage a sense of community among product users
Thus, people, products, and settings are combined to express a
certain consumption style
FIGURE 6–2 Linking Products to Lifestyles
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strategies.

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Patterns of behaviour:
Co-branding strategies: Brands team up with other companies to
promote products
Product complements: Symbolic meanings of different products
relate to one another
Consumption constellations: Define, communicate, and perform
social roles
Product Are the Building Blocks of Lifestyles (2 of 2)
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strategies.
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Psychographics
Use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors
to:
Determine market segments
Determine their reasons for choosing products
Fine-tune offerings to meet needs of different segments
Consumers can share the same demographics and still be very
different!
Psychographics
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LO 6.4 Psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help

Lifestyle profile: Differentiates between users and nonusers of a
product
Product-specific profile: Identifies a target group and profiles
consumers based on product-related dimensions
General lifestyle segmentation: Places a large sample of
respondents into homogeneous groups based on similarities of
preferences
Product-specific segmentation: Tailors questions to a product
category
Conducting a Psychographic Analysis (1 of 2)
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Conducting a Psychographic Analysis (2 of 2)
Red Bull appeals to consumers who
have adventurous personalities.
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AIO
Grouping consumers according to:
Activities
Interests
Opinions
First determine which lifestyle segments are producing the bulk
of customers for a particular product.
Identifying heavy, moderate, and light users
Targeting heavy users and the benefits they derive from product
AIO
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Lifestyle Dimensions
Table 6–4 Lifestyle
DimensionsActivitiesInterestsOpinionsDemographicsWorkFamil
yThemselvesAgeHobbiesHomeSocial issuesEducationSocial
eventsJobPoliticsIncomeVacationCommunityBusinessOccupatio
nEntertainmentRecreationEconomicsFamily sizeClub
membershipsFashionEducationDwellingCommunityFoodProduct
sGeographyShoppingMediaFutureCity
sizeSportsAchievementsCultureStage in life cycle
William D. Wells and Douglas J. Tigert, “Activities, Interests,

and Opinions,” Journal of Advertising Research 11 (August
1971): 27–35. © 1971 by The Advertising Research Foundation.
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Psychographic Segmentation Uses
Psychographic segmentation can be applied in a variety of
ways:
To define target market
To create new view of market
To position product
To better communicate product attributes
To develop overall strategy
To market social/political issues
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Psychographic Segmentation Typologies
Marketers are constantly looking for new insights that will
allow them to identify and reach groups of consumers that are
united by a common lifestyle
many research companies and advertising agencies have
developed their own segmentation typologies that divide people
into segments

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VALS
The most well-known and widely used segmentation system
Used by well over 200 corporations and advertising agencies
VALS divides people into eight groups, according to both
psychological characteristics and resources,
Groups are arranged vertically by resources and horizontally by
self-orientation
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VALSTM
Table 6–5 VALS Segmentation SystemThe top group has the
most resources:Innovators are concerned with social issues and
are open to change.The next three groups also have sufficient
resources but differ in their outlooks on life:Thinkers are
satisfied, reflective, and comfortable. They tend to be practical
and to value functionality.Achievers are career-oriented and
prefer predictability over risk or self-discovery.Experiencers are
impulsive and young and enjoy offbeat or risky experiences.The
next three groups have fewer resources:Believers have strong
principles and favour proven brands.Strivers are like achievers
but with fewer resources. They are very concerned about the
approval of others.Makers are action-oriented and tend to focus
their energies on self-sufficiency. They will often be found
working on their cars, canning their own vegetables, or building
their own houses.Finally comes the group with the fewest
resources:Survivors are at the bottom of the ladder. They are
most concerned with meeting the needs of the moment.
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Geodemography
Geodemography
Analytical techniques that combine data on consumer
expenditures and other socioeconomic factors with geographic
information about the areas in which people live to identify
consumers who share common consumption patterns.
“Birds of a feature flock together”
Can be reached more economically (by city and postal code)
Think about it: Are you just like all of the people who live in
your neighbourhood?
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Values
Value
A belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite
Values are central to what makes a consumer distinct in their
consumption and in society
Two people can believe in the same behaviour (e.g.,
vegetarianism), but their underlying belief systems may be quite
different (e.g., animal activism versus health concerns).
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LO 6.5 Every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to
its members.

