Safer metropolitan cities

Safety of
Metropolitan
Cities from
Disasters
A Case Study of Mumbai
Floods, 2005

Anil K. Sinha

Amit Prakash

BIHAR STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY
2nd Floor, Pant Bhawan, Patna -800001

Bihar State Disaster Management Authority

A Paper on

SAFETY OF METROPOLITAN CITIES
FROM DISASTERS

A CASE STUDY OF MUMBAI FLOODS, 2005

ANIL K SINHA1
IAS (rtd)

AMIT PRAKASH2
M.Sc (Disaster Management)
B.Tech

BIHAR STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY
2nd Floor, Pant Bhawan, Patna -800001

1
Anil K Sinha, IAS (rtd.) is Vice Chairman of Bihar State Disaster Management Authority, Patna
2
Amit Prakash is Capacity Building & Training Officer, Bihar State Disaster Management Authority, Patna

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Table of Contents
SAFETY OF METROPOLITAN CITIES FROM DISASTERS ............................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Disaster Management............................................................................................................................ 5
a. Disaster Management Cycle ............................................................................................................. 7
3. Urban Risks ........................................................................................................................................... 9
a. Factor influencing the Urban Risks ................................................................................................ 10
i. Societal Factors: .......................................................................................................................... 10
ii. Physical factors: .......................................................................................................................... 10
iii. Policy Level Factors: .............................................................................................................. 11
iv. Other factors: .......................................................................................................................... 11
4. Development and Disaster: A Sustainable and Planned Development approach ............................... 12
5. Case Study: Mumbai Flood, 2005....................................................................................................... 13
a. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 13
b. Background ..................................................................................................................................... 13
c. The Vulnerability profile of Mumbai .............................................................................................. 14
d. The Flood ........................................................................................................................................ 14
e. The Causes ...................................................................................................................................... 16
i. Urban Planning ........................................................................................................................... 16
ii. Land Use, Land Cover and destruction of Mangrove ecosystem ............................................... 17
iii. Mithi River .............................................................................................................................. 18
iv. Drainage System ..................................................................................................................... 18
6. Risk Reduction Approaches ................................................................................................................ 19
7. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) ...................................................... 22
8. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 26
Appendix 1: Definitions in Disaster Management ...................................................................................... 27
Appendix 2: List of Disaster as mentioned in HPC Report, 2001 .............................................................. 29
Appendix 3: Map of Mumbai ..................................................................................................................... 31
Bibliography: .............................................................................................................................................. 32

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Trend of Urban Growth in less developed countries (ALNAP, 2009) .......................................... 4
Figure 2: PAR model of Vulnerability .......................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Disaster Management Cycle .......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4: Glimpses of devastation in Mumbai Floods, 2005 ...................................................................... 13
Figure 5: Mumbai Floods, 2005 .................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 6: The Powai Lake area is witnessing construction at an alarming rate .......................................... 17
Figure 7: Destruction of Mangrove (Source: Outlook India)...................................................................... 17
Figure 8: Mithi River obstructed by the runway (Source: The Hindustan Times Blog) ............................. 18
Figure 9: Map of Mumbai (Source www.mapofmumbai.com) .................................................................. 31

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1. Introduction
India is a developing country. The country is witnessing rapid economic growth and
transformation, and its towns and cities are at the heart of this process. All over India, growth is
taking place in dynamic sectors such as manufacturing, information technology, high-end service
industries, trade, retail, banking, insurance and finance, all of which are urban-centric. By the
end of the year 2012, the urban share in India‟s national income is expected to go up to more
than 65% (Chakrabarti et al., 2010). In such situations, rapid urbanization can‟t be negated. So,
the rapidly growing population, the limited infrastructure and natural and made-made
intervention on environment accentuate the risks due to hazards. The uncontrolled and largely
unplanned growth of large cities in India has had negative effects on urban dwellers and their
environment. The provision of infrastructure facilities and services is lagging far behind the pace
of urbanization, and in consequence the urban environment, particularly in large cities, is
deteriorating rapidly. All the cities and towns of India are facing serious shortage of power,
water, sewerage, developed land, housing, transportation, communication and other facilities
(Chakrabarti et al., 2010).

Figure 1: Trend of Urban Growth in less developed countries (ALNAP, 2009)

This calls for a comprehensive approach aimed at Urban Risk Reduction and making cities
resilient to disasters. Such an approach will help building capacities of people and institutions,
enforce policies aiming at risk reduction, identify and address the underlying factors such as

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vulnerability and risk thus helping building safer cities. This paper attempts to explore and
explain the issue of safe cities with help of a case study of Mumbai Floods, 2005.

