Chapter09 foundations of group behavior
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Chapter09 foundations of group behavior
- 1. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. 18-1
- 2. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior
- 3. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define group, and distinguish the different types of groups. Identify the five stages of group development. Show how role requirements change in different situations. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. Show how group size affects group performance. Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. Explain the implications of diversity for group effectiveness. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Compare the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique.
- 4. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Define Group, and Differentiate Between Different Types of Groups A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups – those defined by the organization’s structure. Informal groups – alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. LO 1 9-4
- 5. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Contrast Groups and Teams LO 2 10-5
- 6. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Define Group, and Differentiate Between Different Types of Groups Social identity theory – considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups. People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with people. Ingroup favoritism LO 1 9-6
- 7. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Define Group, and Differentiate Between Different Types of Groups Several characteristics make a social identity important to a person Similarity Distinctiveness Status Uncertainty reduction LO 1 9-7
- 8. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Identify the Five Stages of Group Development LO 2 9-8
- 9. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Group Effectiveness Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time. Similarly, groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly. Groups don’t always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. LO 2 9-9 Identify the Five Stages of Group Development
- 10. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. LO 2 9- 10 Identify the Five Stages of Group Development
- 11. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Group properties For better understanding of group’s performance and predicting individual behavior, we need to understand group properties Important properties of a group include: Roles Norms Status Size Cohesiveness, and Diversity
- 12. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Show How Role Requirements Change In Different Situations Role – a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Role perception – one’s perception of how to act in a given situation. Role expectations – how others believe one should act in a given situation. Psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer Role conflict – situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations. LO 3 9- 12
- 13. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Zimbardo’s prison experiment The experiment is one of the best known experiments in psychology See the video here Discussion questions: What does the experiment suggest about the importance of roles? How do people adjust according to their perception of the roles? How did the subjects change according to role expectations?
- 14. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Demonstrate How Norms and Status Exert Influence On an Individual’s Behavior Norms – acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members. Performance norms like how hard members should work, what the level of output should be, how to get the job done, what level of lateness is appropriate, and the like. Appearance norms include dress codes, unspoken rules about when to look busy and the like. Social arrangement norms focus on whom to eat lunch with or whether to form friendships on and off the job. Resource allocation norms include the assignment of difficult jobs, and the distribution of resources, like pay or equipment. LO 4 9- 14
- 15. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Asch experiment Asch experiment proves that individuals tend to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard That is true in even individualistic cultures Do you conform with the groups you belong to? Why? How can businesses use conformity to their advantage?
- 16. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Status – a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Status characteristics theory – differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. Status is derived from one of three sources: The power a person wields over others. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. An individual’s personal characteristics. LO 4 9- 16 Demonstrate How Norms and Status Exert Influence On an Individual’s Behavior
- 17. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Show How Group Size Affects Group Performance Group size affects the group’s overall behavior. Large groups are good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groups are better doing something with input. Social loafing – the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. LO 5 9- 17
- 18. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Group status: cohesiveness Groups differ in their cohesiveness Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group LO 5 9- 18
- 19. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Contrast The Benefits And Disadvantages Of Cohesive Groups LO 6 9- 19
- 20. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Explain the Implications of Diversity For Group Effectiveness Diversity – the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another. Increases group conflict especially in the short term. Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time. Over time, diversity may help them be more open-minded and creative. LO 7 9- 20
- 21. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Contrast the Strengths and Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Strengths of group decision making: More complete information and knowledge Increased diversity of views Increased acceptance of solutions Weaknesses of group decision making: Time consuming Conformity pressures Dominance of a few members Ambiguous responsibility LO 8 9- 21
- 22. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Contrast the Strengths and Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Groupthink – situations in which group pressures for conformity discourage the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupshift – a change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make. The shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk, but is generally toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position. LO 8 9- 22
- 23. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Compare the Effectiveness of Interacting, Brainstorming, and the Nominal Group Technique Brainstorming can overcome pressures for conformity. In a brainstorming session: The group leader states the problem clearly. Members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can. No criticism is allowed. One idea stimulates others, and group members are encouraged to “think the unusual.” LO 9 9- 23
- 24. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Case study Please read the provided case and answer the questions
- 25. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Implications for Managers Be certain your employees fully understand their roles so you can accurately assess their performance. Both role expectation and role perception (psychological contract) matter 9- 25
- 26. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Implications for Managers In group situations where the norms support high output, you can expect markedly higher individual performance than when the norms restrict output. 9- 26
- 27. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Implications for Managers Pay attention to the organizational status levels of the employee groups you create. Because lower-status people tend to participate less in group discussions, groups with high status differences are likely to inhibit input from lower- status members and reduce their potential. 9- 27
- 28. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Ltd. Implications for Managers When forming employee groups, use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller groups for action-taking tasks. When creating larger groups, you should also provide measures of individual performance. To increase employee satisfaction, work on making certain your employees perceive their job roles the same way you perceive their roles. 9- 28
