Understanding Early Adolescent Language in Textbooks

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University of Nevada, Reno
Early Adolescent Language
A Content Analysis of Child Development and
Educational Psychology Textbooks
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in
Curriculum and Instruction
By
Bobbin Kyte Cave
Dr. Martha Combs/Dissertation Advisor
August, 2002

UMI Number. 3068510
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L I I RSI I Y
OI I A I ).
Kl 0
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
We recommend that the dissertation
prepared under our supervision by
BOBBIN KYTE CAVE
entitled
Early Adolescent Language: A Content Analysis of
Child Development And Educational Psychology Textbooks
be accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Y
MarthajCombs, Ed. D.. Advisor
tU<iAAi
Tammy Abematny, Ph. D Committee
/ n
mber
etting, Ph. D., Committee Member
SteveQ Harlow, Ph. D., Committee Member
Ann Tyler, Ph. Qk, At-Large Member
Marsha H. Read, Ph. D., Associate Dean, Graduate School
August, 2001

Abstract
Research suggests that teachers’knowledge of language impacts their
expectations of and interactions with early adolescents. Teacher candidates are first
introduced to early adolescent development, including language development,
through courses in child development and or educational psychology. Leading child
development and educational psychology textbooks were examined for all
components of language, the quality and quantity of information, and the theoretical
perspectives of the authors, as they were relevant to early adolescents (ages 10-14).
None of the 13 textbooks examined completely described early adolescent language,
neither development nor acquisition. In general, child development textbooks
contained more information about language and were more complete than educational
psychology textbooks. The strongest textbooks emphasized acquisition of language
and were written from a social- environmental perspective.

Acknowledgements
Many people have helped and supported me in the completion of this
dissertation. First, my husband Marcellus (Marc) Cave encouraged me when there were
disappointments, picked up the slack and created the time for me to work on the
dissertation. His love and caring are unmatched. Without his support this paper would
not have been started or finished.
It was my parents Lydiane and Bob Kyte who gave me a love of learning,
showed me how to find to look under rocks to find creatures and in books to find
another point of view. For their steadfast interest and support of my activities I am
grateful.
My thanks go to my chair, Martha Combs who guided me when I was lost,
discussed issues when I needed clarification, asked questions when I needed to see that I
already knew the answers but was not putting them into writing, and stood by me even
when I said the wrong thing. Her faith in me never faltered. Her dedication to her
students to become the best teachers that they can be is seldom matched by other
faculty.
Finally, I thank the students that I have taught for teaching me, for opening my
eyes to their needs, their wants, and their hopes. It was their difficulties with language
that was the inspiration for this study.
To the readers ofthis dissertation, please feel free to use the research on early
adolescent language found in Chapter 2. I charge you to spread the word that early
adolescents are still learning language and they do not understand everything adults say
or write.

lii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION I
Early Adolescent Language I
The Teacher’s Role in Language Development 2
Language and Thinking 2
Oral Language 3
Literacy 4
Language as a Social and Cultural Activity 5
Teacher’s Responsibility 6
Textbooks and Courses 7
Why Look at Early Adolescent Language 8
Research Questions 9
Definitions 10
Summary 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 18
Introduction 18
What is Language? 18
Language in the Educational Community 19
The Basis of Language 20
Components of Language 20
Language in Grammar 21
Language in Literacy 21
Language in Social Skills 22

iv
Preliminary Theoretical Considerations 24
The Intimate Theory of Language 24
Acquired Theories of Language 25
Social or Communicative Theory of Language 26
The Cognitive Theory of Language 26
Language of the Early Adolescent 27
Social Dialects 30
Academic Dialects 31
Peer Dialect 32
Development in the Component Areas of Language 33
Pragmatics 33
Conversation 36
Slang 36
Similes and Metaphors 37
Idioms 37
Ambiguity and Sarcasm 38
Persuasion and Negotiation 39
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 39
Discourse 44
Storytelling 46
Proverbs 47
Communicative Competence 47
Semantics 49

V
Concept Formation 49
Semantic Feature Theory 50
Functional Core Theory 52
Associative Complex Theory 52
Prototypic Complex Theory 53
Meanings 54
Multiple Meanings 54
Metaphorical Meanings 55
Lexicology 55
Size and Increase in Vocabulary 55
Written Language 56
Morphology 57
Morphological Analysis 57
Syntax 58
Clauses 61
Conjunctions 63
Lexical Cohesion 63
Grammar 64
Phonology 65
Articulation Phonetics 69
Acoustic Phonetics 69
Auditory Phonetics 70
Summary of Components 71

VI
Theories of Language as They May Affect a Textbook Author 73
Textbooks as a Source of Teacher Knowledge 75
Trade Book Publishers 76
Professional and Academic Book Publishers 76
University Presses 76
Textbook Publishers 76
Teacher Education Courses 77
Child Development Courses 77
Educational Psychology Courses 77
Summary 78
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 79
Introduction 79
Method 79
Textbooks Used in Analysis 80
Identifying Textbooks 80
A Non-Random Sample 81
Identification of Areas That Were Compared (Coding Categories) 81
Components 81
Research Question I.I What Components of Early Adolescent
Language Are Discussed in the Textbook 81
Description of Language 82
Research Question I.2 How Was Language Described? 82
Length of Selections 82

Research Question 1.3 What Were the Depths (Lengths) of the
Selections? 82
Quality of the Selections 83
Research Question 2. With What Quality is Adolescent
Language Discussed in the Textbook? 83
Theoretical Perspectives 83
Research Question 3. Does the Textbook Present Content
Related to Language from a Particular Theoretical
Framework? 83
Procedures 83
Procedures for Selecting Sample Textbooks 83
Identifying Publishers 84
Identifying by Sales Volume 85
Limiting Authorship 87
Poll of Professors 88
Coding Procedures 89
Identification of Selections or Passages in Textbooks 89
Coding Criteria for Sub-Components 93
Pragmatics 93
Semantics 94
Syntax 94
Lexicology 95
Morphology 95

V1U
Phonology 95
Criteria for Selecting the Quantity of Language Coverage 95
Criteria for Identifying the Way Textbooks Described Early
Adolescent Language 101
Criteria for Selecting the Quality of the Selections 102
Criteria for Selecting the Author’s Theoretical Perspective 104
How Was Coding Applied? 105
Passages Selected 105
Mixed Selections 106
Summary of Data Selection 106
Analysis 107
Reliability 107
Summary 112
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA AND FINDINGS 116
Research Questions 116
Coding the Data 116
Passages Selected 116
Components 117
The Way Language Was Described 117
Quality of Language 118
Theoretical Framework 119
Child Development—Schickedanz 120
Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 120

IX
Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 120
Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 122
Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 123
Semantics—Concepts (T1) 124
Semantics—Meanings (T2) 124
Syntax—Clauses (SI) 126
Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 126
Syntax—Grammar (S3) 127
Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 129
Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 130
Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 132
Phonology—Voice (01) 132
Phonology—Inflection (02) 132
Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 133
Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 133
Summary of Selctions by Schickedanz et al. 134
Child Development—Meece 137
Pragmatics—Conversation (UI) 137
Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 141

X
Syntax—Clauses (Si) 143
Phonology—Voice (0 1) 146
Summary of Selections by Meece 147
Child Development—Berk 151

x i
Phonology—Voice (Ol) 160
Summary of Selections by Berk 161
Child Development—Santrock 164
Semantics—Concepts (TI) 167
Phonology—Voice (OI) 173

x ii
Summary of Selections by Santrock 173
Child Development—Bee 178
Summary of Selections by Bee 185
Child Development—Leffancois 189
Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed 189
Pragmatics—Conversational) 189

x iii
Phonology—Voice (0 1) 194
Summary of Selections by Lefrancois 195
Educational Psychology—Ormrod 198
Pragmatics—Conversational) 198

xiv
Summary of Selections by Ormrod 210
Educational Psychology—Eggen 213
Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (L1) 219
Phonology—Voice ( 0 1) 220