2. Disaster Management
Disaster Management is a very old practice that has recently gained importance owing to the
rapidly degrading natural and man-made environment3. Earlier, Disaster Management was
everything related to response and relief. But the Disaster Management Act of 2005 gave a
totally new dimension to the subject. It very well defined the scope and extent of incorporation
of Disaster Risk Reduction through the process of institutionalization of the subject. It defines
some of the important terminology that we, as Disaster Management practitioners need to know.

Before we go into the details of Disaster Management, we need to understand few terminologies
that are widely used in this perspective.

Disaster: "Disaster" means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area,
arising from natural or man-made causes, or by accident or negligence which results in
substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage
to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the
coping capacity of the community of the affected area.

Disaster Management: It means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing,
coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for-

 Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;
 Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences;
 Capacity-building;
 Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
 Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
 Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;
 Evacuation, rescue and relief;
 Rehabilitation and reconstruction;

3
Please refer to the appendix 2 for the categories of disasters as identified in HPC report, 2001.

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Disaster Management is a very wide term that can be concisely put into the following sentence;
the systematic management of administrative decisions, organization, operational skills and
responsibilities to apply policies, strategies and practices for disaster risk reduction (ADPC,
2004).

Now, disaster is a situation that is created when a number of factors interact with each other.
These factors are hazard, risk, vulnerability and coping capacity. They can be represented by the
simple equation mentioned below:

Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability/ Coping Capacity4

Here we need to understand some of the very important aspect of this equation. The risk of
disaster can be lowered if the vulnerability of community is lowered or its coping capacity is
increased. The vulnerability has been clearly explained in the Pressure and Release Model as
shown below (ADPC, 2004).

Figure 2: PAR model of Vulnerability

4
Please see the Appendix 1 for the definition of the terms.

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So we see a plenty of independent and dependent factors that determine vulnerability. Similarly,
there are numerous factors that affect the coping capacity of the people and organizations and let
them use existing resources to achieve various beneficial ends during unusual, abnormal, and
adverse conditions of a disaster event or process.

a. Disaster Management Cycle
Till now we have been discussing about the meaning of Disaster Management and associated
terms. Now we need to know the various phases of Disaster Management known as Disaster
Management Cycle. The figure below (fig. 3) shows the complete Disaster Management Cycle.
It consists of broadly response/ relief, reconstruction, mitigation and preparedness. These phases
are not clearly demarcated as there is overlap in all the phases.

Disaster

Preparedness
Response and
Relief

Rhabilitation/
Mitigation
Reconstruction

Figure 3: Disaster Management Cycle

The phase Response and Relief corresponds to phase immediately after disaster. There is no
defined time line for this phase as it is guided by the extent and damage caused by the disaster. It
may be as short as 4 days and can extend up to few months. Once the Response and Relief phase
is diminishing, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction is taken up. It consists of the phase where the

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life of the affected is restored to the normal situation. This phase usually extends for few months
to even many years. Mitigation is perhaps the most important and a never ending process of the
whole of the Disaster Management Cycle. It deals with the methods, tools, techniques that need
to be implemented in order to lower the risk. These include structural as well as non-structural
measures. The last phase, preparedness is a phase that is executed just ahead of any disaster.

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3. Urban Risks
In the section above, we discussed the factors that accentuate the probability of a disaster.
Hazards are beyond the control of human beings. Given the situation in which the majority of
urban population is being forced to live in, aggravated the affects due to the presence of these
hazards. Due to limited infrastructure and ever-growing demands, the vulnerability of the
population is further intensified.

First we need to understand that why cities live under constant risk of disaster. Cities and urban
areas represent dense and complex systems of interconnected services. As such, they face a
growing number of issues that drive disaster risk. Strategies and policies can be developed to
address each of these issues, as part of an overall vision to make cities of all sizes and profiles
more resilient and livable. Among the most significant risk drivers are (For & Government,
2010):

1. Growing urban populations and increased density, which put pressure on land and services,
increasing settlements in coastal lowlands, along unstable slopes and in hazard-prone areas.
2. Concentration of resources and capacities at national level, with a lack of fiscal and human
resources and capacities in local government, including unclear mandates for disaster risk
reduction and response.
3. Weak local governance and insufficient participation by local stakeholders in planning and
urban management.
4. Inadequate water resource management, drainage systems and solid waste management,
causing health emergencies, floods and landslides.
5. The decline of ecosystems, due to human activities such as road construction, pollution,
wetland reclamation and unsustainable resource extraction, that threatens the ability to
provide essential services such as flood regulation and protection.
6. Decaying infrastructure and unsafe building stocks that may lead to collapsed structures.
7. Uncoordinated emergency services, which decreases the capacity for swift response and
preparedness.
8. Adverse effects of climate change that will likely increase or decrease extreme temperatures
and precipitation, depending on localized conditions, with an impact on the frequency,
intensity and location of floods and other climate-related disasters.

