The document provides a detailed history and overview of mycology, the study of fungi. It discusses important figures and their contributions to the field from 1500 to present day. It also covers general fungal characteristics, types of reproduction, spore structures, taxonomic classifications proposed over time, and specialized characteristics of different fungi. The document is an extensive review of the history and major topics in the field of mycology.

2. Mycology
Presented by
Mr. VYAVAHARE YUVARAJ VITTHAL
Submitted to
Dr. K. S. RAGHUWANSHI
POST GRADUATE INSTITUTE,
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY AND AGRICULTURAL
MICROBIOLOGY,
MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI

3. Content
✓ Introduction
✓ History
✓ Important Characteristic
✓ Reproduction in fungi
✓ Spore and Spore fruiting bodies in fungi
✓ Taxonomic Development of Fungi
✓ Classification of Fungi by Ainsworth And Bisby
✓ Specialized characteristic of Different Fungi
✓ Hetrokaryosis
✓ Parasexual Cycle
✓ Speciation in fungi
✓ Self-incompatibility in Fungi

4. Year Scientist Description
1500 Surapal
Wrote “Vruksha Ayurveda” the first book in which
plant disease were discussed
1665 Robert Hooke
Teliospore of Phragmidium disciflorum were first
observed under microscope
1670 Thoullier
Observed that ergotism (Holy fire) is associated
with the consumption of ergot contaminated grains
1729
Pier Antonio
Micheli (Italy)
Father of Mycology
Studied fungi and saw their spores on the pieces of
watermelon
Wrote “Nova plantarum genera”

5. 1755 M. Tillet
Great Grand Father of Plant Pathology
Demonstrated experimentally that the bunt of wheat was
contagious and though that the spores contained a
poisonous entity
Work published on Stinking smut of wheat
1773 J. Baptista Gave the systemic classification of plant diseases.
1801 CH Persoon
Wrote “Synopsis methodical fungorum” a chief starting
point for the nomenclature of the Uredinales, Ustilaginales
and Gasteromycetes
1807 Prevost
Experimentally provided the fist proof and interpretation of the
role of microorganism in the causation of the disease
Demonstrated the control of wheat smut by steeping seed in
CuSO4 solution.
1821 EM Fries
Linnaeus of Mycology Father of systemic mycology
Regarded the rust and smut fungi as products of diseased
plants
Wrote "Systema mycologicum

6. 1831¬1866
Anton De Bary
Father of Plant Pathology Founder of modern Mycology
Describes the account of development and sex in number
of Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes
First to indicate the nature of obligate and facultative forms
Describe the role of enzymes in tissue disintegration Working on soft rot
of carrot caused by Sclerotinia spp. Wrote text book on "Morphologie
und Physiologie der Pilze
Demonstrated heteroecious nature of stem rust of wheat Work on late
blight of potato
1840 LR Tulsane
Reconstructor of Mycology
Made drawing of rust smuts and ascomycetes
1854
Schroeder and
Von Dusch First time use cotton plugs in culturing of microorganism
1858 Julius Kuhn
Published first textbook on Plant pathology namely "The diseases of
cultivated crops: Their causes and their control”
1859 C Darwin Wrote "Origin of species”

7. 1875
Oscar
Brefeld
Developed the pure culture technique for isolation and
culturing of fungi
Studied life history of cereal smuts
Discovered Dictyostelium mucoroides
1876 Furlow
First introduced independent course of Plant pathology
at Haward University
1880 HM Ward
Father of Tropical Plant pathology
Role of environment in the epidemiology of coffee rust
1880 Hesse Introduced the use of agar in microbiological methods
1885
PMA
Millardet
Discovered the Bordeaux for the control of downy mildew
of grapes

8. 1885 Frank Discovered mycorrhizial fungi
1887 Jeensen Hot water treatment for wheat smut
1891 NA Cobb First scale to measure plant disease intensity
1894 Erickson Physiological specialization in stem rust of wheat
1914
EC
Stackman
Biological forms in cereal rust
1930- Physiological forms of Puccinia graminis tritici
by hybridization