XV
Summary of Selections by Ormrod 222
Summary of Selections by Eggen 222
Educational Psychology—Elliott 225

XVI
Syntax—Clauses (S1) 230
Research Question 2: Quality ofLanguage Selection 232
Summary of Selections by Elliott 232
Educational Psychology—Sternberg 235

x v ii
Summary of Selections by Sternberg 246
Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 248
Pragmatics—Conversation (Ul) 248

xviii
Summary of Selections by Woolfolk 257
Educational Psychology—Snowman 260

xix
Summary of Selections by Snowman and Biehler 269
Educational Psychology—Slavin 271
Phonology—Voice ( 0 1) 277
Summary of Selections by Slavin 280
Comparison of Textbooks within Child Development 282
Comparison of Textbooks within Educational Psychology 284

Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology
Textbooks 286
Chapter Summary 291
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS,
SUGGESTIONS 292
Introduction 292
Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language
292
Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 292
Semantics (Tl, T2) 293
Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M),
and Phonology (OI, 02) 294
Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 296
Conclusions 297
298

XXI
and Phonology (Ol, 02) 300
Conclusions 302
302
Conclusions 306
Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language
307
Semantics (T1, T2) 309

XXII
Conclusions 311
312
Pragmatics (U l, U2, U3) 312
Semantics (TI, T2) 314
and Phonology (01,0 2 ) 314
Conclusions 316
Child Development—Bee 317
317
and Phonology (01, 02) 319
Conclusions 320
Child Development—Lefrancois 321

XXI11
321
Conclusions 323
324
Semantics (TI, T2) 325
Research Question 2: Quality ofLanguage Selections 326
Conclusions 327
Research Question I: Sub-Components ofEarly Adolescent Language
328

xxiv
Conclusions 330
Educational Psychology—Elliott 331
331
Conclusions 334
Educational Psychology—Sternberg 334
335

XXV
Conclusions 337
Educational Psychology—Woolfoik 338
338
Pragmatics (Ul. U2, U3) 338
Conclusions 340
Educational Psychology—Snowman 341
341
and Phonology (01, 02) 342

XXVI
Conclusions 343
A Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks
344
Conclusions and Implications for Teacher Candidates 344
Most Complete Textbook 345
Other Worthwhile Textbooks 347
Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 349
Educational Psychology—Stembeg 349
Textbooks That Should Not Be Used 350
Limitations 351
Textbook Selection 351
Criteria for Evaluation 352
Author’s Style 352
Biases of the Researcher 353
Errors 353
Suggestions for Future Research 354
Methods Textbooks 354
Attitudes Toward Language 354

xxvu
Teacher Candidates’ Knowledge 355
Classroom Practices 355
In Conclusion 355
Reference List 357
Appendix A 377
Appendix B 378

I
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
For early adolescent students, language is the "subject” that will largely determine
the success in all of the other subjects they encounter. Some schools create classroom
environments in which students’ language can thrive and grow. Far too many schools,
however, have environments that are hostile to language development (Piper, 1993). One
major difference between these two types of schools may be the knowledge the teacher
brings about language to the classroom. For academic learning, all teachers rely heavily
on language because language is uniquely linked to cognitive processing. Learning
comes to depend on language (Piper, 1993).
This research, a content analysis of information available to teacher candidates
about early adolescent language development and usage, will examine textbooks that are
widely used in child development and educational psychology courses. These two
courses are typically the place where teacher candidates begin to develop knowledge of
the characteristics and needs of early adolescents.
Early Adolescent Language
Early adolescent (ages 10 - 14) language differs from childhood language due to
cognitive changes that begin to allow the early adolescent to see situations from more
than one perspective, to use abstract concepts, to think about thinking and talking, and to
consider several ideas at once (Larson & McKinley, 1995). In contrast to their earlier
language development early adolescents use complex sentences instead of simple
sentences, consider future consequences instead ofthe here and now, and use words that
implying double and contextual meanings in place of words that have single meanings.
Early adolescents have a new capacity to reason abstractly, a greater ability to plan ahead

and consider possibilities, and greater metacognitive ability—the ability to think about
thoughts (Loban, 1976; Seifert, & Hoffhung, 1987). The early adolescent has more
strategies than young children to identify the meaning of unfamiliar words. They begin to
understand and use figurative language, passive voice, and logical arguments. Based on
physical changes, early adolescents experience an increase in emotion; these emotions
demand new social situations that in turn influence their use of language. In addition to
emotional changes, early adolescents experience imaginative growth and this in turn
permits the enhanced creativity observed in their oral and written language (Nippoid,
1998).
In contrast to their earlier language development early adolescents also begin to
participate in language situations such as job interviews, peer group activities (dances,
clubs, sports), and oral reports, situations that were not experienced in younger years
(Larson & McKinley, 1995). Because of cognitive development and social changes,
language development in early adolescence is very different from the language
development of childhood—and no less important.
The Teacher’s Role in Language Development
Language development occurs along a continuum that begins at birth and ends in
adulthood (Nippoid, 1998). Knowledge ofthose changes taking place during early
adolescence can guide the teacher in both understanding student behavior and students in
fostering growth (Van Hoose & Strahan, 1988).
Language and Thinking
The development of language has a close relationship to the development of
thinking abilities (Berry, 1985; Gambell, 1988; Piper, 1993). Changes in thought

processes interact with language development (Loban, 1976). Language is used to shape
experiences, to store experiences, and to reshape them when they are recalled from
memory. Teachers rely, for the most part, on the language of their students to inform
them of the order their students see in the world and what sense their students make of
the experience of living in the world (or the lesson just presented).
Critical listening and reading are essential to the early adolescent's comprehension
during discourse—connected periods of using language, such as in lectures and texts. A
critical listener or reader must be a critical thinker (i.e., one capable of engaging in
higher-level thought when it is required by the situation) (Larson & McKinley, 1995).
Early adolescents begin to use critical thinking to frame hypotheses and envision their
consequences, which involves using complex sentences with subordinate clauses of
concession introduced by connectives such as provided that, unless, or in spite o f(Loban,
1976). The development of critical thinking, moral reasoning, problem solving, and the
ability to use scientific methods and make aesthetic judgments, must be matched
educationally by curricula and instructional practices which demand both thought and
thoughtful communication in the classroom (Smith, 1987).
Oral Language
Before achieving proficiency in reading and writing—and even after proficiency
has been achieved—oral language is one of the important means of learning and of
acquiring knowledge (Lemke, 1989). The development of oral language skills provides
the foundation for literacy, and precedes and supports development of reading and
writing skills (Holbrook, 1983; Nippole, 1998; Zhang and Alex, 1995). As reading and