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a. Factor influencing the Urban Risks

i. Societal Factors:
The reasons stated above merely outline the physical and institutional factors that add to the risk.
But we need to look beyond the obvious. There have been a number of social factors specifically
in case of India that have generally been ignored. We are statistically aware of the fact that cities
have seen a large scale migration. When observed closely, there are certain social and economic
issues created in the rural areas that force the inhabitants to migrate. There have been instances
of a complete migration of male population of some of the villages on western coast to Mumbai.
The climate change and natural disaster in rural areas force the people to migrate to the urban
areas in search of livelihood. These people without adequate access resources stay in temporary
and spatially unsafe settlements. This creates pressure on the limited available resources in the
area thus making the migrants further vulnerable. One of the widely quoted examples can be the
Deonar Dumping ground of Mumbai. Several of the unauthorized settlements that have emerged
over the passage of time have promoted human habitation subjected to utmost risk. The absence
of electricity, unsafe drinking water and complete absence of health facility coupled with poor
sanitation, lack of basic education, poor standard of living and uncertain livelihood has worsened
the condition of the people living in the area. Presence of large number of vulnerable groups
largely consisting of children and women add to the risk factor further.

ii. Physical factors:
Humans have never learned from their mistake they have committed in past while dealing with
nature. They go against the laws of nature and thus bear its wrath. Construction of dams,
embankments, canals etc. might have helped in dealing with the water shortage problems but
now that has added to the risk. In cities like Mumbai, the city planners have undertaken
constructions by reclaiming the underwater areas and constructing buildings on them. Also, the
migrated populations settling down in hazard prone areas (hill slope, river banks etc.) invite
disasters. The development brings with itself industrialization. Industrialization is symbol of
economic prosperity and it is required to meet the ever-growing demand of the population. But
this industrialization has a dark face too. They add to the vulnerability of already vulnerable
population. The affect and result of the same can be clearly seen in the case of Bhopal Gas
Tragedy, the biggest industrial disaster known to mankind. It has killed more than 25000 people
and the victims continue to perish due to the contamination and genetic disorders. Much of the

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medium-large industrial establishments consume lot of natural resources and deplete them. They
also release the toxics back to the nature thus adding to the risk.

iii. Policy Level Factors:
These are the sets of factors that if implemented, could resolve many of the issues and minimize
the risk due to the hazards. There have been several policies well in place such as BIS codes for
construction. But its implementation has miserably failed all over India. The mere fulfillment of
needs at lowest possible price has driven people to bypass these measures. Also, implementation
of code is adds to the cost of the construction and we generally tend to compromise on the same.
Again, when it comes to the establishment of large scale industries, many of them have often
been lacking the will to adhere to the norms and policies that are required from ensure safety
onsite as well as offsite. Had there been strict implementation of safety measures in the Dow
chemical plant‟s Bhopal unit, lives of thousands could have been saved.

iv. Other factors:
One of the pressing issues that a city generally faces is the lack of adequate infrastructure to
respond to an emergency situation. This could either be due to low investment in the safety
measures and equipment, early warning systems etc. Also, one of the biggest factors that
attributes to the risk is lack of awareness about the hazards that could affect the city. Majority of
the population doesn‟t know what to do when an emergency situation arises. This adds to a
completely chaotic environment thus aggravating the situation.

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4. Development and Disaster: A Sustainable and Planned Development
approach
The relationship between development and disaster is quite complex subject and a widely
debated one. One of the relationships established the fact that disaster leads to development. This
has been proved on several occasions in the Bhuj earthquake of 2001 and Latur earthquake. After
the earthquake razed the city Bhuj to the ground, the government together with other
stakeholders, planned the city properly, followed strict building codes and provided adequate
infrastructure and made the city safer. But opponents of development consider development ,
unplanned development to be more precise, as the factor that aggravated disasters by adding to
the risks. The Mumbai flood of 2005 is believed to be a result of development in an unplanned
way. The natural flow of Mithi River was obstructed, there were constructions on reclaimed land
and natural drainage system of Mumbai was tampered with under the pretext of development.