Editor's Notes
- Welcome to this Organizational Behavior course that uses the 16th edition, Global Edition of the textbook, Organizational Behavior by Robbins and Judge. This is considered among the most widely used OB textbooks in the world. Robbins and Judge are recognized as definitive aggregators of OB concepts, applications, and practices. The course and this book will provide you with a resource that will benefit you throughout your degree program and your professional life. <number>
- Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior <number>
- We begin this chapter with the learning objectives: Define group, and distinguish the different types of groups. Identify the five stages of group development. Show how role requirements change in different situations. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. Show how group size affects group performance. Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. Explain the implications of diversity for group effectiveness. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Compare the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique. <number>
- A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups, like an airline flight crew, are those defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. The behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. In contrast, informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined, but instead are natural formations in the work environment in response to the need for social contact. So, for example, three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group. <number>
- Groups and teams are not the same thing. Exhibit 10-1 shows that a work group interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help members perform within his or her area of responsibility. In contrast, a work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs. <number>
- Why do people form groups? Our tendency to take personal pride or offense for the accomplishments of a group is the territory of social identity theory. Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other people, but they can have a negative side as well. Probably the biggest downside is that social identities encourage ingroup favoritism, which occurs when we see members of our ingroup as better than other people and people not in our group as all the same. This obviously paves the way for stereotyping. <number>
- When do people develop a social identity? Several characteristics make a social identity important to a person: Similarity suggests that, not surprisingly, people who have the same values or characteristics as other members of their organization have higher levels of group identification. Distinctiveness suggests that people are more likely to notice identities that show how they are different from other groups. Respondents in one study identified more strongly with those in their work group with whom they shared uncommon or rare demographic characteristics. Status is important because people use identities to define themselves and increase self-esteem, so it makes sense that they are most interested in linking themselves to high-status groups. Graduates of prestigious universities will go out of their way to emphasize their links to their alma maters and are also more likely to make donations. Uncertainty reduction is important because membership in a group helps some people understand who they are and how they fit into the world. <number>
- The five-stage group-development model seen in Exhibit 9-1 comprises five stages or categories of activity. First is the forming stage. It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members try to determine what types of behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group. Second is the storming stage. This is a period of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to constraints on individuality. Conflict arises over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group. Third is the norming stage. It is one in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. Next is the performing stage. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understanding each other to performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development. For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a limited task to perform, there is an adjourning stage. In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the group’s accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships. <number>
- While the five-stage process is generally true, what makes a group effective is more complex. First, groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time, whereas those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen over time. Similarly, groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Storming and performing can occur simultaneously, and groups can even regress to previous stages. <number>
- Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five-stage model. Studies indicate they have their own unique sequencing of actions (or inaction). Their first meeting sets the group’s direction. This first phase of group activity is one of inertia. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. A transition initiates major changes. A second phase of inertia follows the transition, and the group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. this pattern, called the punctuated-equilibrium model, is shown in Exhibit 9-2. The first meeting sets the group’s direction. A framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges. These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few seconds of the group’s life. Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions. Then a transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time. The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members’ awareness that their time is limited and that they need to “get moving.” A transition initiates major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2. Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. The group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. <number>
- The world is a stage and all men and women mere players All group members are actors, each playing a role. We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicts. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals. We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us—friends, books, movies, television Many studies have confirmed the relation between violations of the psychological contract and lower productivity, higher turnover and higher theft <number>
- Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his associates simulated a prison environment using two dozen emotionally stable, physically healthy, law-abiding students who scored “normal average” on extensive personality tests, and randomly assigned them the role of either “guard” or “prisoner” and established some basic rules. The simulation actually proved too successful in demonstrating how quickly individuals learn new roles, as the researchers had to end it after only 6 days because of the participants’ pathological reactions. <number>
- All groups have norms, or acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group’s members. Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Performance norms provide explicit cues about how hard members should work, what the level of output should be, how to get the job done, what level of tardiness is appropriate, and the like. These norms are extremely powerful and are capable of significantly modifying a performance prediction based solely on ability and level of personal motivation. Appearance norms include dress codes, unspoken rules about when to look busy and the like. Social arrangement norms focus on whom to eat lunch with or whether to form friendships on and off the job. Resource allocation norms include the assignment of difficult jobs, and the distribution of resources, like pay or equipment. Full-scale appreciation of the influence of norms on worker behavior did not occur until the early 1930s, following studies undertaken between 1924 and 1932 at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago, discussed in detail in your text. <number>