9. 1923
Hansen and
Smith
Demonstrated the origin of physiological races through
heterokaryosis.
1926 E Kurosawa
Describe the role of growth regulators in plant
disease by
showing that culture fluids of Fusarium moniliforme
reproduce symptoms of the Bakane disease of rice.
1927 JH Craigie Discovered function of pycnia
1929 JC Walker
Identified protocatechoic acid and catechol as
preformed disease resistance factor in red onion bulb
against smudge disease

10. 1931 PA Saccardo
Wrote “Syllogue Fungorum” comprised of 26 volume
Providing latin description of all genera and species
known at that time
1940
KO Mullar and
H Borger
Proposed Phytoalexin hypothesis
Studied hypersensitive response in potato
Phytophthora
system
1946 HH Flor
Gave Gene for gene hypothesis of disease resistance
and susceptibility while working on linseed rust
(Melampsora lini)

11. 1947
F Mecham and M
Murphy Discovered toxin Victorin
1952
G Pantecorvo and
JA Roper Discovered parasexuality in Aspergillus nidulans
1953 EC Large
Term pathometry or phytopathometry for disease I
assessment and disease measurment
1966 Williams
Axenic culture of rust fungus (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici)
from uredeniospore
1968 Vander Plank
Father of plant epidemiology
Gave concept of horizontal and vertical resistance in
plants
Vertifolia effect
1984 Albersheim
Identified molecule in cell wall of the oomycetes Phytophthora
megasperma that acts as the elicitor of the defence response
in the soybean host

12. 1986 R Beachy
Demonstrated that transgenic tobacco plants
expressing the coat protein gene of TMV exhibit
resistant to the virus
1990
DF Klessig and
I Raskin
Demonstrated that salicylic acid is associated
with SAR
1991 PJGM DeWit
Cloned the first fungal avirulence gene avr9
from Cladosporium fulvum
1992
SP Briggs and
JD Walton
Cloned the first resistant gene Hm-1 from corm
Demonstrated that its protein product
detoxified the host selective toxin of
Cochliobolus carbonum

13. 1993 GB Martin Cloned the first disease resistance gene Pto
modulating the HR
1998 Gilchrist
Reported connection between plant disease and PCD
suicide or apoptosis associated with HR
2003 JE Galagan
The first complete genome sequencing of a fungus
Neurospora crassa
2005 RA Dean
The first complete genome sequencing of a plant
pathogenic fungus Magnaporthe grisea

14. General Characteristics of Fungi
1. Vegetative Thallus:
The body of the fungus is called as Thallus, which is without stem root and leaves.
Some fungi may be unicellular yeasts while some fungi may be multi cellular
moulds. A single thread like filament is called as hypha. A hypha is made up of a
thin, transparent tabular wall filled or lined with a layer of protoplasm.
A group of hypha or network of hyphae constituting the body of fungus is called as
mycelium may be septate or aseptate. i.e coenocytic or Nonseptate.
a) Nonseptate or Aseptate or Coenocetic Mycelium:
b) b) Septate Mycelium or Non-coenocetic Mycelium

15. i) Ecotophytic Mycelium:
ii) Endophytic Mycelium:
a)Intercellular
b) Intracellular
c) Vascular

16. 2. Cell Wall:
Cell wall is well defined, typically chitinised which contains chitin or cellulose or both
(Cellulose in oomycetes), living structure of the cell called as organells (Cytoplasm, nucleolus
and protoplasm). Nonliving structure of the cell called as Inorganells (Chitin , cellulose).
3. Nutrition:
their food as:
1.Saprobes ( example- Mushroom)
2. Symbionts (example- Lichen.)
3. Parasites or hyper parasites (example- Stem rust of Wheat.)