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Core Values
Every culture has a set of values that it imparts to its members.
Many values vary by country and culture and change over time
Core values define a culture and are taught to us by
socialization agents (parents, friends, teachers) through
enculturation
Differences in values explain why marketing campaigns may be
a hit in one country and flop in another
Some Values are universal – health, wisdom etc.
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its members.
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Ways to Classifying Values
Rokeach Value Survey
terminal values/desired end states – applicable to various
cultures
List of Values (LOV) Scale
Developed specifically for marketing use
Nine consumer segments that endorse values such as sense of
belonging, and security
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New Core Values
Conscientious consumerism
Growing green
market – offsetters.ca
Attitudes v behaviour
LOHAS “lifestyles of health and sustainability”
Green is spreading to the mass market
Walmart “Live Better Index”
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its members.
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Materialism
Materialism refers to the importance people attach to worldly
possessions - “He who dies with most toys, wins”
Modern Living – expectation of “the good life” a world of
material comforts, like cell phones, iPad etc.
Materialism = unhappiness?
Materialistic tendencies = dislike of school, poor grades
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its members.

76
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Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 5
The Self
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Chapter Objectives
5.1 The self-concept strongly influences consumer behaviour.
5.2 Products often play a key role in defining the self-concept.
5.3 Society’s expectations of gender roles help to determine the
products we buy to meet these expectations.

5.4 The way we think about our bodies (and the way our culture
tells us we should think about them) is a key component of self-
esteem.
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Learning Activity- 5A
Vocabulary Parking Lot - 5
Self
Self Concept
Self Esteem
Real Self and Ideal Self
Multiple Selves
Symbolic Interactionism
Looking-glass self
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Self-Consciousness
Symbolic self-completion theory
Compensatory consumption
Self-image congruence models
Self-Product Congruence
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Learning Activity- 5A
Vocabulary Parking Lot - 5

The Extended Self
The Digital Self
Wearable Computing
Gender Roles
Androgyny
Gender Benders
Body Image
Body cathexis
Body Image Distortions
Cosmetic Surgery
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Perspectives of Self

We buy products to highlight/hide aspects of the self
In the era of Facebook and Twitter everyone is able to share
their thoughts with millions of friends and strangers
Eastern and Western cultures see the self as a an inner private
self and the outer public self.
Each of us is a separate, unique individual
Think about it: Do you behave differently in a group than with
just a single friend?
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LO 5.1 The self-concept strongly influences consumer
behaviour.
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Self-Concept
Self-concept
Beliefs a person holds about his/her own attributes, and how
he/she evaluates these qualities
Attribute dimensions: Content, positivity, intensity, stability
over time, and accuracy
Self-concept can be somewhat stable over time and situations,
situational factors can influence how we feel about ourselves
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behaviour.
8

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Self-Esteem (1 of 2)
Self-esteem
Refers to the positivity of your attitude toward yourself
Low self-esteem: Think they will not perform well
High self-esteem: Think they will be successful and will take
risks
Ads can trigger social comparison
Attractive models using products
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behaviour.
10
Self-Esteem (2 of 2)
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behaviour.
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Real and Ideal Selves (1 of 2)
Ideal self
Conception of how we would like to be

Actual self
More realistic appraisal of the qualities we have
Products can:
Help us reach ideal self
Be consistent with actual self
Think about it: Can a product really make us satisfied with our
real selves?
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behaviour.
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Real and Ideal Selves (2 of 2)
We are constantly faced with images of the “ideal” person in
media
Each of us has more than one self concept - one for
attractiveness, work ethic, friend etc.
Impression management
Where we work hard to “manage” what others think of us
strategically engaging in products and behaviours to impress
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behaviour.
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Multiple Selves
Each of us have many selves and roles
Marketers pitch products to facilitate active role identity
These roles can be identified as a:
Sister
Friend
Spokesperson
Athlete
Mother
Wife
Canadian citizen
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behaviour.

17
Relationships with others play a large part in forming the self
We exist in a symbolic world creating shared meanings
“Who am I in this situation?”
“Who do other people think I am?”
We pattern our behaviour on the perceived expectation of
others—a self-fulfilling prophecy
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behaviour.
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Looking Glass Self
Looking-glass self
The process of imagining the reactions of others toward us

a process of reflexive evaluation occurs when an individual
attempts to define the self
take readings of our own identity by “bouncing” signals off
others
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behaviour.
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Looking Glass Self
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ruKevkgOf0
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Self-fulfilling
Self-fulfilling prophecy
When we tend to pattern our behaviour on the perceived
expectations of others.
fashion apps allow consumers to get feedback on the image of
the self they convey

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behaviour.
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Self-Consciousness
Can be painfully aware of one-self
Public self-consciousness
Self-monitoring
High vs. low self-monitors
Think about it: What makes you more self-conscious… walking
into a crowded room or meeting with someone you don’t know
well?
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behaviour.
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Consumption and Self-Concept (1 of 2)
Identity marketing: Consumers alter aspects of their selves to
advertise a branded product
Product and activities = constellations
Product (“props”) as extended self
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behaviour.
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Consumption and Self-Concept (2 of 2)
This Italian ad reminds us of the power of self-consciousness:
“The world is looking at you.”
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behaviour.
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You Are What You Consume (1 of 2)
Social identity as individual consumption behaviours
Question: Who am I now?
Answer: To some extent, your possessions!
Inference of personality based on consumption patterns
Consumers may attach themselves to product to maintain self-
concept
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LO 5.2 Products often play a key role in defining the self-
concept.
28