- There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard. The pressure that group exerts for conformity was demonstrated by Solomon Asch. Groups of seven or eight people were asked to compare two cards held by the experimenter, as shown in Exhibit 9-3. One card had one line; the other had three lines of varying length. Under ordinary conditions, subjects made less than one percent error. The experiment began with several sets of matching exercises. All the subjects gave the right answers. On the third set, however, the first subject gave an obviously wrong answer, the next subject gave the same wrong answer, and so did the others until it got to the unknowing subject. The results obtained by Asch demonstrated that over many experiments and many trials, subjects conformed in about 37% of the trials; the subjects gave answers that they knew were wrong but that were consistent with the replies of other group members. Has time altered the validity of these findings of nearly 50 years ago, and are they generalizable across cultures? Yes, levels of conformity have steadily declined. Furthermore, Asch’s findings are culture-bound. Conformity to social norms is higher in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures. Individuals conform to the important groups to which they belong or hope to belong. However, all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members. Important groups are referred to as reference groups. The reference group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others; the person defines himself or herself as a member, or would like to be a member; and the person feels that the group members are significant to him/her. <number>
- Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. 1. The Power a Person Wields Over Others. Because they likely control the group’sresources, people who control the outcomes tend to be perceived as high status.2. A Person’s Ability to Contribute to a Group’s Goals. People whose contributionsare critical to the group’s success tend to have high status. Some thought football starLionel Messi has more say over player decisions than his coaches3. An Individual’s Personal Characteristics. Someone whose personal characteristicsare positively valued by the group (good looks, intelligence, money, or a friendlypersonality) typically has higher status than someone with fewer valued attributes. <number>
- The size of a group affects the group’s overall behavior, but the effect depends on the dependent variables. Large groups of a dozen or more members are good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groups of about seven members are better at doing something productive with that input. One of the most important findings about the size of a group concerns social loafing, or the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. Ringelman did a group performance on a rope-pulling task in the late 1920s. Wondering if team spirit spurs individual effort and enhances overall group productivity, he expected that three people pulling together would exert three times as much pull on the rope as one person, and eight people eight times as much. One person pulling on a rope alone exerted an average of 63 kilograms of force. In groups of three, the per-person force dropped to 53 kilograms. And groups of eight, it fell to only 31 kilograms per person, supporting the social loafing theory. <number>
- Groups differ in their cohesiveness, or the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. Cohesiveness is important because it’s related to the group’s productivity. The relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group. If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive. If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low. Encourage group cohesiveness by: Making the group smaller Encouraging agreement with group goals Increasing the time members spend together Increasing the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group Stimulating competition with other groups Giving rewards to the group rather than to individual members Physically isolating the group <number>
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- Diversity in the group’s membership is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another. A great deal of research is being done on how diversity influences group performance. Some studies look at cultural diversity and some at racial, gender, and other differences. Overall, studies identify both benefits and costs from group diversity. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a group’s tenure, which often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates. Teams in which members’ values or opinions differ tend to experience more conflict, but leaders who can get the group to focus on the task at hand and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and enhance discussion of group issues. It seems diversity can be bad for performance even in creative teams, but appropriate organizational support and leadership might offset these problems. If members can weather their differences over time, diversity may help them be more open-minded and creative and to do better. <number>
- Are group decisions better than those made by individuals alone? The strengths of group decision-making include: more complete information and knowledge; increased diversity of views; and increased acceptance of a solution. The weaknesses of group decision-making include: the fact that it’s more time consuming; there are conformity pressures; one or a few members can dominate group discussion; and responsibility can be ambiguous. <number>
- Groupthink is related to norms and affects decision making. It describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink is a disease that attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder performance. Groupshift describes the way of discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution whereby group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions they hold. Groups generally shift toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position. What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion results in a significant shift in a position of members towards a more extreme position in the direction in which they were already leaning before the discussion Group shift can be seen as a special case of groupthink. <number>
- Brainstorming and the nominal group technique can reduce problems inherent in the traditional interacting group. Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the interacting group that dampens the development of creative alternatives. In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen people sit around a table, the group leader states the problem clearly, and members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis. One idea stimulates others, and group members are encouraged to “think the unusual.” There are two major types: 1. classical brainstorming 2. silent brainstorming <number>
- We can draw several implications from our discussion of groups. First, norms control behavior by establishing standards of right and wrong. The norms of a given group can help explain members’ behaviors for managers. Second, status inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity and willingness to remain with an organization. Third, the impact of size on a group’s performance depends on the type of task. Larger groups are associated with lower satisfaction. Fourth, cohesiveness may influence a group’s level of productivity, depending on the group’s performance-related norms. Fifth, diversity appears to have a mixed impact on group performance, with some studies suggesting that diversity can help performance and others suggesting it can hurt it. Sixth, role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job dissatisfaction. Lastly, people generally prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a higher one, rather than with those below them. Managers should consider that the degree of congruence between the employee’s and the manager’s perception of the employee’s job influences the degree to which the manager will judge that employee effective. Therefore, be certain your employees fully understand their roles so you can accurately assess their performance. <number>
- Managers should also be aware that in group situations where the norms support high output, you can expect markedly higher individual performance than when the norms restrict output. Group norms that support antisocial behavior increase the likelihood that individuals will engage in deviant workplace activities. <number>
- Managers should pay attention to the organizational status levels of the employee groups they create. Because lower-status people tend to participate less in group discussions, groups with high status differences are likely to inhibit input from lower-status members and reduce their potential. <number>
- Finally, when forming employee groups, use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller groups for action-taking tasks. When creating larger groups, you should also provide measures of individual performance. To increase employee satisfaction, work on making certain your employees perceive their job roles the same way you perceive their roles. <number>