this matter useful for B.V.Sc student . Minerals ,their deficiency and their roles also available in this matter it is also useful for Animal nutritionist .

1. College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner
Department of Animal Nutrition
By- Abhishek Sharma
MINERALS
Imortant points:-
1. Mineral element are recognized to perform essential function in the body
and thus must be present in the food. Ex. Ca,Mg, P,Na,etc
2. Mineral makeup 3-4 % of animal body
3. Feed contained mineral approximately- 0.7 to 16%
4. 22 elements (7 major and 15 trace minerals) were to be essential for the
higher forms of animal life
5. Occurrence of minerals
a. Ca - 46%
b. P - 29%
c. K,S,Na,Cl,Mg - 25%
d. Other micro element- 0.3%
Classification of mineral element of animal body:-
Minerals are generally classified into two categories
Macro elements (Major elements) :- The minerals, which are required in relatively large
amount and in most of cases they are used in the synthesis of structural tissues.
Ex. Ca,P,Na,K,Cl,Mg,S
Micro elements (minor elements or trace elements):- These minerals required in trace
amounts and usually function as activators or as a component of enzyme system.
Ex. Fe.,Cu,Co, Mn,I,Mo,Zn,Cr

2. Essential mineral elements:- These are those minerals, which have been proved to have a
metabolic role in the animal body.
Non- essential mineral elements:- Most of mineral elements are simply components of
animal tissues since they are present in the diet and are considered to be non-essential, as they
do not play any essential metabolic role in the plant or animal body.
General function of Minerals:-The functions of minerals in animal nutrition are inter-
related. However, a few of the general functions are given as:
1. As a constituent of skeletal structure:
2. In regulating acid-base equilibrium.
3. They are helpful in maintaining the colloridal state of body matter and regulating some of
the physical properties of colloidal systems like viscosity, diffusion and osmotic pressure.
4. They act as a component or an activator of enzymes and or other biological systems.
MACRO-ELEMENTS (MAJOR ELEMENTS):
1. Calcium:
• Calcium and phosphorus serve as the major structural elements of skeletal tissue, with
more than 99 per cent of the total body calcium being found in the bone and teeth.
• The normal level of blood calcium in animals ranges from 9 to 11 mg per 100 ml of
serum.
• The cell contains negligible amounts.
• The plasma of laying hens contains 30 to 40 mg calcium per 100 ml of blood.
Factors affecting the level of blood calcium:
1. The absolute levels of calcium and phosphorus and the calcium phosphorus ratio of
food: -
A low intake of either element over long periods of time leads to decreased blood calcium
level. A Ca: P ratio of 1: 1 to 2:1 is usually recommended
2.Fat content in the diet:

3. Impaired digestion and absorption of fat causes impaired absorption of calcium because
calcium form soaps which are insoluble.
3. Phytic acid and oxalate: Oxalates in certain foods precipitate calcium in the intestine as
the insoluble calcium oxalates
4. Protein in the diet:
Calcium salts are much more soluble in amino acid than water. High protein level increases
the absorption of calcium.
5. Vitamin D in the diet:
Vitamin D provides acidic medium in the intestine causing more calcium absorption.
Functions of Calcium:
1. Calcium provides a strong; skeleton for supporting and protecting delicate organs,
jointed to allow movement and malleable to allow growth. Bones grow in length by
the proliferation of cartilaginous plates at the ends of bones. Bones grow in width as
well.
2. The ionized plasma calcium performs several non-skeletal functions.
Phosphorous:-
• Major portion of phosphorus in the animal body is distributed in the bones.
• The content of inorganic phosphorus in the blood is 4-9 mg per 100ml depending
upon the species and age.
• Whole blood contain about 35-40 mg Phosphorus per 100 ml.
Functions of Phosphorus:
1. The most important function is the formation and maintenance of
bone, similar to calcium.
2. The 20% of phosphorus widely distributed in the fluids and soft
tissues of the body serves a range of essential functions.
Ca and P in Bones:-
• About 3% of the animal body consists of minerals.
• Over 70% of the ash of the body consists of calcium and phosphorus.
Majority of the calcium (99%) and phosphorus (80%) are present in
bones and teeth.