You Are What You Consume (2 of 2)
Symbolic self-completion theory
People who have an incomplete self-definition complete identity
by acquiring and displaying associated symbols.
Compensatory consumption
When the consumer is threatened or lacking on a particular
dimension, they may consume in ways that allow them to cope
with this threat.
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concept.
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Self-Product Congruence (1 of 2)
Self-image congruence models
We choose products when attributes matches the self
assume a process of cognitive matching between product
attributes and the consumer’s self-image
Product Usage
Self-Image
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concept.

30
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Self-Product Congruence (2 of 2)
In a compelling example of leveraging “self-congruence,” Coca-
Cola’s “Share a Coke” campaign personalized bottles of Coke
products so that they were a perfect fit for the consumer to
drink or share with friends.
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concept.
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The Extended Self
Extended self
External objects considered a part of us
Gender roles vary by culture but are changing
Levels of extended self:
Individual: personal possessions (cars, clothing)
Family: residence and furnishings
Community: neighbourhood or town where you live
Group: social or other groups
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concept.
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The Digital Self
The Extended Self
Strategically “modify” their online personalities.
many of create additional identities in the form of avatars in
virtual worlds
moving from “you are what you wear” to “you are what you
post.”
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concept.
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Wearable Computing
Wearable Computing
Digital interactions will become attached to our bodies and
perhaps even inserted into our bodies as companies offer ways
to implant computer chips into our wrists.
Numerous wearables with big health implications are already
available or under development
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concept.

35
Gender Roles (1 of 2)
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LO 5.3 Society’s expectations of gender roles help to determine
the products we buy to meet these expectations.
36
Gender Roles (2 of 2)
A very important component of a consumer’s self-concept.
Many societies still expect traditional roles:
Agenic roles: Men are expected to be assertive and have certain
skills
Communal roles: Women are taught to foster harmonious
relationships
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Gender versus Sexual Identity
Sex-typed traits: characteristics we stereotypically associate
with one gender or the other.
Sex-types products: masculine or feminine attributes
Pink Princess telephones
Jack Daniels Whisky
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Androgyny
Androgyny
Possession of both masculine and feminine traits
Androgynous people function well in social situations
Sex-typed people: stereotypically masculine or feminine
Females more detail oriented
Men consider overall themes
Think about it: The “metrosexual” is a big buzzword in
marketing, but is it real or just media hype?
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Gender Benders (1 of 2)
Gender-bending products
A traditionally sex-typed item adapted to the opposite gender
Rubbermaid introduced grooming tools such as tweezers and
clippers for men
Old Spice - young women like the scent and the relatively low
price are tuning into the deodorant
Men spray Febreze on their clothes to delay doing laundry
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Gender Benders (2 of 2)
Consumers often pay more for a product that has been altered to
appeal to a particular gender. (Think pink razors!)
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Female Roles
Younger women’s views of themselves are quite different from
those of their mothers and grandmothers
To some extent females may take for granted certain rights that
older generations of women had to fight for.
A wave in one direction may set off a ripple in another
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Male Roles
Society’s definition of the male role is evolving
Men receive mixed messages about how they are supposed to
behave and feel
Men are concerned as never before with their appearance
Our cultural definition of masculinity is evolving as men try to
redefine sex roles while they stay in a “safety zone”
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Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender (GLBT) Consumers
The trend of appealing to same sex couples has been increasing,
with brands such as Gap, JCrew, and even Tiffany portraying
same-sex couples in their marketing communications
Tiffany’s use of a same-sex couple in its advertising received a
positive reception on social media.
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Body Image
Body Image
Consumer’s subjective evaluation of his/her physical self
Body cathexis
Person’s feelings about his or her own body
Strong body cathexis = frequent purchases of “preening”
products
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LO 5.4 The way we think about our bodies (and the way our
culture tells us we should think about them) is a key component
of self-esteem.
46