4
writing skills increase in early adolescence, teachers must help their students continue to
develop oral competence (Gleason, 1993).
Leading contemporary researchers, such as Filmore and Snow consider
knowledge of oral language to be requisite for effective teaching (as Wolf also did in
1979) (Fillmore & Snow, 2000). They stress the importance for teachers of systematic
preparation in educational linguistics. However, as has been documented by Zhang and
Alex (1995), and Holbrook (1983), oral language development has largely been ignored
in the early adolescent classroom.
Teachers not only need to know about language, they need to help their students
learn about it by encouraging them to use language. Cooperative learning (small groups
that work together), classroom discussions, and group projects all encourage
communication between students in the classroom. A study that compared the effects of
cooperative learning with traditionally taught classrooms found that in well over half of
the studies student achievement was significantly greater in the cooperative classrooms
compared to the traditional teacher led classes (Slavin, 1987).
Literacy
To quote from a recent journal for teachers of reading, "Adolescent literacy needs
for the future are complex and demanding and adolescents’development of reading,
writing, and language skills deserves serious and continuing attention" (Moje, Young,
Readence, & Moore, 2000, p. 400). To support the development of those language and
literacy skills are needed by every student, teachers themselves must have knowledge of
language (Filmore & Snow, 2000). Teachers must know more about language than
grammar alone (Murdick, 1996). As Lu (1998) along with Zhang and Alex (1995) point

out, educators must consider what understanding of language their students bring to the
classroom. Further, teachers must know how students come to learn language; that is,
how language and literacy develop at each stage of development (McRobbie, 2000).
Teachers, who have knowledge of spoken-written language relationships including
spelling and reading behavior, find that knowledge essential for teaching (Moats, 1994).
Block (2001) suggests teachers of early adolescents use knowledge of language to
help students recognize different points of view and idioms. Among the best lessons to
increase students' language abilities are those lessons that teach students to rephrase when
speaking and writing, to paraphrase when speaking and listening, to reread when
confused while reading, and to revise when writing (Gleason, 1993). Such activities
heighten students’ awareness of language.
Language as a Socialand CulturalActivity
Educators must also understand that language learning is both a social and
cultural activity (Lu, 1998; Zhang & Alex, 1995). There is a close connection between
continued growth in language and the academic and social success of early adolescents.
Early adolescents are more aware of and more likely to consider, than were their younger
selves, the thoughts, feelings, and needs of their co-conversationalists and of the
consequences of their own communicative behaviors. They have greater ability to adjust
the content and style of their speech and written work accordingly, which affects both
academic and social outcomes (Nippoid, 1998). Early adolescents create personal
meaning through language, using slang, puns, metaphors, jokes, and sarcastic remarks to
interact with and seek acceptance from peers (Larson & McKinley, 1995).

6
Teachers’Responsibilities
Any professional working with early adolescents needs to be aware of early
adolescent language development (Nippoid, 1998; Larson & McKinley, 1995, 1998).
Language development that occurs during early adolescence is often subtle, yet it is
critical to the student's academic, sociaL and eventual vocational success. Unlike early
language development, later language development is more individualized as youth
become diverse in their curricular and social experiences. Learning how to distinguish
between normal and disordered language behaviors is paramount for educators (Larson &
McKinley, 1995). Knowledge of language development assists the teacher in identifying
those students who are experiencing academic difficulties and offers the tools (referral,
rephrasing, explaining, etc.) to help the struggling student succeed (Larson & McKinley,
1995). Spoken language difficulties are often associated with reading failures, spelling
problems, and writing deficits and if not addressed may persist into adulthood (Lewis &
Freebaim, 1992; Snyder & Downey, 1991).
Research demonstrates the profound affect the education of the teacher has on
student achievement (Ferguson, 1991; Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1966). Teachers
who understand early adolescent language and its development are better prepared to
design instructional activities that will promote such development than teachers who are
familiar only with the content of a subject and the methods to teach that subject
(McRobbie, 2000; Wolf, 1979).
With the accountability ofthe standards movement, teachers are compelled to
include attention to language in the academic curriculum. National and state education
standards address the continued development of oral language skills at every grade level.

7
Academic standards specify both content (knowledge) and performance (action)
expectations ofall students at a particular grade level (National Council of Teachers of
English & International Reading Association, 1996). The fact that standards exist for
oral language, as well as writing and reading, is significant.
From the preceding discussion, it is apparent that teachers’ knowledge of
language and the continued development of language competence in early adolescents are
necessary and desirable. How then do teachers begin to acquire such knowledge? Is it
through their teacher preparation programs? If so, it is necessary to consider the sources
of knowledge in college classrooms, particularly courses that expose teacher candidates
to theories of language acquisition and development.
Textbooks and Courses
Textbooks, along with lectures that are frequently based on textbook content,
constitute the major sources of knowledge, ideas, and information for teacher candidates
in college and university courses. The power of these textbooks to shape the knowledge,
ideas, values, and interpretive frameworks ofthe teacher candidates who read them is
generally acknowledged (Silverman, 1991, p. 165). Although they are not the only source
for teacher candidates, textbooks provide the primary sources for information (Silverman,
1991), the "authoritative statement of knowledge about a particular field" (Spring, 1991,
p. 186). Therefore, professors and adjunct instructors, especially those who are new to
the college teaching arena, are often urged to consult required textbooks when creating
syllabi for their courses (Lyons, Kysilka, & Pawlas, 1999).
Unfortunately, according to many university catalogs, the only courses required of
most teacher candidates that address language and language development in early

8
adolescence are child development and educational psychology courses. Courses in
language arts are typically only required of teachers who will teach language arts and it is
not known to what extent these textbooks address early adolescent language
development. Courses in linguistics or language development are sometimes offered at
the graduate level, but even when these classes are offered, they are typically required in
early childhood development programs but not in programs that address teaching early
adolescents. Therefore this study examined those child development and educational
psychology textbooks most commonly required in teacher preparation courses to discover
what information the textbooks make available regarding early adolescent language
development.
Why Look at Early Adolescent Language?
This researcher taught children 12-18-years-of-age in day treatment programs,
many of whom had language deficits such as misreading the intent of others, difficulty
organizing answers to questions, and comprehending multi-part directions. This research
started with the information that 84% of incarcerated juveniles have an undiagnosed
language problem. Further impetus was created when the researcher observed a middle
school eighth grade student being sent home from school when the student misunderstood
the teacher's use of figurative language while making a class assignment and responded
negatively. The teacher told the class to do a worksheet on verbs “like” the one
previously done on nouns. This student was unable to relate the similarities of one
assignment to another and accommodate the differences between the two assignments. In
frustration and unable to communicate her needs, the student reverted to raising her voice
and demanding immediate help. The student’s pleas were interpreted by the teacher as

aggressive and threatening, rather than expressing frustration and being assertive in
having her needs met. The teacher considered this student a behavior problem and had
her sent home. Observing this incident this research wondered, “Where in the course of
becoming a teacher does a teacher learn about early adolescent language?”
Research Questions
The purpose of this content analysis was to examine textbooks used in child
development and educational psychology courses that addressed teacher candidates'
knowledge of language as they prepared to work with early adolescents. The following
three research questions were investigated:
1. Do child development and educational psychology textbooks address the
language of early adolescents? If so, in what manner and to what extent?
What components (parts) of language do the authors address?
In what way (description, developmental, acquisition) does the textbook
address early adolescent language?
In what depth (length of statement) does the author address early
adolescent language?
2. With what quality is adolescent language discussed in the child development and
educational psychology textbooks?
3. Do the textbooks present content related to language from a particular theoretical
framework?
These three questions were used to examine the content ofeach child
development and educational psychology textbook selected for analysis.