17. i) Obligate Parasites or Biotrophs:
3. Parasites:
E.g. Rust, mildews, viruses.
(Stem Rust of Wheat)
ii) Non Obligate Parasites or Necrotrophs:
E.g. Sclerotium rolfsii, Claviceps, Ventruria.
(Cercospora Leaf Spot og Groundnut)
iii) Facultative Saprophytes:
. E. g. Smut, Sphacelotheca sp.
(Head Smut of Jowar)
iv) Facultative Parasites:
E.g. Pythium, Phytophthora.
(Late Blight of Potato)

18. 4. Nuclear Status:
Eukaryotic multinucleate, mycelium being homocakaryotic or
heterokaryotic or haploid or diploid or dikarytoic limited
duration. Well defined structures i.e. nuclear membrane,
nucleolus, and chromatin material.
5. Sexuality:
Sexual or asexual and homo or heterothallic.
6. Life Cycle:
Simple to Complex.
7. Sporocarps:
Microscopic or macroscopic and showing limited differentiation.
8. Distribution:
Cosmopolitan.

20. Reproduction in Fungi
Reproduction:
Asexual Reproduction:
It is also known as somatic or vegetative reproduction and does not involve
the union of two nucleus or sex organs.
Methods of Asexual Reproduction:
A. Binary fission
B. Budding
C. By fragmentation of soma or cell sap or hyphae (Arthospore)
D. Production of spores (Chlymadospore)
Sexual Reproduction:
Union of two nuclei or gametes of opposite sex a gamete is unisexual. i.e.
haploid.
Methods of Sexual Reproduction:
a. Planogamtic Copulation
b. Gametangial Contact
c. Gametangial Copulation
d. Spermatization
e. Somatogamy
f. Heterokaryasis
g. Dikaryotization.

21. Asexual Reproduction in Fungi
A) Binary Fission B) Budding C) Fragmentation
D) Spore Formation (chlamydospore)

22. Sexual Reproduction In Fungi
A) Planogametic copulation B) Gametangial contact
C) Gametangial copulation D) Spematization E) Somatogamy
A C
B D and E

23. Different Types of Spore in Fungi

24. Sexual Fruiting bodies in Fungi

25. Asexual Fruiting Bodies in Fungi
A) Sporangium B) Aecium C) Pycnidium D) Acervulus
E) Sporodochium F) Coremium (Synnemata) G) Pycnium
A B C D
E F G

27. Specia

28. Specialized Asexual Spore Structure

29. Major criteria used in the classification and
phylogeny of fungi
1. Morphology
2. Anatomical Characters
3. Nutrition and Physiology
4. Chemistry of Low-Molecular-Weight Compounds
5. Carbohydrates and Cell Wall Composition
6. Molecular Methods

30. • Basic shape of the fungal thallus.
• Form, colour and size of the asexual
or sexual spore producing structures.
1.Morphology

31. 2. Anatomical Characters
• The arrangement of hyphae comprising the tissues of spore-
producing structures
• The arrangement of asci or basidia and also the sterile structures
like paraphysis and cystidia within the hymenium.
• Analysis of hyphal structures.
• Histochemical localization of certain compounds by using
fluorescent probes and dyes.

32. They are of great practical importance in yeasts because
of their limited morphological features and absence of
sexual sporulation in some.
Features of importance are:
• Whether growth is limited to aerobic/anaerobic conditions or
fermentation occurs.
• Whether it can utilize nitrate as a nitrogen source.
• Which sugars and glycosides it can metabolize?
• What is the pattern of susceptibility to various antifungal
compounds?
3. Nutrition and Physiology

33. The term chemotaxonomy is generally applied to the utilization of low
molecular weight compounds in classification and identification
This approach is important to understand lichen taxonomy as they are known
to produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as pigments,
colorless compounds, and some products in the form of crystals
This approach relies on procedures such as Gas Chromatography (GC),
Mass Spectrometry (GCMS), High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR).
4.Chemistry of Low-Molecular-Weight
Compounds