Ideals of Beauty
Ideal Beauty
Is a particular model, or exemplar, of appearance.
Exemplar of appearance
“What is beautiful is good” stereotype
Favourable physical features
Attractive faces
Good health and youth
Balance/symmetry
Feminine curves/hourglass body shape
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of self-esteem.
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Is Beauty Universal
Research indicates that preferences for some physical features
over others are “wired in”.
to signal sexual desirability is whether the person’s features are
balanced.
Advertising and other forms of mass media play a significant
role in determining which forms of beauty are considered
desirable at any point in time.
An ideal of beauty functions as a sort of cultural yardstick.
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of self-esteem.
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Ideals of Beauty Over Time (1 of 2)
Specific “looks”/ideals of beauty
Early 1800s: delicate/looking ill appearance, 18-inch waistline
(use of corsets)
1890s: voluptuous, lusty woman
Bad economy: mature features vs. good economy: babyish
features
1990s: “waif” look
Modern women: high heels, body waxing, eyelifts, liposuction
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of self-esteem.
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Ideals of Beauty Over Time (2 of 2)
Media and marketing communicate standards of beauty
Plus-sized apparel
market
Strongly masculine,
muscled body for
men
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of self-esteem.
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Today’s Ideals of Female Beauty (1 of 2)
Strongly masculine, muscled body
Fashion houses are using models who look like “regular guys”
Men and women “work on the body” from exercise to cosmetic
surgery
Think about it: Would you have plastic surgery to increase your
self concept? Why?
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of self-esteem.
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Today’s Ideals of Female Beauty (2 of 2)
Dove’s classic “Real Beauty” campaign did an excellent job of
attempting to redefine Western ideals of beauty.
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of self-esteem.
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Male Ideals of Beauty
Strongly masculine, muscled body
Fashion houses are using models who look like “regular guys”
Men and women “work on the body” from exercise to cosmetic
surgery
Think about it: Would you have plastic surgery to increase your
self concept? Why?
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of self-esteem.
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Working on the Body (Hair and the Self)
Grant McCracken:
found men to be much vainer about their hair and more reluctant
to discuss the topic.
men are also secretive about dyeing their hair
The preference for long or short hair is reflective of the social
situation.
Long flowing hair
Short hair
Shave heads

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of self-esteem.
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Fattism and Body Positivity
Fattism is deeply ingrained in our culture
‘You can never be too thin or too rich’
Not so: Healthy body image is the ideal
Unilever (Dove) has banned the size “0” in their ads
Think about it: Do you consider yourself fat even if your weight
is in the “normal” range?
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of self-esteem.
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Body Image Distortions
To some, body quality reflects self-worth (particularly among
women)
Distorted body image is linked to eating disorders among
females
Body dysmorphic disorder (obsession with perceived flaws in
appearance) becoming more common among young men

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culture tells us we should think about them) is a key compone nt
of self-esteem.
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Cosmetic Surgery
Changing a poor body image or to enhance appearance
Men account for 20% of surgeries
Breast Augmentation
Perception that breast size = sex appeal
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of self-esteem.
57
Body Decoration and Mutilation
Separate group members from non-members
Place the individual in the social organization
Place the individual in a gender category
Enhance gender role identification
To provide a sense of security
To indicate desired social conduct
To indicate status or rank

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of self-esteem.
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Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 4
Motivation and Affect
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Chapter Objectives
4.1 It is important for marketers to understand the motivation
process.
4.2 Various consumer needs influence consumer behaviour.
4.3 Involvement with a product, the marketing message, and/or

the purchase situation are all important considerations.
4.4 Consumers can experience different types of affective
responses, which can influence consumption behaviours.
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Learning Activity – 4
Vocabulary Parking Lot
Goal valence -
Levels of Needs in the Maslow Hierarchy
Consumer Involvement
Strategies to Increase Involvement
Affect
Types of Affect
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Learning Activity – 4
Vocabulary Parking Lot
Motivation – arousal – wants- needs – satisfy the goal
Wants – luxury – car, big house
Needs – necessity – air, food, water
Drive theory – Physiology needs – hunger – action for hunting
food -
Homeostasis – balance satisfy
Expectancy theory – Expectancy – wants
Biogenic -
Psychogenic
Utilitarian
Hedonic

Goal valence -
Affect
Types of Affect
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Learning Activity 4B – Motivational Conflict
What is motivational conflict?
What are the types of motivational conflict?
What is cognitive dissonance?
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Motivational Process (1 of 2)
Motivation
Process that leads people to behave as they do.
A want is a manifestation of a need. This ad from Nutri-Grain
reminds us of a way to satisfy a hunger need. It shows an
acrobat getting their Nutri-Grain fix during a London commute
as part of the “morning fuel” ambassador sampling team.
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LO 4.1 It is important for marketers to understand the
motivation process.