10
Definitions
Textbooks reflect several different disciplines, which employ specific terms in
specific manners. This researcher has chosen to use the vocabulary of linguists in
describing language and language development, because this vocabulary is precise and
descriptive, with meanings that are widely accepted. In this research paper, the following
definitions are used:
Academic Language
Academic language is that language which is used in the school. It is usually
what is known as Standard English. It follows the rules of grammar (syntax and
morphology). It usually includes a lot of information in a brief amount of time.
Academic language becomes increasingly more abstract throughout the grades and is
frequently not supported by the rich array of non-verbal and contextual cues that
characterize social language (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994).
Communicative Competence
Within pragmatics, communicative competence is the ability not only to apply the
grammatical rules of language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also
to know when and where to use these sentences and with whom (Richards, Platt, & Platt,
1992).
Communicative Functions
Communicative functions are the purposes for which language is used, such as to
ask for information, to relate a story, etc. Communicative functions are key concerns of
pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

LI
Components o fLanguage
Components of language are: phonology, semantics, morphology, syntax, and
pragmatics. They are used to describe all aspects of language. When morphology and
syntax are combined and taught together they are called grammar (Owens, 2001).
Concept Formation
Concept formation assumes that the child organizes word concepts based on
certain aspects of the referent (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an
important part in the development of thought because it influences not only the first
words of the child but also academic language after the child enters school.
Concepts
Concepts are general ideas or meanings that are associated with words or symbols
in a person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).
Conversation
Conversation is often the primary means of language production, the social
language that is used in the home and in the early primary grades (Chamot & O'Malley,
1994). Conversation is rule based and requires people to take successive turns as speaker
and listener, to adapt what is said to what was just said by another person, etc.
Dialect
A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people
belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and or
pronunciation form from other forms of the same language (Richards, Platt, & Platt,
1992).

12
Discourse
Discourse occurs when just one speaker speaks for a relatively long period of time
such as, describing an event, telling a joke, or a lecture, etc. (Barrett, 1999). In writing,
discourse would be a paragraph or more, such as a letter, essay, or poem.
Early Adolescents
Students age 10 to 14 years of age, typically in grades 5, 6, 7, or 8, who attend
regular education classes.
Grammar
When syntax and morphology are studied together, the study is called grammar.
Such study emphasizes the correct use of speech parts such as subject-verb agreement.
When grammar is specifically applied to written language, punctuation and capitalization
are included in the study.
Integrated Literacy
Integrated literacy is the use of reading, writing, along with speaking, listening,
and thinking and acknowledging that development in one area affects development in the
other areas—they are all integrated.
Knowledge o fLanguage
Knowledge of language assumes awareness of components of language and how
the components interact to create communicative competence.
Language
Language is a socially shared code or conventional system for representing
concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those
symbols (Owens, 2001). Language is both the object of knowledge and the medium

13
through which knowledge is acquired (Cazden, 1973). Language is a dynamic system,
including content, form, and use. It is developmental and culturally dependent
(ASLSHA, 1982). Language in this paper will include the broadest definitions of
language so that not only the rules of language can be visited but also the situations
where language is used and the communicative intent can be established. Language in
this research refers to both oral sounds and written symbols used by people to
communicate. English is the default language intended unless otherwise specified.
Language Acquisition
Language acquisition concerns itselfwith the processes and strategies used to
learn language. In this research the term "acquisition" is used instead of "learning" to
avoid confusion with a behaviorist theory of learning (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).
Language Development
Language development refers to developmental sequences that occur in language
prior to and during early adolescence. Knowledge of language development includes
knowledge of developmental sequences in all components of language. Because there
may be a span of several years in normal development between the rapid learners and late
learners, the span of normal abilities may be great in the middle school classroom
(Loban, 1976).
Lexicology
Lexicology is the study ofthe vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language including
their meanings and relations, and changes in their form and meaning through time.
Lexicon is the set of all the words and idioms of that language (Barrett, 1999).

14
Metacognitive Knowledge
In cognition and learning, the term above is the knowledge of the mental
processes that are involved in different kinds of learning. Learners are said to be capable
ofbecoming aware of their own mental processes. This includes recognizing which
kinds of learning tasks cause difficulty, which approaches to remembering are more
effective than others, and how to solve different kinds of problems (Richards, Platt, &
Platt, 1992).
Metacognitive Strategy
Metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the mental processes used in the
learning process, monitoring (earning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning
after it has occurred (Richards, Platt, & Platt).
Metalinguistic Knowledge
In language learning, it is the knowledge of the forms, structure and other aspects
of a language that a learner arrives at through reflecting on and analyzing the language.
Morphology
The smallest units that contribute to meanings in a language are called not words,
but morphemes. Morphemes can be free [boy] or bound [-s] (Owens, 2001).
OralLanguage
Oral language refers to spoken language as opposed to written language. Spoken
language contains elements that written language does not, such as, inflection, gestures,
facial expression, and a listening audience of one or more that may give feedback during
delivery. Oral language provides a foundation for the development of other language
skills (Zhang & Alex, 1995).

15
Peer Language
Peer language, that language early adolescents begin to use, is language filled with jargon
and slang. Sometimes it includes secret codes, nicknames, signs, gestures,
etc., that have meaning for a few people for a limited period of time (Nippoid, 1998).
Phonology
Phonology is the study ofjust those particular sounds that are used in a particular
language, such as English. Phonology is another term for phonemics and for some
linguists, a cover term for both phonetics (study of speech sounds) and phonemics (study
or description of the distinctive sound units and their relation to one another) (Richards,
Platt & Platt, 1992).
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users
of those forms (Yule, 1996). Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in
communication. Pragmatics includes the study of how the interpretation and use of
utterances depends on knowledge of the real world, how speakers use and understand
utterances and how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between
the speaker and the hearer (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).
Semantics
Linguists use the term semantics to refer to the study of meaning. For this
research project, semantics will refer to a restricted use of the word—the study of
meanings that are encoded in language (and not pictures). Meanings are created by the
lexicon and syntax (Lyons, 1977).

16
Social Language
Social language is that language that is used in the home. The language may have
its own dialect, means of delivery, or way of speaking. The language is contextual—what
is referred to is usually present, has just happened, or is about to take place. Information
is given in little pieces sometimes over a long period of time (Chamot & O'Malley,
1994).
Syntax
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences, and the rules which
govern the formation of sentences and (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Syntax includes
the organizational rules that specify word order, sentence organization, and word
relationships.
Teacher Candidates
College students who have aspirations to teach early adolescent students, have not
yet completed their course of study, and do not yet have their credential to teach are
known as teacher candidates.
Textbooks
In this research "textbooks" refer to books used in teacher preparation courses.
These courses include child development and/or educational psychology courses wherein
the teacher candidates might learn about language and language development.
Theory
Theory reveals the perspective one takes in describing a topic or a subject.

17
Summary
This introduction has stated that teacher candidates, especially those who will be
teaching early adolescents, need to know the language used by their students, the means
by which their students acquire language, and the methods by which they, as teachers,
can most effectively assist students in developing language skills. One of the primary
sources of information on language for the teacher candidate is the textbook. This
research examined selected child development and educational psychology textbooks to
ascertain what knowledge about the language of early adolescents might be available to
teacher candidates.
In the chapters that follow a review of the literature associated with the language
of early adolescents is found (Chapter Two), as well as a description of the research
methodology (Chapter Three). Chapter Four reveals and describes the data collected
from the textbooks, and compares the data within textbook categories. Chapter Five
contains the discussion, conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for further study.

18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Teachers who work with early adolescents need to know about the language
development of their students (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Such knowledge can guide
the teacher in recognizing both the interplay and interconnectedness of all uses of
language: speaking, writing, reading, thinking, and understanding concepts. In addition,
such knowledge will assist in preparing and delivering lessons that build concepts and
vocabulary, lessons that recognize the students’need to process and clarify information
by thinking, talking, writing, and reading about a topic. If not aware of language
development the teacher may miss those cultural, developmental, and situational aspects
that influence subtle changes in the way early adolescents use language and therefore
may identify as behavior problems what are essentially poor oral communication skills
(Larson & McKinley, 1994).
To explore that knowledge of language needed by teachers of early adolescents,
this chapter addresses the following topics:
• Theories about language acquisition and development
• The language and thought processes of early adolescents
• The role of concepts in the formation of language
• Textbooks used in teacher preparation as a source of teacher knowledge
What is Language?
Language is a system of human communication (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992),
a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use
of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those symbols (Owens, 2001).