34. • Fungal walls have a complex structure with specific
polysaccharides present in different groups for example the
walls of Oomycota contain cellulose, whereas in most other
fungi chitin is present.
• Estimates of the amount chitin have been significantly
employed in yeast taxonomy.
• Glucose and mannose are the main carbohydrates found on
hydrolysis of the walls of all yeasts. However, presence or absence
of certain sugars like fucose, galactose, rhamnose and xylose,
though in smaller amounts, may also help in classifying yeasts.
5.Carbohydrates and Cell Wall Composition

35. • These methods are based either directly on the DNA
sequence characters or on the properties of their
protein products, especially enzymes.
• This can provide information on the direction of
evolution leading to the development of a
phylogenetic tree.
6. Molecular Methods

36. Some earlier systems of classification
1. System proposed by HCI Gwynne-Vaughan & B
Barnes (1937).

37. 2. System proposed by EA Bessey (1950).

38. 3. System proposed by GM Smith (1955)
GM Smith an American botanist (1885-1959), proposed to include all fungi into seven classes
belonging to two divisions.

39. Fungi
Lower Fungi (Phycomycetes) Higher Fungi
• Group 1 Uniflagellatae
• Class 1 Chytridiomycetes
• Class 2 Hyphochytridiomycetes
• Class 3 Plasmodiophoromycetes
• Group 2 Biflagellatae
• Class 1 Oomycetes
• Group 3 Aplanatae
• Class 1 Zygomycetes
• Class 2 Trichomycetes
• Class 1 Ascomycetes
• Subclass 1 Hemiascomycetidae
• Subclass 2 Euascomycetidae
• Subclass 3 Loculoascomycetidae
• Subclass4Laboulbeniomycetidae
• Class 2 Basidiomycetes
• Subclass 1 Heterobasidiomycetidae
• Subclass 2 Homobasidiomycetidae
4. Outline of the classification proposed by
Lilian E Hawker (1966).

40. 5. System proposed by Greta B Stevenson (1970
• Division Mycota
• Class 1 Chytridiomycetes
• Class 2 Oomycetes
• Class 3 Zygomycetes
• Class 4 Ascomycetes
• Class 5 Basidiomycetes
• Class 6 Deuteromycetes

41. 7.Classification of organism by
R.H.Whittakar (1969)
• R.H. Whittaker (1969)
• Classification of organism in Five Kingdom
System
1) Kingdom Protista
2) Kingdom Monera
3) Kingdom Fungi
4) Kingdom Animalia
5) Kingdom Plantae

42. Taxonomic Position of fungi
Ends
Kingdom-
Division mycota
Sub-Division mycotina
Class mycetes
Order ales
Family ceae
Genera
Species
Classification of Fungi by
G.C. Ainsworth (1973)

43. Schematic representation of the outline with figure, the classification of
G.C. Ainsworth (1973) is given:
Schematic outline of the classification of G. C. Ainsworth (1973):

44. Y6767-7l=ui’;/+

46. Classification of Fungi by Hawksworth et al. (1983 and 1995):
Ten years after the classification of Ainsworth (1973), Hawksworth et
al. (1983) revised Ainsworth’s classification in the 7th edition of the
“Dictionary of the Fungi”.
The changes made by them are:
1. The Division Myxomycota divided into eight classes instead of four
classes.
2. The Sub-division Ascomycotina is directly divided into thirty seven
(37) orders and arranged alphabetically; there is no classes in-
between.
3. The subdivision Basidiomycotina is divided into four classes instead
of three, where class Teliomycetes is replaced by Uredinio- mycetes
and Ustilaginomycetes.
4. In the sub-division Deuteromycotina, the class Blastomycetes was
not considered.