6
Motivational Process (2 of 2)
Occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to
satisfy
Forces that drive us to buy/use products
Goal: Consumer’s desired end-state
Want: Manifestation of consumer need
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motivation process.
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Motivational Strength (1 of 4)
Motivational Strength
Degree of willingness to expend energy to reach a goal.
Drive theory: Biological needs that produce unpleasant states of
arousal (e.g., hunger) - needs
Homeostasis: A balanced state
Expectancy theory: Behaviour is pulled by expectations of
achieving desirable outcomes - wants
Needs vs. wants
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motivation process.
8

There are two basic theoretical categories that account for
motivational strength:
Drive theory Needs
Biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal (e.g.,
hunger)
Expectancy theory- wants
Behaviour is pulled by expectations of achieving desirable
outcomes
vs.
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motivation process.
9
There are two basic theoretical categories that account for
motivational strength: drive and expectancy theory
Drive theory
Biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal (e.g.,
hunger)
People often do things that increase a drive state rather than
decrease it.
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motivation process.
10
Expectancy theory
Behaviour is pulled by expectations of achieving desirable
outcomes
positive consequences
positive incentives could include things like money or even
social status
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motivation process.
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Motivational Direction (Needs vs. Wants) (1 of 2)
Way to satisfy needs…
depends on the individual’s unique history and learning
experiences and his or her cultural environment.
hedonic consumption as an influence on consumers’ choices
this term refers to the: multisensory, fantasy, and emotional
aspects of consumers’ interactions with products
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motivation process.

12
Motivational Direction (Needs vs. Wants) (2 of 2)
Types of Needs:
Biogenic
Biological needs, such as for air, water, food
Psychogenic
Need for status, power, affiliation
Utilitarian
Need for tangible attributes of a product, such as miles per
gallon in a car or calories in a cheeseburger
Hedonic
Needs for excitement, self-confidence, fantasy
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motivation process.
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Motivational Conflicts
Goal valence:
Positively valued goal: Approach
Negatively valued goal: Avoid
Deodorant and mouthwash
Positive and negative motives often conflict with one another
Goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or
negative We direct our behaviour toward goals we value
positively; we are motivated to approach the goal and to seek
out products/services that will help us reach it.

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motivation process.
14
Types of Motivational Conflict (1 of 2)
Two desirable alternatives
Cognitive dissonance
Positive & negative aspects of desired product
Guilt of desire occurs
Facing a choice with two undesirable alternatives
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motivation process.
15
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Types of Motivational Conflict (2 of 2)
FIGURE 4–1 Three Types of Motivational Conflict

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motivation process.
17
Classifying Consumer Needs (Specific Needs and Buying
Behaviour) (1 of 2)
Need for achievement: Value personal accomplishment; place a
premium on products that signify success
Need for Affiliation: Need for relevant products and services to
alleviate loneliness
Need for Power: Control one’s environment. Focus on products
that have mastery over surroundings
Need for uniqueness: To assert one’s individual identity.
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LO 4.2 Various consumer needs influence consumer behaviour.
18
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Classifying Consumer Needs (Specific Needs and Buying
Behaviour) (2 of

2)BiogenicPsychogenicFoodDominanceAutonomyAssistanceWat
erSuperiorityAffiliationChangeAirEmotional
stabilityAnalysisEnduranceSleepAchieveme ntDependenceAggre
ssionSexComplianceSelf-
depreciationDefendenceShelterOrderExhibitionPlay
Table 4–1 Types of Needs, as Defined by Murray
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FIGURE 4–2 Levels of Needs in the Maslow Hierarchy
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Motivation and Goal Fulfillment (1 of 2)
Goal Setting that is SMART can help consumers to reach their
goals: Nike and the Running Room
Sometimes consumers decrease effort when they get closer to
the goal
Goals can be unconsciously activated: The Apple brand name
activates the need to be unique and different

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22
Motivation and Goal Fulfillment (2 of 2)
Incidental brand exposure, such as seeing an advertisement or a
product, can activate consumer goals. The Apple brand can
activate the motivation to be unique and different.
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23
Involvement
Perceived relevance of an object based on one’s needs, values,
and interests
not everyone is motivated to the same extent…
involvement is a motivational construct, it can be triggered by
one or more of the different antecedents shown in Figure 4–3
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adhQSEQzQmk
4 - ‹#›
LO 4.3 Involvement with a product, the marketing message,
and/or the purchase situation are all important considerations.