So the idea of a development has changed to Sustainable Development We call the cities
adopting such approach as Sustainable Cities. A sustainable city (SC) is defined as one which is
safe, orderly, healthy, culturally and physically attractive, a city that is efficient in its functioning
and development does not have a negative impact on the environment or on its cultural/historic
heritage, and, as a result of all this, is governable. The final goal is to achieve a competitive city,
capable of producing goods and services efficiently, which will attract investment to create new
job opportunities, thereby making it possible to raise the standard of living of its inhabitants.
Evidently, all these attributes can materialize only in the long term, but it is possible to carry out
priority actions in the short term; one of which is to protect life and health, every individual‟s
most precious possession. Obtaining the other attributes becomes, in the long term, the objective
of local, regional, and national governments; their objectives in this context will serve them as
guidelines in their decision-making and short-term activities. In this way, there will be no
squandering of the nearly always scanty funds, and a clear line of action will have been defined,
to put an end to the series of tentative advances and disappointed retreats that have caused so
many delays in the past, increasing the poverty (Kuroiwa, n.d.).

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5. Case Study: Mumbai Flood, 2005

Figure 4: Glimpses of devastation in Mumbai Floods, 2005

a. Introduction
On July 26th, 2005, Mumbai faced one of the worst days ever. The God of Rains brought down
havoc on to the city by showering very heavily. The city that never sleeps has sleepless nights
and it was brought to a complete arrest. There were people stuck in the offices and the
passengers stuck in cars and buses. The daily local train commuters were stranded either at
workplace or on the way to home. There were no roads that could be used, all the buses were
grounded, the local trains were off the service and the flooding of the runway paralyzed the air
traffic. This is just a glimpse of what nature was up to in Mumbai on the ill-fated day.

b. Background
Mumbai is one of the largest mega cities5 in the world in terms of population and is currently
ranked 4th after Tokyo, Mexico City and New York. The city is the financial capital of India
with a large commercial and trading base. It plays host to a number of industries, multinational
companies and important financial institutions. With a per capita income thrice that of the
national average, Mumbai makes huge contribution to the total tax revenues of the country. The
city is also an important international sea port and strategic from defense perspective.
Unfortunately, the city is also more vulnerable to climate risks due to its flood prone location and
the landmass composed largely of reclaimed land. The most vulnerable section is also the slum
dwellers and squatter communities in the city that comprise more than half of the total residents

5
Please refer to the Annexure 3 for the political map of Mumbai.

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c. The Vulnerability profile of Mumbai
Mumbai is an island outside the mainland of Konkan in Maharashtra State. The city is
surrounded on three sides by the sea. The height of the city is just 10-15 meters above the sea
level. A large part of the City District and Suburban District is land reclaimed from the sea. The
original city of Mumbai consisted of a group of 7 islands which were later on reclaimed and
given the form of the present city. The new industrial, commercial and residential settlements
have developed along the reclaimed coastal areas which are low-lying and flood prone. Mumbai
falls in the seismic zone III which is Moderate Damage Risk Zone. As per 2001 census, Mumbai
has over 276,000 dwellings (residential, industrial and commercial) of which only 9% are made
of reinforced concrete, 31% are engineered constructions and around 60% are non-engineered
constructions, which correspond with the large presence of slum settlements. Mumbai also plays
host to around 900 industries that are involved in manufacturing or processing or storage of
hazardous goods. Many of these are in close proximity to residential and commercial areas,
thereby increasing the risk of fires and explosions. The major concentration of such industries is
in the Chembur-Trombay belt (Wards M-West and M-East). The area has major chemical
complexes, refineries, fertilizer plans, atomic energy establishment and thermal power plant. The
presence of such industries only enhances the vulnerability in case of extreme weather events
(Patankar, Patwardhan, Andharia, & Lakhani, 2010).

