A simple formula for determining the effect
of a drug on a human
•A+B+C=X
• A = the drug (quality and quantity)
• B = the set (psychological state of human)
• C = the setting (the environment)
• X = the actual experience
“Transcendence of mere clarity and
order is necessary for dealing with the One recent study of 488 societies indicates that
unforeseen, for progress, for 90% have institutionalized an altered state of
excitement. consciousness within a religious framework.
Life degenerates when enclosed
within the shackles of mere
conformation.
A power of incorporating vague and
disorderly elements of experience is
essential for the advance into novelty.”
novelty.”
(Alfred North Whitehead, 1938).
A large percentage of these altered states Traditionally the use of the great majority of
psychoactive drug plants has been tightly tied to
are produced through the consumption of
both ritual and religious activity; motivations for
psychoactive drug plant substances. ingestion have indeed been predominantly dictated
by spiritual and/or medicinal requirement.
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On the other hand, contemporary use in various
societies of the Pacific, as in many other parts of the
Plants of the Gods: an
world (especially in those areas affected by Western
Civilization), is often inspired by a personal desire to
Overview
experience euphoria, and frequently is impelled by
peer group pressure.
Plants of the Gods: an
Introduction
A. Global Phenomena?
B. Deep Time Depth – Paleolithic?
C. Roots of Religion?
“The Doors of Perception” ?
Could it be cultural programming?
Left to Right: Schultes, Wasson, Hofmann, & La Barre at
conference on “entheogens.” Why are there many more known
hallucinogens from the New World that the Old World?
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Archaeological Evidence for a Archaeology
Pan-global Tradition of A. Evidence
1) Artifact Representations
Psychoactive Use a. Identification
b. Interpretation
2) Paleobotanical Remains
a. Macrofossils
b. Microfossils
B. Dating Methods: Historical and
Radio Carbon Analysis
Examples from the Old World
A. Mediterranean Region
Examples from the Old World
A. Mediterranean Region
Papaver somniferum
Papaver somniferum
Paraphernalia, e.g., inhaling pipe
Paleobotanical Evidence
Artifacts in shape of opium poppy capsules
Macrofossils of the Opium Poppy
Mediterranean Region Near East (Northern Iraq) Neanderthal burial
Papaver somniferum Shanidar Cave 60,000 B.C. -
Paleobotanical Evidence Ephedra sp.
Microfossils of the Opium Poppy
Ephedra viridis
Opium Poppy
Pollen grains
Ephedra trifurca
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Near East & North Africa
PHARMACY IN ANCIENT
CHINA Chinese Pharmacy, according P. somniferum, Nymphaea caerulea,
somniferum, caerulea,
to legend, stems from Shen Nung (about Mandragora officinarum
2000 B.C.), emperor who sought out and
investigated the medicinal value of several artifacts, frescoes 3,500 year old
hundred herbs. Egyptian statue
He reputed to have tested many of them
on himself, and to have written the first
Pen Tsao, or native herbal, recording 365
drugs.
Still worshiped by native Chinese drug
guilds as their patron god, Shen Nung
conceivably examined many herbs, barks,
and roots brought in from the fields,
swamps, and woods that are still
recognized in Pharmacy today.
Medicinal plants include podophyllum, Shen Nung (about 2000 B.C.) Small juglets in shape of Opium
rhubarb, ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon Poppy capsules (?) imported from
bark, and, in the boy's hand, ma huang, or Cyprus to Egypt in the 2nd
Ephedra. Millenium B.C. Assyrian Fresco, 600 B.C.
Some other psychoactive plants or Entheogens East Africa & Arabia -- Catha edulis “Khat”
Khat”
(“Plants of the Gods” that “generate the diety
Gods”
within”) from other regions of the world
within”
Tabernanthe Iboga, West Africa
Central and East Asia
The New World
1) Cannabis spp. - 10,000 B.C. Taiwan
spp.
North America
2) artifacts, paleobotanical evidence
Nicotiana rustica
artifacts
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Central America
South America
Sophora secundiflora, Psilocybe, Nicotiana
secundiflora, Psilocybe,
Erythroxylum coca, Nicotiana spp.
spp.
Artifacts, macrofossils (leaves)
South America Trichocereus pachanoi South America Nicotiana hybrids
Artifacts
Somewhat similar to the Peyote cactus Lophophora
spp., the “San Pedro cactus” has several mind-
cactus”
altering alkaloids, including mescaline.
South America Tree Daturas South America Virola spp.
spp.
Brugmansia spp.
(Formerly Datura spp.)
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Amazonian Colombia
Dr. Richard Evans Schultes at age 70, two weeks before retiring
from Harvard University, where he earned his B.S., M.S. & Ph.D,
taught for decades and was Director of the Botanical Museum.
Plants for the Gods
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