19
Language is a culturally and developmentally dependent, yet dynamic, system, including
content, form, and use (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASLHA)
Committee on Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 1982). Language is
both the object of knowledge and the medium through which knowledge is acquired
(Cazden, 1973). For this research paper, language is defined using the broadest of
definitions so that the many ways of discussing language may all be considered.
Language acquisition takes place in a cultural context that surrounds and
influences the content, use, and form of language (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Culture
introduces the values and traditions that are brought to the place where ideas are
exchanged and shared (Greenfield, 1994). Cultural histories create differences in
language, such as dialects, that are not disorders (Paul, 1995). This researcher believes
that it is important that teachers of early adolescents understand basic theories of
language acquisition and development.
Language in the Educational Community
To understand the nature of knowledge of language needed by teachers of early
adolescents, it is important to understand the ways in which knowledge of language,
language acquisition, and language development are discussed within the educational
community. In educational settings, language is discussed in at least five ways: the basis
of language, the components of language, language as grammar, language as the
foundation of literacy development, and language as part of social skills. Each view of
language is somewhat different.

2 0
The Basis o fLanguage
Thinking is the link that ties language activities (speaking, listening, reading, and
writing) together (Kavanaugh & Mattingly, 1972). The communicator thinks in
concepts, general ideas, or meanings that are associated with words or symbols in a
person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an important part in
the development of thought because it influences not only the first words but also
academic language encountered when children enter the school setting.
Thinking also includes strategies—procedures used in learning, thinking, etc.,
which serve as a way of reaching a goal, such as communicating. Learning strategies and
communication strategies are those conscious or unconscious processes that students
draw upon when effectively using language (Richards, Platt & Platt 1992). For example,
if a student lacks a particular word, the student may use the strategy of paraphrasing to
compensate for not knowing a word. Strategies are important in language because they
can be used to improve effectiveness of communication and to compensate for
breakdowns in communication (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Teachers need strategies
to express concepts to students, and students need strategies to understand concepts, to
form and remember concepts.
Components o fLanguage
A second way in which language is discussed in educational settings is by its
components. Linguists, those who study language, break language down into several
components—phonology (speech sounds), lexicology (words), semantics (meanings),
syntax (word order), morphology (internal organization of words), and pragmatics
(functional use of language) (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). The components of language are

21
used to describe the oral production of language, but can also be used to describe written
communication. The components create a comprehensive picture of language and its use.
For example, speech sounds, or phonemes, can be used to form the smallest units of
language that have meaning, or morphemes. When a group of words are put together to
form a sentence, the word order follows the rules of syntax. Pragmatics is the study of
the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences
and the contexts and situations in which they are used (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).
Language in Grammar
A third way that language is discussed in educational settings is through grammar,
which is a combination of morphology and syntax, discussed in the previous section. It is
important to note that when people talk about grammar, they are talking about a
particular part of language. Grammar includes the rules for putting sentences together
(syntax) and changing words (using morphemes) to make good sentences that have
meaning (semantics). Grammar is taught using parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective,
etc.) and parts of sentences (subject, predicate, clauses, prepositional phrases, etc.). To
learn about grammar, students may diagram sentences to create a visual representation of
the structure (Hudson, 1990). The study of grammar is usually applied to written
language and does not take communicative competence (the audience, setting, time, etc.)
into consideration.
Language in Literacy
A fourth way in which language is discussed is through the importance of literacy
development for all individuals. In the past, the term literacy was used to refer primarily
to reading and writing (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992), but recently the term has taken on

2 2
a broader meaning that adds speaking, listening, understanding, and thinking. Many
teachers and researchers view reading, writing, speaking, listening and thinking as
integrated language functions (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Enright & McCIoskey, 1988;
Goodman, 1987; Pearson & Raphael, 1999). For example, acquiring one language
function, such as speech, facilitates the ability to master a second function, such as
writing (Block, 2001; Ruddell, 1997; Zimmerman, 1999). In addition, current
approaches to language instruction stress interactive processes involving authentic texts,
the process of writing, and the integration of oral and written language skills (Chamot &
O'Malley, 1994).
For most children, the literacy learning process actually begins with speaking-
talking about their experiences. It is through speech that children Ieam to organize their
thinking, to focus their ideas, and to communicate (Lyle, 1993; MoIL, 1990; Vygotsky,
1987). According to research literature on critical thinking and cognitive development,
the development ofthinking abilities, such as critical thinking, has a close relationship to
the development of language (Berry, 1985; Gambeil, 1988). As children's language skills
develop, they have more words and concepts to support integrated literacy activities. No
longer can we talk about literacy without acknowledging the role of language
development as well.
Language in SocialSkills
Finally, a fifth way that educators discuss language is from the perspective of
social skills training. A social skill, according to Schumaker and Hazel (1984) is:
any cognitive function or overt behavior in which an individual engages while
interacting with another person or persons. Cognitive functions include capacities

23
such as empathizing with or understanding another persons' feelings, and
discriminating and evaluating consequences for social behavior. Overt behaviors
include nonverbal (e.g., head nods, eye contact, facial expression) and verbal
(e.g., what the person says) components of a social performance, (p. 422)
Social skills are related to peer acceptance and academic success as well as being
predictive of adult adjustment (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995). Social skills are essential for
effective interaction between students and teachers, as well as among students
themselves.
It is important to note that social skills are language driven, although teachers who
teach social skills, and textbook authors who write about social skills frequently do not
acknowledge the linguistic components of social skills (Bliss, 1993; Gajewski & Mayo,
1989; Hess, 1993; Johnson, Weinrick & Glasser, 1991; Mayo & Waldo, 1994; Schwartz
& McKinley, 1984; Walker, Todis, Holmes, & Horton, 1988; Weinrich, Glasser &
Johnson, 1994; Wiig, 1992). For example, discussion of social skills typically does not
use linguistic vocabulary to identify pragmatic situations and the contextual influences of
those situations. Pragmatics is the study of the relationship between linguistic forms
(spoken or written language) and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). Contextual
influences include the physical environment (home, school, park), the conversational
partner (peer, adult), and the manipulatives employed (toys, food, clothing, etc.).
From a social skills perspective, the socially competent person must:
1) Initially be motivated to perform socially appropriate behaviors;
2) Be able to perceive social situations accurately and identify which skill to use;
3) Be able to decode and correctly interpret information from others

24
4) Perform the correct verbal and nonverbal responses that make up the skill;
5) Be sensitive to social feedback; and
6) Be able to integrate that feedback appropriately to enhance social interaction.
(Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, Sheldon-Widgen, 1983, p 123)
When a teacher observes a conversation, a situation where social skills are displayed, that
same teacher simultaneously observes linguistic components. Situations involving social
skills are available, therefore, not only to evaluate social competence, but also to evaluate
the use of linguistic components such as vocabulary (lexemes), word order (syntax),
volume (phonology), gestures, and communicative competence (pragmatics).
Preliminary Theoretical Considerations
There are two primary theoretical positions that influence how language is
viewed. The first considers language innate and the second considers language acquired.
If these two theories were placed at opposite ends of a line, that line would represent a
continuum of beliefs that would include all of those that believed in the innate theory for
some aspects of language and the acquired theory for other aspects of language (Barrett,
1999).
The Innate Theory o fLanguage
The innate theoretical position has three premises. The first premise states that the
structure for language is innate-preexisting in every person: “The expressive variety of
language use implies that a language user’s brain contains unconscious grammatical
principles” (Jackendorf, 1994 p.8). In other words, the mind contains a mental grammar.
The second premise claims the child has innate knowledge because ‘The way children
learn to talk implies that the human brain contains a genetically determined specialization