4. • In bones calcium and phosphorus occur in the ratio of 2:1 and the
elements are closely related to each other.
• Bones serve as a store house for calcium and phosphorus.
• That is why the requirements for growing, pregnant and milch animals
are high.
• Normal adult bone has water 45%, ash 25%, protein 20% and fat 10%.
• On fat free and moisture free basis bone contains 36% calcium, 17% P
and 0.8% Mg.
Calcium and Phosphorus in Soft Tissues:-
• The 1% of body calcium which occurs outside the bones is widely distributed
throughout the organs and tissues and has many important functions.
• Calcium is required for normal blood clotting.
• Calcium is necessary for muscle contraction, myocardial function, normal
neuromuscular excitability, activation of several enzymes and secretion of several
hormones and hormone-releasing factors.
• Large amounts of phosphorus are present mostly in organic combinations such as
phosphoprotein, nucleoprotein, phospholipids, phosphocreatine and hexose
phosphate.
• Phosphate is a component of many enzyme systems. Phosphorus makes up 0.15 to
0.2% of the soft tissues of the body.
Absorption and Excretion of Calcium and Phosphorus :-
Calcium is absorbed in the small intestine. Calcium is transported in the blood in an
ionized and protein-bound form. The a sorption is dependent upon the solubility at the
point of contact with the absorbing membranes.
1. Vit. D is necessary for the synthesis of the trans of a protein that is necessary for
port calcium in the intestinal mucosa.
2. Very high dietary levels of inorganic phosphorus, phytin phosphorus, and
magnesium interfere with calcium absorption.
3. Lactose, a sugar that is slowly absorbed, improves calcium absorption. Oxalates
and phytates decrease the absorption of calcium.
4.Dietary levels of Ca and P, vitamin D, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and calcitonin
all seem to play a role in calcium homeostasis.
5. High dietary levels of calcium depress efficiency of absorption.
6. A great excess of either Ca or P interferes with the absorption of the other.
Symptoms of Deficiency of Calcium
Young Animal:-
• Calcium deficiency in the young animal is characterized by poor bone
development and the condition is known as rickets.

5. • The bones of the young animal are usually soft, bend easily, and are often
misshapen.
• The joints, are enlarged and the animal often exhibits lameness.
• When examined in the laboratory, the bones are found to contain very low
levels of ash
Adult :-
• In adult animals a chronic calcium deficiency leads to Osteomalacia, a
condition in which the calcium of the bone is withdrawn and not replaced.
• If sufficient dietary calcium or phosphorus is not available to replace that
mobilized from the bone, there is a net loss of Ca and P and a general
softening of the bone.
• Most acute cases of Osteomalacia occur during gestation and lactation in
mammals.
• Bone fractures are common in cases of osteomalacia due to over functioning
of the parathyroid glands.
• Osteoporosis is the condition of failure of normal bone metabolism in the
adult.
• Oesteopenia – too little bone
Phosphorus Deficiency
• Pica: Deficiency of phosphorus is characterized by a loss of appetite and even
a depraved appetite, which is exhibited in the eating of bones, wood, clothing
and other materials (soil, plastic, etc.) to which the animal may have access .
• Reduced fertility and reduced or delayed conception are signs of the
deficiency.
• Abnormal bones and teeth are apparent signs of P deficiency and may be
manifested by stiffness of gait, enlarged and painful joints, bending or
deformation of bones, arching of the back, and fracture of bones.
3.Magnesium :-
Distribution:
• Magnesium is closely related to calcium and phosphorus in its distribution and
metabolism.

6. • 70% is in the skeleton and the rest is distributed in other soft tissues (29%) and
various fluids (1%).
• The ratio of Ca:Mg in bone is about 50:1.
• Approximately one-third of the supply in the bones is subject to mobilization
for soft-tissue use when the intake is inadequate.
• In the young animal up to 60% of the total bone magnesium may be
mobilized during times of inadequate intake.
• Blood serum contains about 2-5 mg/100 ml and its level varies with the
phosphorus conte0nt.
Essential functions: Magnesium is essential for all plant and animal life.
1. It is an essential constituent of bones and teeth.
2. It is regarded as an activator of various enzymes transferring phosphate from ATP
to ADP.
3. It is a cofactor for decarboxylation for certain peptidases and for alkaline and acid
phosphatases.
4. It is a constituent of chlorophyll, a metalloprotein complex essential for
photosynthesis.
5. It is required for oxidative phosphorylation, 13-oxidation of fatty acids and
transketolase reaction of the pentose monophosphate shunt.
Absorption:-
• Forages from soils fertilized with high levels of nitrogen and potassium often contain
reduced levels of magnesium and sodium.
• Potassium apparently depresses the absorption of magnesium from the rumen, a
primary site of magnesium absorption.
• The Ca and P content of the diet have been shown to have an effect on the Mg
requirement.
• When the diet contains adequate amounts of Ca and P in the proper ratio, there is
no interference due to magnesium.
• On a low-phosphorus diet, magnesium interferes with calcium absorption.
• High phosphorus diets not only decrease the absorption of dietary magnesium but
increase the rate of loss of endogenous magnesium through the gut and faeces.
Deficiency of Magnesium :-
1. Grass tetany :-
• Magnesium deficiency has been shown to cause calcium deposition in the kidney.
Renal calculi may be formed both in magnesium deficiency or excess. The deficiency
disease is known as grass tetany or grass staggers or wheat staggers or wheat
poisoning.