47. Later, Hawksworth et al. (1995) thoroughly revised the classification in the
8th edition of the “Dictionary of the Fungi”. The classification was based on
the sequence of 18s rRNA among the different members.
• Though members of fungi show similarity in their morphology, mode of
nutrition and ecology, but the higher dissimilarity is observed in the base
sequences of their 18s rRNA (or more precisely in the DNA coding for it),
which is now considered as the most important parameter to determine
the genetic relationship. Thus, it shows that the fungi are polyphyletic
aggregation of unrelated members.
• Based on the above fact and phylogenetic consideration, the entire fungal
community are now segregated out and placed them under three
different Kingdoms Fungi, Straminopila (Chromista) and Protozoa.
• Based on comparison of several factors such as, 18s rRNA, cytoskele- ton
protein, chemical features like chitin, mitochondrial codon UGA coding for
tryptophan instead of termination, storage of glycogen, elongation factors
and morphological structure of motile cells like male gamete in animal and
zoospores in fungi, there is close similarity of fungi with animals than to
other two groups like Straminopila and Protozoa.

48. Modern systems of classification
Fungal taxonomy is evolving at an unprecedented speed at
present due mainly to the contributions of molecular
phylogeny. These classification systems are based on
evolutionary relationships and are known as
phylogenetic classifications.

49. Outline of classification system proposed by CJ Alexopoulos, CW Mims and M Blackwell (1996)

50. Outline of classification system adopted by J Webster, and Roland WS
Weber in their book, Introduction to Fungi (2007)
This classification scheme is based on the classification proposed by
McLaughlin et al (2001). Mainly this scheme also is based on molecular phylogeny and is broadly
same as proposed by Alexopoulos et al. (1996).
The phylogenetic relationships of Fungi and fungus-like organisms studied by mycologists with
other groups of Eukaryota.The analysis is based on comparisons of18S rDNA sequences.

51. The different taxa considered in this
system are

53. • The different taxa considered in this system
along with their ‘ending’ are:
• Phylum — mycota
• Sub-phylum — mycotina
• Class — mycetes
• Sub-class — mycetidae
• Order — ales
• Family — aceae
• But the genera and species have no standard
ending. In this system, division has been
replaced by phylum and all taxa are written in
italics.

54. Clamp connections
• Branch that grows back

55. Clamp connections
• Thought to be a mechanism to maintain
dikaryotic condition
• Only found in dikaryotic hyphae, but not all
dikaryotic hyphae form them

56. • The clamp connection:
Found in all dikaryotic mycelia of
basidiomycota except for most uredinomycetes

57. Hilar Appendix (Basidiomycota)

58. Crozier Formation (Ascomycotina)

59. Trichogyne Formation (Ascomycota)

60. Heterokaryosis
✓ Heterokaryosis - coexistence of genetically different
nuclei in cytoplasm continuity with one another.
✓ Discovered by Hansen and Smith (1932) in Botrytis
cinerea.
✓ plays major role - variability and sexuality in fungi.
Heterokaryotic condition arises by-
➢ Mutation
➢ Anastomosis
➢ Inclusion of dissimilar nuclei in spores after
meiosis, in heterothallic fungi.
In Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina

61. ▪ Mutation- A high frequency of mutation is
characteristic of fungi - main source of variability.
❖ Anastomosis (fusion of hyphae)- Fusion is mostly
intra-specific.
➢ Nuclear migration from the point of fusion to the
remainder of the mycelium takes place
- heterokaryotic mycelium.
E.g.- development of heterokaryon in
basidiomycota.
• in Basidiomycetes, the dikaryotic state differs
drastically from the haploid mycelium and spores
of the fungus. state differs drastically from the
haploid mycelium and spores of the fungus.

62. ❖ Inclusion of dissimilar nuclei in spores after
meiosis, in heterothallic fungi-
➢ Meiosis results in the production of genetically
different nuclei sharing common cytoplasm.
➢ e.g. Neurospora tetrasperma, Podospora anserine
➢ on germination - give rise to a heterokaryotic
thallus.
➢ In the asexual phase - occurs frequently in
multinucleate spores.