24
Conceptualizing Involvement
FIGURE 4–3 Conceptualizing Involvement
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25
Levels of Involvement: Inertia and Flow State (1 of 2)
Inertia: Consumption at the low end of involvement
We make decisions out of habit (lack of motivation)
Flow state: True involvement with a product
Playfulness
Being in control
Concentration/focused attention
Mental enjoyment of activity for its own sake
Distorted sense of time
Match between challenge at hand and one’s skills
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26
Levels of Involvement: Inertia and Flow State (2 of
2)CognitiveAffectiveLevel of
involvementHighCarJewelleryNew productsMotorcyclesMedia:
print online, information basedMedia: TV, video,
image-basedLowGround beefCandyHousehold
cleansersLiquorMedia: 10 sec. IDs, POS reminderMedia: POS
attention-grabbing
Table 4–2 Foote, Cone, and Belding‘s Involvement and Product
Typology
Adapted from Richard Vaughn, “How Advertising Works: A
Planning Model,” Journal of Advertising Research 20 (October
1980): 31. See also Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, “The Emotional
Side of Product Involvement,” in Advances in Consumer
Research, eds. Paul Anderson and Melanie Wallendorf (Provo,
UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1986), 32–35
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27
The Many Faces of Involvement (Product Involvement)
Product involvement: Consumer’s level of interest in a product
Many sales promotions attempt to increase product involvement
Mass customization
Customization and personalization of products and services for
individual customers at a mass production price

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28
The Many Faces of Involvement
(Message-Response Involvement)
Guerrilla Marketing
Marketers use low-cost, unconventional marketing tactics to
gain consumers’ attention and involvement.
Consumer’s interest in real-time events (real-time marketing)
Marketers experiment with novel ways to increase consumers’
involvement, such as games on Web sites (Integrative Mobile
Marketing).
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29
The Many Faces of Involvement (Purchase Situation
Involvement)
Purchase situation involvement
Differences that occur when buying the same object for
different contexts.
Example: wedding gift
For boss: purchase expensive vase to show that you want to
impress boss

For cousin you don’t like: purchase inexpensive vase to show
you’re indifferent
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30
Segmenting by Involvement Levels
Allows consumer researchers to capture the diversity of the
involvement construct, and it also allows for involvement to be
used as a basis for market segmentation.
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31
The marketer can enhance the consumer’s motivation to process
relevant information fairly easily by using one or more of the
following techniques:
Appeal to consumers’ hedonic needs
Use novel stimuli
Use prominent stimuli
Include celebrity endorsers
Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoing
relationship

4 - ‹#›
32
Types of Affective Responses
Affect
Refers to the experience of emotionally-laden states, which can
range from evaluations, to moods, to full-blown emotions.
Evaluations - valenced (i.e., positive or negative) reactions to
events and objects, that are not accompanied by high levels of
arousal.
Moods - involve temporary positive or negative affective states
accompanied by moderate levels of arousal.
Emotions - tend to be more intense and are often related to a
specific triggering event.
4 - ‹#›
LO 4.4 Consumers can experience different types of affective
33
Types of Affective States
Affect as a product benefit
Viagra
Coke “Open Happiness”
Negative state relief

Helping can relieve negative moods
Mood congruency
Positive moods lead
to more positive evaluations
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34
How Social Media Taps into Our Emotions
Sentiment analysis (aka - Opinion mining)
Is a process that scours the social media universe to collect and
analyze the words people use when they describe a specific
product or company.
Word phrase dictionary
Certain words that tend to relate to the emotion
4 - ‹#›
35
Discrete Emotions (Happiness)
Happiness
A mental state of well-being characterized by positive emotions
Materialism and happiness

Materialism vs Experiential purchases
Spending money on others vs. the self
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36
Discrete Emotions (Envy)
Envy
A negative emotion associated with the desire to reduce the gap
between oneself and someone who is superior on some
dimension
Benign vs. malicious envy
4 - ‹#›
37
Discrete Emotions (Guilt)
Guilt
An individual’s unpleasant emotional state associated with
possible objections to his or her actions, inaction,
circumstances, or intentions
Guilt appeals – can backfire if too extreme
In retail contexts
4 - ‹#›

38
Discrete Emotions (Embarrassment)
Embarrassment
Driven by a concern for what others are thinking
Unwanted events communicate undesired information about
oneself to others
Sometimes dependent on product category
4 - ‹#›
39
Summary Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPZ5R6UWiaY
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Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 3
Learning and Memory

3 - ‹#›
3 - ‹#›
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Chapter Objectives
3.1 Different behavioural learning theories help consumers
learn about products.
3.2 Cognitive learning theories influence consumer behaviour.
3.3 The memory process works to influence consumer
behaviour.
3.4 Marketers use various measures to assess our memories
about brands, products, and ads.
3 - ‹#›
Chapter 3 – Learning and Memory
Vocabulary Parking Lot- learning Activity
Learning - Acquiring Knowledge – Permanent change in
behavior
Repetition
Association one event to other event ( association learning)
Reward and punishment – the consequence of behavior
Observation
Experience

Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning – associations of events –
Previous knowledge to connect with new knowledge
B.F. Skinner – Operant conditioning, instrumental conditioning
learning – rewards and punishments – shaping behaviour
Albert Bandura – Observation learning – modeling, imitations
Behavioural Learning Theories -
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus - event or situation or thing that can cause an
response
Associative Learning
Stimulus Generalization
Instrumental conditioning
Gamification
Cognitive Learning Theories
Observational Learning
3 - ‹#›
Chapter 3 – Learning and Memory
Vocabulary Parking-Lot – Learning activity continued
Memory – Process –
Encoding – getting in information into brain
storage – retain the information for longer period of time
retrieval – getting information out of the brain
Analogical Learning
Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
Factors influencing forgetting