On the socio-economic terms, Mumbai is very unfortunate to have more than half of its 1.8
million populations living in unplanned and highly vulnerable areas. There is a huge influx of
migrated labors, daily wage workers and unemployed youths who settle down in some of the
most vulnerable areas of Mumbai such as dumping grounds, sea coasts, Meethi River bank, and
along the railway lines. Given the increasing population and more than half living a life of
poverty and destitution with limited access to basic civic amenities and infrastructure, health
vulnerabilities have become quite imminent. Slums have mushroomed in almost all the wards of
Mumbai, along the coast, on the hill slopes, along the highways, railways and in low-lying areas.
Many settlements lack even basic infrastructure like water, sanitation and legal electricity
connections

d. The Flood
26th July 2005, Mumbai recorded its highest ever rainfall in a single day. It crossed a mind-
boggling figure of 944 mm. Santa Cruz, in north Mumbai, recorded a rainfall of 94.4 cm on 26th

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July. Rainfall over Vihar Lake was 105 cm. The previous record of heaviest 24- hour rainfall
over Mumbai was 58 cm for Santa Cruz. Although Colaba, in Mumbai‟s southern tip recorded
just 7.3 cm, the rainfall which was in no way a typical. Low lying areas of the city were as good
as a part of the sea. The Eastern and Western Expressways could easily have been mistaken for
rivers. Slums were converted to ponds. The Mithi River was flooded and water gushed into the
surrounding regions. People waded through water or were forced to remain in water for many
hours. The water-logging affected transport and electric supply and disrupted the daily life for
the next seven days. It was estimated that at least 3 million citizens remained in contact with at
least knee-deep water for over one hour. For the very first time, the Navy has had to step in for
rescue operations in Mumbai‟s suburbs. Kalina went under water on 26th night. Two teams of
naval divers were sent by road to the area. In many parts of Mumbai, naval helicopters were used
to drop food. Naval boats and diving teams were also standing by to assist in Karanja north of
Mumbai.

Transport statistics of the city

 52 local trains damaged
 37,000 rickshaws & 4,000 taxis spoilt
 900 BEST buses damaged
 10,000 trucks and tempos stranded

Figure 5: Mumbai Floods, 2005

Mumbai‟s vital systems got a severe trounce. Majority of railway tracks were submerged in
water. Many long distance trains got cancelled else halted or terminated at nearby secure cities
like Valsad in gujrat. Of the 2,412 city buses, another lifeline of the city, only 394 plied. Flights
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could not land in the city. For the first time ever, Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Sahar
and Juhu aerodrome were shut for more than 30 hours due to water logging water logging of the
runways and extremely poor visibility. Over 700 flights were cancelled or delayed. Mumbai-
Pune Expressway witnessed a number of landslides and was closed for 24 hours. The financial
cost of flood was unprecedented and it caused a stoppage of entire commercial, trading, and
industrial activity for days. The floods caused a loss around Rs. 450 crores. The financial impact
of the floods was manifested in a variety of ways. The state government declared the 27th and
28th July as a public holiday. In Mumbai, ATM of several banks like SBI, ICICI Bank, HDFC
Bank, Citibank and HSBC stopped functioning. ATM operations outside Mumbai were also
severely hit due to connectivity failure with their central systems located in Mumbai. The
Bombay Stock Exchange and the National Stock Exchange of India could function only partially.
As most of the trading is e-Trading, trading terminals of the brokerage houses across the country
remained largely inoperative. (IIT Bombay, 2005).

e. The Causes
Owing to the high physical, social and economic vulnerability of the people living in the city, the
reasons of 2005 floods encompasses the issues related to development, land use and land cover,
the urban planning, the reclamation of the land, the treatment with Meethi River, the destruction
of Mangrove ecosystem and inadequate drainage facility. Each one of these have been discusses
in brief below.

i. Urban Planning
Unlike South Mumbai, development in northern suburbs of Mumbai is haphazard and buildings
are constructed without proper planning. The drainage plans in northern suburbs is chalked out
as and when required in a particular area and not from an overall point of view. In the Powai lake
region, new colonies have come up. The area next to Heeranandani has been claimed from hills.
Again the Bandra Kurla Complex has been constructed partially on the Meethi river bed. The
construction of runway at the airport has been done in such a way that it has altered the natural
flow of the Meethi River.

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Figure 6: The Powai Lake area is witnessing construction at an alarming rate

ii. Land Use, Land Cover and destruction of Mangrove ecosystem
The Powai was home to several animals and it had a very dense forest area. Now due to
deforestation, the land use and land cover pattern has severely been affected. Hundreds of acres
of swamps in Mahim creek have been reclaimed and put to use for construction by builders.
These ecosystems serve as a buffer between land and sea.

Figure 7: Destruction of Mangrove (Source: Outlook India)

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iii. Mithi River
Mithi River served as the Mumbai‟s natural drainage. But due to reclamation of its river bed and
altering of its natural path due to developmental plans have severely affected the natural
characteristics of the river. At several places, this River has been reduced to Nala.