63. Parasexual Cycle

64. SIGNIFICANCE OF HETEROKARYOSIS
➢ Substitute for heterozygosity and variability
➢ Heterokaryosis and pathogenicity- e.g. in rusts and smuts
➢ Origin of new race
➢ Initial step in Parasexual cycle

65. Parasexual cycle
• Discovered in fungi (Aspergillus nidulans) by Pontecorvo and
Roper (1952)
• Parasexuality - genetic recombination is achieved through “
mitotic crossing over” and “ haploidization”.
• also known as somatic recombination.
• Sexual reproduction - extremely uniform - fine coordination
between recombination, segregation and reduction
• Parasexual cycle lack such co-ordination
• The steps of the parasexual - independent of each other and
the frequency of each is very low.
• The karyogamy and haploidization are accidential events
not bound by space and time.

66. STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE
➢ Establishment of heterokaryosis
➢ Formation of heterozygous diploids
➢ Occasional mitotic crossing- over, during
multiplication of the diploid nuclei, and
➢ Haploidization through aneuploidy
• Establishment of heterokaryosis
The presence of haploid nuclei of dissimilar
genotypes in the same cytoplasm
• pre-requisite for recombination.

67. FORMATION OF HETEROZYGOUS DIPLOIDS
• Nuclear fusion in heterokaryotic somatic cells was first
noted by Roper (1952) in Aspergillus nidulans.
• The nuclear fusion between dissimilar nuclei - the
formation of heterozygous diploid nuclei or “zygotes”
• a rare event, occurring at the rate of one in a million.
• The heterozygous diploid nuclei - fairly stable
• The diploid colonies are recognized by-
➢ higher DNA content of their nuclei
➢ the bigger size of their conidia
➢ certain phenotypic characteristics of their colony
• The prolonged diploid phase involving repeated nuclear
divisions, enhances the chances of “mitotic crossing
over”.

68. • Parasexual Cycle

69. USE OF PARASEXUAL PHENOMENON IN
ANTIBIOTIC INDUSTRY
• most important antibiotic producing fungi, like
Penicillium chrysogenum (penicillin) and Acremonium
chrysogenum (cephalosporin)
• discovery of parasexual phenomenon - suitable
techniques to obtain higher antibiotic strains.
Fungi Antibiotic
Aspergillus nidulans Penicillin G
Acremonium chrysogenum Cephalosporin C
Emerocellopsis salmosynnemata Penicillin N
Penicillium chrysogenum Penicillin G, O, V
Penicillium patulum Griseofulvin,
patulin

70. Speciation in fungi
• When fungal species parasitize a number of host varieties, they often develop
physiological specialization
• Eriksson (1894) showed that Puccinia graminis on cereals and grasses is
composed of several pathogenically different strains which he describe as
specialized forms.
• Physiological specialization: – with in the species of a pathogen there exist
certain individuals that are morphologically similar but differs with respect to
their physiology, biochemical characters and pathogenicity and are differentiated
on the basis of their reaction on certain host genera or cultivars
The entire population of a particular organism e.g., a fungal pathogen, has
certain morphological and other phenotypic characteristics in common and makes
up the species of pathogen, such as Puccinia graminis
• Physiological race: – a group of population within a species which have ability of
infecting a particular genotype and do not differ in their morphology but have
physiological differences such as a specific host or food type or pathogenicity
E.g. Black stem rust- Puccinia graminis tritici
Some individuals of this species make up groups that are called varieties or
special forms such as P. graminis tritici and P. graminis hordei.

71. • Variability: it is the property of an organism to change its
characters from one generation to the other
Occasionally, one of the offspring of a race can suddenly attack a
new variety or can cause severe symptoms on a variety. This
individual is called a variant.
Forma specialis (f. sp.) individuals within the species of pathogen
that morphologically similar but differ with respect to their
pathogenicity on particular host genera or cultivar
• With in species or f. sp. There are further subgroups of
individual that infect different varieties of the host– such
subgroups are called RACES/ STRAINS
Even within each special form, however, some individuals
attack some of the varieties of the host plant but not others, with
each group of such individuals making up a race. Thus, there are
more than 200 races of P. graminis tritici (race 1, race 15, race 59
and so on).