Memory systems
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Chucking
Long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
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The Learning Process
Learning
Refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is
caused by experience.
Learning can take place either
vicariously
incidentally
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LO 3.1 Different behavioural learning theories help consumers
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Behavioural Learning Theories
Behavioural Learning Theories
Assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to
external events, as opposed to internal thought processes.
Process of Behavioural Learning:
“Black box”
Observable behaviour
Classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning
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Types of Behavioural Learning Theories
A stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another
stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
FIGURE 3–1 Diagram of the Classical Conditioning Process
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Ivan Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)
- introduced the concept of classical conditioning

Pavlov introduced the concepts of:
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned responses (CR)
Classic Conditioning focuses on visual and olfactory cues that
induce physiological responses related to consumer needs.
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Consumers learn associations between stimuli in a rather simple
fashion without more complex processes.

Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning
Associative learning can occur for more complex reactions to
stimuli as well
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Associative Learning: Repetition (1 of 3)
Repetition increases learning
More exposure results in greater brand awareness
Less exposure can result in decay
When exposure decreases extinction results
But….too much exposure leads to advertising wear out
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most effective repetition strategy seems to be a combination of
spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that are more
and less involving, (TV advertising and print media)
associative learning will not occur or will take longer if the
paired stimuli are only occasionally presented with one another

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Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans
that have been repeated so many times that they are etched in
consumers’ minds. Sleep Country’s slogan is well known, and
consumers can finish the tune once they hear the beginning of
the jingle “Why buy a mattress . . .”
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Stimulus Generalization (1 of 2)
Stimulus Generalization
Tendency for stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus (keys
jangling resemble bell) to evoke similar, unconditioned
responses.
Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike packaging
Stimulus discrimination: Only buy the brand names

Think about it: Do you buy a less-expensive product because it
looks like the brand name item?
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Stimulus Discrimination (2 of 2)
Stimulus Discrimination
Occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by a
UCS.

reactions are thus weakened and will soon disappear
Masked Branding
Deliberately hides a product’s true origin.
reactions are thus weakened and will soon disappear
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Marketing Applications of Conditioning (1 of 2)
Brand Equity
A brand has strong positive associations in a consumer’s
memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.

Repetition
- scheduling more than three exposures is a waste?
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Marketing Applications of Conditioning (2 of 2)
Transferred meaning can
be conditioned by fairly simple associations
Goal is to create brand equity
Advertising wear-out (change media/message)
Repetition (Telus)
Product Associations
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24

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Conditioning Product Association
Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to
create a desirable association
Importantly, the order in which the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood
that learning will occur
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Applications of Stimulus Generalization
The process of stimulus generalization is often central to
branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on
consumers’ positive associations with an existing brand or
company name.
Strategies based on stimulus generalizatio n include the
following:
Family branding
Product-line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike
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Instrumental conditioning (1 of 2)
Instrumental conditioning (AKA operant conditioning)
The individual learns to perform behaviours that produce
positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes.
Under instrumental conditioning, people perform more complex
behaviours and associate these behaviours with:
shaping
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment
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Instrumental conditioning (2 of 2)
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Four Types of Learning Outcomes
FIGURE 3–2 Four Types of Learning Outcomes
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Four Types of Learning Schedules
Reinforcement schedules include…
Fixed-ratio - frequent flyer programs
Variable-ratio - slot machines
Fixed-interval - seasonal sales
Variable-interval - secret shoppers
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32

Application of Instrumental Conditioning Principles (1 of 2)
Frequency Marketing
Reinforces the behaviour of regular purchasers by giving them
prizes with values that increase along with the amount
purchased.
pioneered by
the airline
industry
frequent flyer
programs
The Shoppers Optimum loyalty program from Shoppers Drug
Mart is an example of frequency marketing.
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Gamification
Involves borrowing from basic principles of game mechanics to
motivate consumers across a broad spectrum of behaviours.
These customer-oriented games
The central objective of gamification as a marketing tool is
to boost sales and increase profit.
have benefits that propel companies closer to reaching their
objectives.
They aid in collecting customer data,
increasing engagement,
boosting the company brand and promoting repeat business.