Figure 8: Mithi River obstructed by the runway (Source: The Hindustan Times Blog)

iv. Drainage System
The present storm-water drainage system in Mumbai was put in place in the early 20th century
and is capable of carrying only 25 millimeters of water per hour which was extremely inadequate
on a day when 944 mm of rain fell in the city. The drainage system is also clogged at several
places. Only 3 „outfalls‟ (ways out to the sea) are equipped with floodgates whereas the
remaining 102 open directly into the sea. As a result, there is no way to stop the seawater from
rushing into the drainage system during high tide (IIT Bombay, 2005).

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6. Risk Reduction Approaches

a. Institutional and Administrative Framework:

To be effective and contribute to a city‟s development and safety, managing disaster risk and
understanding the potential threats of complex events requires a holistic approach and must
include the involvement of local government decision makers, city officials and departments,
academia, business and citizens groups. Experience gained through the Hyogo Framework for
Action has shown that appropriate policies and an institutional framework are preconditions for
decision making and sound disaster risk reduction actions. Accompanied by decentralized power
and resource allocations and the participation of all major groups and actors in planning,
implementation and monitoring mechanisms, this Framework contributes to the city‟s
development objectives and sustainability.

b. Risk Identification using Multi Hazard Risk Assessment System:

Unless cities have a clear understanding of the risks they face, planning for meaningful disaster
risk reduction may be ineffective. Risk analysis and assessments are essential prerequisites for
informed decision making, prioritizing projects, planning for risk reduction measures and
identifying high-, medium- or low-risk areas, according to their vulnerability and the cost
effectiveness of potential interventions. A well-maintained database of disaster losses and a
Geographic Information System to map hazards, vulnerabilities, the exposure of people and
assets and capacities will provide the foundation for the risk assessment.

c. Mainstreaming DRR in Developmental Plans

Not all hazards are destined to cause disasters. Preemptive measures can help avoid the
disruption, incapacitation or destruction of networks, grids and infrastructure, which can cause
severe social, health and economic consequences. Collapsed buildings are the greatest cause of
mortality during earthquakes. Poorly planned roads or insufficient drains cause many landslides.
Lifelines such as roads, bridges and airports, electric and communications systems, hospital and
emergency services and energy and water supplies are essential for a city to function during a
response to disaster.

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d. Better Land Use Planning and Adherence to Building and Construction Code

Countries and cities will have safer infrastructure when standards are in place through building
codes and regulations. The application of construction codes and mechanisms for planning and
monitoring the use of city land is a valuable way to reduce disaster vulnerability and risk from
extreme events such as earthquakes, floods, fires, the release of hazardous materials and other
phenomena. It is the responsibility of local authorities to monitor their application, compliance
and follow up. Using resilient design standards and land use planning is cost effective when
compared to relocation and/or retrofitting unsafe buildings.

e. Capacity Building of general masses

If citizens are to take part in the collective responsibility of creating disaster- resilient cities,
training, education and public awareness are critical (these must also be incorporated into all Ten
Essentials). The entire community must know about the hazards and risks to which they are
exposed if they are to be better prepared and take measures to cope with potential disasters.
Awareness, education and capacity building programs on disaster risk and mitigation measures
are key for mobilizing citizen participation in the city‟s disaster risk reduction strategies. This
will improve preparedness and help citizens respond to local early warnings.

f. Strengthening of basic amenities for public

Schools and health facilities provide essential social services. As such, special attention must be
paid to their safety and risk reduction efforts must focus on ensuring they can continue providing
services when most needed. Not only do they house among the most vulnerable groups in
society, schools and hospitals are also places of care, development and well-being. They carry
out essential functions during and after a disaster, where they are likely to accommodate and
treat survivors. The normal educational routines of children must be restored as soon as possible
to avoid social and psychological repercussions.

g. Protection of Ecosystem and better environmental resource management

Ecosystems serve as protective buffers against natural hazards. They increase the resilience of
communities by strengthening livelihoods and the availability and quality of drinking water, food
supplies and other natural resources. Through the process of urban expansion, cities transform

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their surrounding environment and often generate new risks. The urbanization of watersheds can
modify hydrological regimes and destabilize slopes, increasing hazards such as floods and
landslides. Maintaining a balance between human actions and ecosystems is an excellent strategy
for reducing risk and contributing to resilience and sustainability.