7. • This is observed in calves reared for long periods on milk alone and in cows fed on
lush green pasture.
• The signs of grass tetany include excessive nervousness, twitching of muscles,
laboured breathing, rapid pulse, convulsions and death.
• The affected cattle are nervous, with their heads held high, ears pricked and eyes
staring. The animal may move in a stiff manner and stagger when walking.
4. Sodium:-
• The body contains 0.2% sodium.
• It is major Cation.
• It is mostly extracellular and makes up 93% of the bases of the blood serum, (i.e.
major cation in ECF) but little is present in the blood cells.
• Sodium occurs in considerable amounts in the muscles, where it is associated with
their contraction.
• Amino acid and glucose uptake are dependent on sodium.
Absorption and excretion:-
• The hormone aldosterone, secreted from the adrenal cortex, regulates the
reabsorption of sodium from the kidney tubules.
• In the absence of this hormone, sodium, is excreted in the urine.
• Excessive losses of sodium may occur from vomiting, diarrhoea, or profuse sweating.
Symptoms of Deficiency :-
• slow growth.
• softening of the bones.
• keratinization of the corneal epithelium.
• impotency in the male, and delayed sexual maturity and impaired estrus rhythm
and reproductive processes in the female.
• A lack of the element lowers the utilization of digested protein and energy. Cardiac
output decreases, blood drops.
Toxicity :- Levels of salt in the diet over 0.5% usually cause increased water consumption
and watery faeces.
5. Potassium

8. • It exists primarly as cellular constituent.
• It Plays a vital role in muscle, where its content is six times that of sodium.
• During nerve transmission and muscle contraction, potassium m then moves back
moves out of the cell and sodium enters. The potassium then move back into the cell
when the sodium is removed. Thus Na and K are interrelated in metabolism.
Absorption and Excretion :-
• Potassium is readily absorbed, and the excess over body needs is immediately
excreted.
• This excretion normally takes place in the urine to the extent of 90%.
• Adrenal hormones cause the kidney to conserve sodium but increase the excretion
of potassium.
Deficiency:- Potassium deficiency is not usually observed in farm animals, as plant products
contain 10 to 20 times more of this element than sodium.
6. Chlorine:-
• Chlorine is found both within the cells and in the body fluids, including the
gastric secretions. Less than 15% of the chlorine in the body is found in the
cells. Chloride ion is the major anion of the extracellular fluids (ECF).
• About 15 to 20% of the chlorine of the body appears to be in organic
combination.
• The gastric secretion contains chlorine as free acid and in the form of salts.
• Chlorides play a key role in regulating the pH of body fluids. The movement
of chlorine from body fluid to erythrocytes in what is known as "chloride
shift" is a primary mechanism in regulating pH and osmolarity of tissue
fluids.
7. Sulphur:-
• Sulphur occurs entirely in organic compounds, notably in proteins in which it is
present as the sulphur containing amino acids cysteine and methionine.
• Wool contains approximately 4% of sulphur.
• Thiamin and biotin contain sulphur.
• Sulphur is present in inorganic form in chondroitin sulphate, a constituent of
cartilage.

9. • The Sulphur is excreted through the faeces and urine.
• Sulphur deficiency in ruminant diets may result in reduced feed intake and reduced
cellulose digestion.
• It is recommended that the nitrogen sulphur ratio of ruminant diets should be
approximately 10:1 to 15:1.
Trace elements:-
Mineral Functions Deficiency symptoms Sources
1). Iron (Fe)
2). Copper
(Cu)
1.Component of Hb
2. component of
certain enzymes
Ex. Celluloplasmin ,
cytochrome oxidase
1.Necessary for
formation for Hb and
RBC maturation
2. component of
certain enzymes like
cytochrome C
oxidase, Tyronsinase
3. Required for normal
pigmentation of wool
and hairs
1. Anaemia characterized
by paleness of mucosa
and weakness
2. Piglet anaemia or
thumps in young one
of pigs characterized
by labored and
spasmodic breathing
3. Depigmentation of
hair
1. Anaemia
2. Depigmentation of
coloured hair and
black wool
3. Enzootic ataxia or
sway back disease in
lamb characterized by
paralysis incoordiation
of hind legs stiff and
staggering gait
4. Stringy wool in sheep
charectrized by loss of
crimp of wool
5. Persistent diarrhoea in
cattle
Ferrous sulphate
Tree leaves
Legumes seeds
Cereal grains
Molasses
Copper sulphate

10. 3) .Cobalt (Co)
4.) Iodine (I)
5. Manganese
(Mn)
6. Zinc (Zn)
7. Selenium
(Se)
1.Component of vit.
B12
2. Component of
cobamide enzyme
Component of
thyroxine
hormone
which is
required for
BMR
Required for normal
development of bone
and cartilage
1 component of
carbonic anhydrase,
lactic dehydrogenase
2.required for protein
digestion
1.Antioxidant property
2. Role in absorption
and retention of vit.E
1.Wasting disease or enzootic
marasmus in sheep and cattle
characterized anaemia
emaciation rough body coat
1. Goiter characterized
by enlargement of
thyroid gland and loss
of hairs , abortion and
still birth
1. Slipped tendon or
perosis in chick
characterized by
deformed leg bones
2. Retardation of growth
3. Reduce fertility
1. Skin disorder
2. Parakeratosis in pigs and
cattle
1. White muscle disease
or enzootic muscular
dystrophy in calves
Cobalt sulphate
Cobalt chloride
Iodised salt
Traced
mineralized salt
Manganese
sulphate
Zinc carbonate
Zinc sulphate
Sodium selenite
Sodium selenate