25
for language” (Jackendorf, 1994 p. 26). The third premise maintains that the child can
construct grammar from experience: ‘The experience of spoken language is actively
constructed by the hearer’s mental grammar” (Jackendorf 1994 p. 161).
The implication of this theory for early adolescents is that teachers who learn that
language is innate may choose to believe that they have no influence over language or its
development. These same teachers may choose to do nothing to promote language
development among early adolescents.
Acquired Theories o fLanguage
The second primary theory is that language is acquired. As opposed to the innate
view, the acquired language position holds that the child's linguistic capacities are
acquired during the course of development. With reference to language, the child is bom
only with a propensity to learn language and not with a language acquisition device as the
innate theory followers declare (Owens, 2001).
Within the acquired language theory, more so than within the innate theory of
language, there is a continuum of beliefs concerning the acquisition of language (Van
Valin & LaPolla, 1997). At one end of the continuum, it is believed that all language can
be explained in terms of social interaction or communicative intent. For example, when a
child sees a new toy, the child will, within a social context, learn the name of the new toy
by listening or asking. At the other end of the continuum, it is believed that all language
can be explained in terms ofcognitive development This view believes that as the brain
develops, that is as the brain is more able to remember more items at a time, language
also changes by becoming more descriptive and exact. It is because of cognitive
development that sentences become more complex and arguments are better organized.

26
Along this language continuum (social interaction—cognitive development), there are
many different theories (Van Valin & LaPolla, 1997). Some linguists attribute all
language development to social interaction; others attribute it all to cognitive
development; but most lie somewhere in the middle, attributing some parts of language
development to cognitive development and others to social interaction.
Social or Communicative Theory o fLanguage. The communicative end of the
language continuum can be expressed by Halliday’s (1985) Systemic Functional
Grammar, which states that:
Language has evolved to satisfy human needs and the way it is organized is
functional with respect to these needs-it is not arbitrary. A functional grammar is
essentially a “natural” grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained,
ultimately, by reference to how language is used. (Halliday, 1985, p. xiii)
For the early adolescent, peer language, or more accurately the peer dialect, can in
part be explained by the changes necessary to accommodate the “human needs” of the
early adolescent. Early adolescents separate themselves from both younger children and
adults by using a peer dialect that sometimes only closely associated peers understand.
Often the more familiar early adolescents are with each other, the fewer words they need
to communicate. Peer dialect forms a social bond between early adolescents, an area of
likeness that is socially important. The development of a peer dialect is discussed in an
upcoming section.
The Cognitive Theory o fLanguage. The cognitive position, expressed by
Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar (1987, 1991), assumes that language is neither self-
contained nor describable without essential reference to cognitive processing. This view

27
holds that the meaningful parts of language are only arbitrarily divided into separate
components of language. Langacker (1990) states “it is pointless to analyze grammatical
units without reference to semantic [meaning] value” (p. I). The cognitive view of
language acquisition is useful in describing language changes in early adolescents, such
as the ability to think and express ideas abstractly.
Language ofthe Early Adolescent
Early adolescence is a time of expanded social interests and experiences, a time
when new thinking abilities allow consideration of many possibilities, and a time when
peers become more influential (National Middle School Association, 1995). At the same
time, great stress is put on developing language to meet the needs of increasingly
complex situations. Changes in cultural dynamics, along with changes in cognitive
thought processes, social and academic experience, influence the language of the early
adolescent, as to what is said and how it is said (Owens, 2001).
Early adolescents speak a social dialect to peers, adults and younger children, an
academic dialect in the school setting (Chamot & O'Malley 1994), and a dialect with
jargon or slang reserved for their peer group (Donahue & Bryan, 1984; Larson &
McKinley, 1995). A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or
by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words,
grammar, and or in pronunciation from other forms of the same language (Richards, Platt,
& Platt, 1992). Early adolescents may say when greeting a peer, “Give me five.” Instead
of“HelIo.”
Each early adolescent dialect (social, academic, and peer) has its own primary
social setting, but each dialect is also unique in its form, function, and use. Table 1,

28
Table I
The Three Dialects ofEarly Adolescent Language
Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect
Spontaneity Spontaneous speech. Must be recognized Spontaneous speech.
of speech. before talking.
Information Information usually Often abstract May be contextual or
contextual or abstract. contextual. information. abstract
Amount of detail Few details, little to Many details. Few details, sometimes given
given. remember. a lot to remember. in code,jargon, slang,
gestures.
Amount of Little information A lot of information Language may include empty
information spread over a long given in a short time. phrases ("you know"), or no
compared to time. time. information.
Familiarity Familiar world Unfamiliar world The more familiarity between
ofworld knowledge knowledge, familiar knowledge, unfamiliar participants, the less is said.
and topic. topics. topics.
Feed-back from Immediate feed-back Delayed feed-back Immediate feed-back usually.
communication. from other party(ies). (grade orcomments),
often written even on
oral reports.
may include language or
gestures including high-5's.
Thinking skills Requires lowerorder Requires higher and Requires lower order
required. thinking skills. lowerorder thinking
skills.
thinking skills.

29
Table I (continued).
The Three Dialects of Early Adolescent Language
Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect
Formal or informal. Informal, may not Formal, Standard Informal, may include
Grammatically correct or be grammatically English, speech and slang jargon, and code
incorrect correct. writing need to be words that may not be
grammatically correct. grammatically correct
Where dialect is usually Between peers and In education. Usually between peers.
used and purpose of closely associated employment and formal Used to separate early
communication. children and adults. speaking or writing adolescent from children
Decreases social situations. May increase and adults. May be used
distance. social distance. to confound or confuse
adults.
Purpose of General purposes. Specific purposes. Promotes peer closeness.
communication. day to day living impart knowledge. sameness, solidarity.
needs. respond reflectively.
Response time. Response due Response may wait until Response may depend on
immediately. exam time. code ofthe group but
usually immediate.
Ease oflearning Easier to leant More difficult to learn. May never be learned by
learning supported by supported in all usually only supported in some. Supported by peer
what group. social situations. academic situations. group.
Material taken from Adler & King, 1994; Chamot, & O'Malley, 1994; and Larson & McKinley,
1995.

30
The Three Dialects o fEarly Adolescent Language provides a detailed overview of how
the form of the language changes between dialects. The three dialects of adolescents,
social, academic, and peer, are one language with three different forms and uses. Each of
these three dialects has its own vocabulary, its own meaning, and a particular context in
which it must be used.
Social Dialects
Before children enter school they learn a social dialect used in conversation that is
based on cultural morays and rules ofconversation, such as, turn taking. Social dialects
are informal and may not be grammatically correct. They are comprised of elements you
would find in conversations, such as, requests, explanations, greetings, salutations,
questions, etc. Conversations are usually spontaneous and responses are immediate, such
as the exchange of greetings (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Most of these social language
experiences occur in the context of one or two individuals or small groups. Topics are
familiar and talked about often. Objects or activities that are within sight can be named
or pointed to. Information is often delivered in small pieces—single sentences, i.e. “We
will go to the park after lunch.”
The social dialect requires only lower order thinking skills and is easy for children
to team because it is used and supported in most of the situations they encounter (Chamot
& O'Malley, 1994). In the early grades, some teacher-student interactions and classroom
activities are also carried out with conversation in social dialect. Topics are presented in
context with materials present. Sentences are short and direct. There is little new
information given at a time (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). As children enter early
adolescence, the social dialect continues but is increasingly reserved for home and adults