h. Effective Early Warning System, Preparedness and Response coordination

Well-conceived emergency preparedness and response plans not only save lives and property,
they often also contribute to resilience and post- disaster recovery by lessening the impact of a
disaster. Preparedness efforts and early warning systems help ensure that cities, communities and
individuals threatened by natural or other hazards can act in sufficient time and appropriately to
reduce personal injury, loss of life and damage to property or nearby fragile environments.
Sustainability can be achieved if the community itself and local authorities understand the
importance of and need for local emergency preparedness and response (For & Government,
2010)

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7. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)
The Central Government has started the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) in the year 2005-06 for a period of 7 years, to improve urban infrastructure and
urban governance as well as to provide basic services to the urban poor. Under the Urban
Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) Sub-Mission, funds are provided to the extent of 50% to
90% of the project cost depending on the population of various cities, by the Central and State
Governments whereas the balance funds have to be raised by concerned agencies. It can be
considered as one of the biggest and the most ambitious urban development program in India
launched so far.

Its key objectives are of this program are:

a) Focused attention to integrated development of infrastructure services in cities covered
under the Mission
b) Establishment of linkages between asset-creation and asset-management through a slew
of reforms for long-term project sustainability;.
c) Ensuring adequate funds to meet the deficiencies in urban infrastructural services
d) Planned development of identified cities including peri-urban areas, outgrowths and
urban corridors leading to dispersed urbanization
e) Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal
access to the urban poor;.
f) Special focus on urban renewal program for the old city areas to reduce congestion; and
g) Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable
prices, improved housing, water supply and sanitation, and ensuring delivery of other
existing universal services of the government for education, health and social security.

From point of view of Urban Risk Reduction, this national flagship program becomes very
significant. The program has a lot of scope when it comes to mainstreaming of developmental
plans in urban settings. Following are the key components as identified by National Alliance for
Disaster Risk Reduction in their JNNRUM linkages to DRR, which need special attention in
relation to the integration of DRR components with Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission (JNNURM).

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1. Strengthening of institutional mechanism

a) There in a need to strengthen institutional mechanism further. Presently it has limited reach.
Actually it should be looked for long term future strategy in alignment with concerned
departments and nodal agencies.

b) Preparing a roadmap, in terms of in-situ urbanization for DRR, instead of selecting few cities,
which of course should also be taken up as a component of overall urbanization issues.

c) National Steering Group should ensure the Techno Legal regime in cities, under its fold that
promises a safe built environment.

d) The state level steering committees and urban local bodies should pursue the respective tasks
in line with disaster risk reduction initiatives and disaster management committees‟ activities at
state & district level.

e) Provisions under Disaster Management Act 2005 at district level should be integrated with
future plans for cities, through integration between development plan and disaster management
plan.

2. Compliance to Safe construction practices (GNDR)

a) Government should make a condition for the cities to amend first their existing GNDR
(General Development Control Regulations) for accessing funds from JNNURM. It will motivate
the city administrations to amend their GDCR prior to executing the physical projects under the
program

b) Adhere safe construction practices; follow Building Bye laws, Town and Country Planning
Acts. Safe construction should be a made a mandatory reform, not an optional reform.

c) Aiming at reducing risks in urban areas, all the concerned persons related to construction
domain, should be trained, including masons, rod benders, supervisors, engineers, architects,
contractors and local builders as well.

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d) The old system embedded in construction practices need to be kept alive to promote the DRR
through seismic resistant architecture. The traditional building architecture and construction
practices have proved to be very safe and especially highly seismic resistant. Ex. Uttarakhand.

e) Housing for the poor should look at the locally available materials and technologies that are
more appropriate for a particular area than importing new technologies that is not ecologically
viable.

3. Contribution towards preparing a comprehensive City Disaster Management Plan

a) While preparing City disaster management plan, all the vulnerable factors to be analyzed in
detail and the probable risks to assessed, with future projections of urban population and
development works.

b) All the basic infrastructural facilities, (including sewage, rail & road transport network, water,
gas & petrol piping, power & telecom) should be taken into account, while preparing an
integrated city disaster management plan (DM plan).

c) The nodal agencies of the program should actively involve the local community in the making
of city Disaster management plan, as it is being done for them and they know their environment
best. In our country, it is a fact majority of urban poor live in slums, situated in vulnerable areas
such as river embankments, under flyovers without any land record. This aspect should not be
missed out.

d) There is a need to create and adopt the different standard operating procedures of DM plan,
for handling disasters for “sites” already developed and “potential sites” under development.
Here one of the ways to start is identifying the most vulnerable spots in the city, and then
proceed for specific block disaster management plan.