Marketers can use gamification via:
Store and brand loyalty
Social marketing
Employee performance
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Gamification
Involves borrowing from basic principles of game mechanics to
motivate consumers across a broad spectrum of behaviours.
Marketers can use gamification via:
Store and brand loyalty
Social marketing
Employee performance
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35
Cognitive Learning Theories: Observational Learning
Cognitive ( mental abilities) Learning Theory
Stresses the importance of internal mental processes and views

people as problem solvers who actively use information from
the world around them to master their environment.
Internal mental processes
We watch others and note reinforcements they receive for
behaviours
Vicarious learning
Socially desirable models/celebrities who use or do not use their
products
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LO 3.2 Cognitive learning theories influence consumer
behaviour.
36
Observational Learning (1 of 2)
Observational learning
People watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements
they receive for their behaviours.
vicarious learning
modelling
violence and children
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behaviour.
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Observational Learning (2 of 2)

FIGURE 3–3 Components of Observational Learning
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behaviour.
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Role of Memory in Learning
Memory
Acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be
available when needed
- Encoding – information take into the brain
- Storage – retain of information of the information (
emotions)
- Retrieval – pulling out the information for your brain.
Information-processing approach
Mind = computer and data = input/output
FIGURE 3–4 The Memory Process
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LO 3.3 The memory process works to influence consumer
behaviour.
39

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Encoding
We encode information to help us retain it later
Sensory meaning - colours, shapes
Semantic meaning - symbolic associations
Personal relevance
Episodic/flashbulb memories
Product information conveyed as a narrative
Low-involvement products tend to have descriptive, snappy
names
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behaviour.
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Memory Systems
FIGURE 3–5 Relationships among Memory Systems
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behaviour.
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Relationship among Memory Systems
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Chucking
Long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
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behaviour.
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Storing Information in Memory
Activity Models of Memory
Depending on the nature of the processing task, different levels
of processing occur that activate some aspects of memory rather
than others.
STM and LTM are separate systems
The more effort it takes to process information the more likely
it is that information will be placed in long-term memory
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behaviour.
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Storing Information in Memory
(Associative Network Models)
propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an
associative network
consumer has organized systems of concepts relating to brands,
stores, manufacturers
assumes that it is the associations that form in consumers’
minds that lead to learning about brands and products
these storage units, known as knowledge structures, can be
thought of as complex spider webs
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behaviour.
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Associative Networks
FIGURE 3–6 An Associative Network for Perfumes
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behaviour.
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Spreading Activation
A meaning can be activated indirectly
As one node is activated, other nodes associated with it also
begin to be triggered
Meaning types of associated nodes:
Brand-specific
Ad-specific
Brand identification
Product category
Evaluative reactions
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behaviour.
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Levels of Knowledge
Individual nodes = meaning concepts
Two (or more) connected nodes = proposition (complex
meaning)
Two or more propositions = schema
We more readily encode info that is consistent with an existing
schema
Service scripts
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behaviour.

48
Analogical Learning
The marketer wants to inform the consumer about a product and
does so using an analogy
Base – the existing product
Target – the new product
Effective because the consumer can integrate knowledge about
the base into the schema for the target product
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behaviour.
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Retrieval for Purchase Decisions (1 of 3)
Retrieval is the process of accessing information from long-
term memory factors
Situational factors
Consumer attention; pioneering brand; descriptive brand names
Viewing environment (continuous activity; commercial order in
sequence)
Post-experience advertising effects
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behaviour.
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Appropriate factors/cues for retrieval
State-dependent retrieval/mood congruence effect
Familiarity
Salience and Recall effect (mystery ads)
Visual memory versus verbal memory
Think about it: Are your vivid memories visual or verbal? Do
you have flashback memories?
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behaviour.
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Online factors/cues for retrieval
connection between the online environment and the physical
store that impacts memory and purchase
referred to as the “cue-of-the-cloud” effect
increased feelings of confidence - subsequently impacts choice
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behaviour.
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Factors Influencing Forgetting
Decay
Interference
Retroactive versus proactive
Part-list cueing effect
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behaviour.
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Products as Memory Makers
Furniture, visual art and photos call forth memories of the past
Autobiographical memories
Mnemonic qualities
Power of nostalgia
Retro brands
Nostalgia Index
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behaviour.

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Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
Recognition vs. recall
Problems with memory measures
Response biases
Memory lapses
Memory or facts vs. feelings
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LO 3.4 Marketers use various measures to assess our memories
about brands, products, and ads.
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Summary
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89tTDw5TF5U

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Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 2
Perception
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1) MathType Plugin
1
Chapter Objectives
2.1 Perception is a three-stage process that translates raw
stimuli into meaning.
2.2 Sensory systems can provide a competitive advantage.
2.3 Exposure is important for marketing communication.
2.4 A variety of factors can influence what consumers will pay
attention to.
2.5 We interpret the stimuli we pay attention to according to
learned patterns and expectations.
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Consumer Attitudes Explained

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