31
in the community, partly because of the increased complexity experienced in academic
settings.
Academic D ialed
When children enter school, they encounter a different kind of language from the
social dialect previously experienced. The child may be one of 20-30 students with one
teacher (Merritt, 1988). Spontaneous speech is replaced with waiting to be called on to
talk. Children hear strings of directions and information that increasingly become more
abstract and heavily weighted with detail. A lot of information is given in a short period
of time. By early adolescence, sentences used in academic interactions become longer
and more complex, and more time is spent reading and listening to discourse (Chamot &
O'Malley, 1994). The subject matter is more complex and topics are presented out of
context.
Early adolescents must learn to sort through both the verbal and written
information to find the main topics and relevant points, remember facts, and respond
reflectively (Dickinson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). Teachers increasingly rely on written
discourse produced by early adolescents as an accurate assessment of their knowledge
and skills in Standard English (Larson & McKinley, 1995). After completing written
exams the early adolescent usually must wait for a grade to know whether the written
response was acceptable to the teacher. The social distance is increased in academic
dialect, over the social dialect, by the delay in communicative feedback, impersonal
content topics, and the use of the more formal Standard English (Richards, Platt & Platt).
Verbal demands also increase in academic terms (Adler & King, 1994) yet,
opportunities for oral language are often limited to responding to direct or discussion

32
questions during instruction (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Early adolescents are often
challenged to justify answers that require higher order thinking skills and offer oral
reports to the whole class. New social situations within the school, such as clubs,
organizations, and intramural sports may also support the academic dialect and present
new communication challenges (Chamot & OMalley, 1994; Heath, 1998).
Peer Dialect
Early adolescents often use a special language that separates them from both
adults and younger children (Larson & McKinley, 1995). It may be used to confound or
confuse adults, but it is more often used just with peers. This peer dialect is spontaneous,
may be contextual or abstract and usually only requires lower order thinking skills. It
promotes peer closeness and solidarity and is filled with jargon (player), slang (ain’t),
empty phrases (you know, whatever), special codes (rock time), and secret meanings
(Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995). The more familiarity between the participants usually the
less that needs to be said. Early adolescents that do not belong to a group may never
learn a peer dialect, may not understand peer humor and may be isolated from their peers.
These early adolescents often lack social skills and the means to improve their language
through peer interaction.
Early adolescents may correctly shift from one dialect to another without even
realizing that they have adjusted their speech or written language for the social,
academic, or peer audience (Adger, 1998). However, when early adolescents do not
appropriately shift from one dialect to another they may find themselves misunderstood
or in trouble with adults. When an early adolescent uses academic discourse at home, the
language may be misinterpreted as a put-down to less-educated parents. By the same

33
token, when early adolescents bring jargon into the classroom they may be
misunderstood by teachers. As stated above, lack of appropriate peer jargon with peers
can socially isolate or ostracize early adolescents (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995).
This section has described dialects spoken by early adolescents, with emphasis
on the ways in which language is used. To more fully understand language, it is
important to examine the ways that linguists break language into its component parts.
The next section provides a discussion of the components of language, as they are
relevant to the language of early adolescents.
Development in the Component Areas of Language
A language system can be thought of as having three main components as shown
in Figure 2.1: use (pragmatics), meaning (semantics), and sound (phonology) (Barrett,
1999). These components are interrelated. Each component of language is governed by
rules. Each component of language serves a different function, yet all components are
important in communication. An effective, efficient oral communication system requires
mastery of all of the components of language (ASLHA, 1982).
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, such as
speaking and writing, and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). People's intended
meanings, their assumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kinds of speech acts
(requests, invitations, etc.) that they are performing when they speak are studied in
pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Pragmatics examines how the features in
different contexts influence the content ofwhat is said. The people, the place and the
topic all influence how language is expressed. For example, a ten-year-old might shout

34
Figure I
Components of Language
Pragmatics
(use)
Communicative functions
/(negotiation, persuasion.)
/
Conversation
/ (roles, rules
Written or oral / (turn taking, etc.).
/
Communicative competence /
(cohesive, coherence,
norms of genres)
(form)
Discourse
(paragraphs, stories,
jokes, lectures.
proverbs)
Lexicology (study of vocabulary items and their meanings.)
/
Semantics /
(meanings)
Morphology (study of smallest units of meaning.)
Syntax (study of how words combine to form sentences.)
}Grammar, the
rules used to
form clauses,
phrases, and,
sentences.
Articulatory phonetics (how speech sounds produced).
/
Phonology___________ / Acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted in the air).
(sounds)
Auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).
Adapted from: Barrett, M. (1999). An introduction to the nature of language and to the
central themes and issues in the study of language development. In Martyn Barrett (Ed.)
The development o flanguage, (pp. 1-23). Guilford & King's Lynn, UK: Psychology Press.

35
to a friend about new clothes on a playground but whisper the same news in class.
Pragmatics is often the primary focus of social interaction or communicative interaction
theorists. To these researchers dialect differences and social-communicative interaction
are important (Owens, 2001). They are concerned with the rules and use of language as a
function of role, socioeconomic level, and linguistic or cultural context. For example, an
early adolescent sensitive to his/her role in the school setting and the formality of the
situation might address a school administrator using Standard English instead of using
slang.
Pragmatics is important in early adolescent language because the early adolescent
begins to expand social experiences to new settings that require different uses of
language than may have been experienced at home or in early school grades. Pragmatics
includes communicative functions of conversation, discourse, and communicative
competence. Communicative competence addresses how well messages are sent and
received. Growth in performance of these functions is characterized by increased speed
and accuracy in responding or reaching solutions, enhanced comprehension of
semantically and structurally complex problems, and greater use of appropriate strategies
to meet the needs of the situation (Nippold, 1998; Achenbach, 1969; Cashen 1989).
Growth also occurs metalinguistically (talking and thinking about acts of speaking) and
metacognitively (talking and thinking about acts of thinking) in that students become
more adept at explaining, defending, and justifying their actions and what they say
(Nippold, 1998). Conversation and discourse require a speaker to use cognitive,
linguistic, metalinguistic, and pragmatic competencies. Because of slow continuous
growth and great variability in language use, it is necessary to examine children and

36
adolescents several years apart to show differences in the characteristics of language
usage.
Conversation.
The major finding of conversation research in school-aged children is that
coherence in conversation gradually improves as age increases, particularly during
adolescence and young adulthood (Nippold, 1998). Coherence in conversation is
established by focused turn taking, factually related utterances, perspective related
utterances, and smooth transitions between topics coupled with a decline in unrelated or
marginally related utterances and abrupt topic switches (Nippold, 1998). Conversational
rules include staying on a topic, taking turns, using an appropriate vocabulary, and certain
other courtesies. Conversation includes four maxims: I. Give as much information as is
needed. 2. Speak truthfully. 3. Say things that are relevant. 4. Say things clearly and
briefly (Grice, 1967; Parker & Riley, 1994). The conversation of the early adolescent
may include slang, similes and metaphors, idioms, ambiguity, sarcasm, persuasion and
negotiation, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.
Slang. Adolescents are particularly adept at generating and promoting the use of
slang (Nippold, 1998). The use of slang terms unique to the peer group is an important
aspect of later language development (Donahue & Bryan, 1984). Slang terms are used
for many reasons, among others: to promote social interaction, to show one belongs to a
group, to exclude others from a group, to be playful, and to reduce the seriousness of a
situation (Nippold, 1998). Nelson & Rosenbaum (1972) asked adolescents to generate
lists of slang words for various topics (clothes, autos, appearance, motorbikes, money,
etc.). Boys generated more slang terms than girls for money, autos, and motorbikes.

37
Girls generated more slang terms for appearance, boys, popular and unpopular people.
The results also showed that the mean increased as a function of grade level, with larger
increases in some topics than others. For example, on the topic of girls, seventh grade
boys produced a mean of 10.4 slang words and twelfth grade boys produced 24.4 slang
words. Slang terms often occur in the form of metaphors (Leona, 1978).
Similes and Metaphors. Both metaphors and similes can be understood by
preschool children when age-appropriate materials and testing procedures are used. A
simile is an expression in which something is compared to something else by the use of a
function word such as like or as. For example, “Tom eats like a horse.”
Metaphors do not use function words. Something is described by stating another
thing with which it is compared (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992), for example, “Her words
stabbed at his heart.” Malgady (1977) studied the understanding of metaphors in children
and early adolescents, from five to twelve years of age, and found the percent of valid
interpretations increased with each successive age group. These results suggest that even
those early adolescents turning fourteen would not have full understanding of metaphors.
In the same study Malgady found that a simile task was significantly correlated with
verbal intelligence and reading comprehension.
Idioms. An idiom is an expression which functions as a single unit the meaning
of which cannot be worked out from its separate parts. Idioms, such as “read between the
lines,” or “She washed her hands of the matter.” occur in both written and oral forms of
language. In the written word they sometimes hinder reading comprehension (Edwards,
1975; May 1979); thus an understanding of idioms is important for attaining literacy.
Lodge and Leach (1975) compared the understanding of a list of idioms in four different

38
age groups of children and early adolescents. All age groups understood the literal
meanings of the idioms. The six- and nine-year-olds had difficulty with the figurative
meanings, while the twelve-year-olds understood only some of the figurative meanings,
and only the twenty-one-year-olds understood them all. "Children’s performance on tasks
of figurative understanding is definitely related to their performance on measures of
cognition, language, and academic achievement" (Nippold, 1988, 1998, p. 92).
Ambiguity and Sarcasm. Ambiguity and sarcasm require a conscious reflection
and metalinguistic awareness because words are used in unique and unusual ways.
Students have to know the double meanings of words to appreciate the linguistic contexts
in which they occur. Non-linguistic information such as specific background information
may also be necessary. For example, the ambiguous bumper sticker that reads "You can't
hug your kids with nuclear arms" requires the reader to understand what nuclear arms are.
There are four different types of sentential ambiguity, phonological ambiguity, lexical
ambiguity (the above example), surface- and deep-structure ambiguity, each
progressively more difficult to understand and master (Shultz & Horibe, 1974).
Sarcasm requires the listener to recognize a discrepancy between what is said and
what is meant, to have background information, to be aware of context clues, and to
understand patterns of vocal intonation. For example, “Now I’ve seen everything!"
Sarcasm can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Early adolescents may not have mastered
either the double word meanings or the background information essential to understand
ambiguities or the sensitivity to recognize sarcasm. Capelli et al. (1990) had children
ages 8, 11 and college students listen to tape recorded stories with the last sentence either
neutral or sarcastic. For some, the sarcastic remark was exaggerated, and others it was

39
neutral. Results showed that stories presented in a neutral context with neutral intonation
(sincere) were well understood by all age groups. Those with sarcasm improved with
successive age groups (mean accuracy scores: age 8 - 63%, age 11 - 79%, and college -
93%). Stories that produced sarcasm through context cues only were more difficult than
those that produced sarcasm through intonational cues only or with both intonational and
context clues.
Persuasion and Negotiation. Persuasion makes use of argument to convince
another person to accept a point of view or to act in a manner desired by the persuader.
Piche, Rubin, and Michlin (1978) investigated fifth- and ninth-graders who were told to
pretend to sell newspapers to four people, one younger, one the same age, one older, and
one an authority figure. Results indicate that students made adjustments to different
listeners in terms of authority and intimacy. The students expressed more imperatives
(e.g., “Oh, please buy it”) to low authority listeners. Ninth graders made more personal
appeals (“The kids in your class will like it.”) and greater variety in appeals, than fifth
graders. Positive appeals to the younger listener were more aggressive, (“You should
buy it!”).
Negotiation involves communication to resolve conflicts and achieve mutually
acceptable goals. As shown in Table 2, as children advance in years, they acquire greater
skills in bargaining, cooperation, compromise, and the perception of social perspective
(Nippold, 1994).
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. There is not only great variability in
reasoning within the age group of early adolescents, but there is also variability within
individual students in their ability to apply reason (Piaget, 1977; Van Hoose & Strahan,

40
Table 2
Areas In Which Gradual Improvements Occur in Persuasion and Negotiation
Persuasion:
1. Adjusts to listener characteristics (age, authority, familiarity)
2. States advantages to the listener as a reason to comply
3. Anticipates and replies to counter arguments
4. Uses positive strategies such as politeness and bargaining
5. Gives up negative strategies such as shining and begging
6. Generates a large number and variety of different arguments
7. Controls the discourse assertively
Negotiation:
1. Takes the social perspective of another
2. Shows awareness of the needs, thoughts, and feelings of others
3. Reasons with words (verbal reasoning)
4. Uses cooperative and collaborative strategies
5. Shows concern for group welfare
6. Shows concern for long-tem implications of conflict
7. Shows willingness to compromise
Adapted from Nippold, M. A. (1994) Persuasive talk in social contexts: development,
assessment, and intervention. Topics in Language Disorders, I4{3), p. 2.

41
1998). Piaget (1977) suggested that mental development occurs in sequential stages with
the logical operations of one stage building on the prior stage. He defined the stages as
preoperational (logical operations not used), concrete operational (objects needed to
understand logic), and formal operations (abstract ideas could be manipulated logically).
Elllsworth and Snidt (1991) expanded the concrete and formal stages into onset and
mature periods for each stage. Table 3 lists the percent of children (out of 100%) for
each age that would fall into each stage of development. Note the great range found in
the early adolescent ages (in bold type) and that some never achieve the concrete or
formal operational stages.
Van Hoose and Strahan (1998) also have described mental development in terms
of the abilities to use reason. They use a span of years that is even larger than Piaget's.
Table 4 notes not only the reasoning abilities but also the difficulties encountered when
children, early adolescents, and adolescents have not reached a particular stage of
development. Note that they call all of the early adolescent years a time of transition.
Baft, (1971) and Martorano, (1977) found that adolescents apply formal thought
(logical thinking) in some contexts but not in others. For example, formal abstract
thought may be applied in literature but not in science. This inconsistency may, in part,
be explained by the experiences that the students participate in and the quality of
stimulation or instruction they receive in school. Inductive and deductive reasoning
abilities depend on both internal and external constraints. Internal constraints include
age, cognitive level, academic achievement, and the problem solving style of the student
(Dickson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). External factors include the structural and semantic
complexity of the problems themselves.

42
Table 3
Cognitive Levels of Reasoning
Cognitive Levels of Reasoning (in Percent of Students)
Age (Years) Preoperational Concrete
Onset
Concrete
Mature
Formal
Onset
Formal
Mature
5 85 15
6 60 35 5
7 35 55 10
8 25 55 20
9 15 55 30
10 12 52 35 1
11 6 49 40 5
12 5 32 5t 12
13 2 34 44 14 6
14 1 32 43 15 9
15 1 14 53 19 13
16 1 15 54 17 13
17 3 19 47 19 12
18 1 15 50 15 19
Bold type identifies early adolescent ages.
From Ellsworth, P., & Snidt, V., (1991) Whatevery teacher should know about how
students think: A survivalguidefo r adults. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications (p. 28).

Understanding Early Adolescent Language in Textbooks

Understanding Early Adolescent Language in Textbooks

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