4. Public Private Partnership (PPP)

a) Public private partnership is the key for successful institutionalization of any development
program. For an effective integration of DRR in urban renewal, a proper Government-NGO-
Community interface needs to be in place to ensure that the Government can lead from the front
with policies and administrative support, with community mobilization, regular contacts and a

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good amount of problem solving to be left to the NGOs, while building community structures for
sustainability of the process and program through participatory planning and monitoring.

b) Urban local bodies (ULBs) are also a part of Public private partnership. In comparison, ULBs
have the potential to become more accountable and accessible to citizens. Being one of the nodal
agencies of renewal mission, the ULBs need to take care of the sustained micro level progress
and carry out periodic monitoring.

c) Community should be sensitized first towards the key program objectives and concerned
benefits, with reference to respective activities. Apart from the Government, If the local citizens,
and private organizations, will be aware of the facts and figures then it will be quite easier to
implement the program (by abiding the required conditions), and the success will be multiplied
through partnership.

The opportunity provided by JNNURM must not be allowed to go untapped and it must be used
further for DRR agenda. It is better to be pro-actively disaster safe today than tomorrow by
hindsight (Nehru et al., 2007).

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8. Conclusion

With the large scale growth in several of its cities, today India stands at a verge of attaining an
economic and developmental superiority. It has witnessed a growth rate of significantly high
magnitude when the rest of the world was grappling with the financial crisis. In such an
environment, it becomes quite obvious for the citizens to harness the fruits of globalization. This
resulted in significant switch-over from agriculture to industrial sector. There were other social
perspectives too attached to this plight of migration. A gradient thus created due to influx of
population from rural India to the urban and semi-urbanized region has created a world risk
society.

On the other hand, this trend has brought about a significant increase in the purchasing power of
people. The demand has soared up. The pressure on the natural resources has increased
substantially. So on such occasions, we see rampant invasion of planning processes adopted in
settlements. The cities are not able to cope with the existing infrastructure and the one that are in
place since last several years are increasingly finding it difficult to handle to the explosive
situation.

Under such circumstances, if there is any disaster striking us, the results in form of widespread
destruction have been quite evident in the past. So, in order to strengthen the disaster
management operations, we need a strong institutional base supported by the people who are the
center of the activities. Besides this, there needs to be a proper natural resource management,
public awareness, accurate early warning systems, compliance to building construction codes,
education etc. that can significantly alter the way Indian cities respond to emergency situation.

At the same time it becomes quite necessary for us to mainstream the future development plans
with the existing national and state government programs. This will ensure that there is no
duplicity of the work and the structures so made would be contributing to DRR.

We therefore cannot prevent disaster from striking us. But we can definitely prepare for the same
to respond to and minimize the losses due to the disasters.

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Appendix 1: Definitions in Disaster Management

A list of common terminologies used in Disaster Management

1. Risk: The probability of harmful consequences, or expected loss (of lives, people injured,
property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting
from interactions between natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable/capable
conditions.
2. Hazard: A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity, which
may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation. Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent
future threats. They can be natural in origin (geological, hydro-meteorological and
biological) and/or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and
technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and
effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity and probability.
3. Vulnerability: A set of conditions and processes resulting from physical, social,
economic and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of a community to
the impact of hazards.
4. Positive factors that increase the ability of people and the society they live in to cope
effectively with hazards, that increase their resilience, or that otherwise reduce their
susceptibility, are considered as capacities.
5. Capacity: The manner in which people and organizations use existing resources to
achieve various beneficial ends during unusual, abnormal, and adverse conditions of a
disaster event or process. The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience
to withstand the effects of natural and other hazards.
6. Resilience: The capacity of a system, community or society to resist or to change in order
that it may obtain an acceptable level in functioning and structure. This is determined by
the degree to which the social system is capable of organizing itself, and the ability to
increase its capacity for learning and adaptation, including the capacity to recover from a
disaster.(ADPC, 2004)
7. Mitigation: Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse
impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazards.

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8. Preparedness: Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to
the impact of disasters, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and
the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location.
9. Prevention: Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards
and related environmental, technological and biological disasters.
10. Relief: The provision of assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster
to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of affected communities.
11. Rehabilitation: Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring the
pre-disaster living conditions of the affected community.
12. Reconstruction: Full restoration of all services and infrastructure, replacement of
damaged physical structures, revitalization of economy and restoration of social and
cultural life with necessary measures to prevent future disasters.

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Appendix 2: List of Disaster as mentioned in HPC Report, 2001

Water and Climate related Disasters

1. Floods and Drainage Management
2. Cyclones
3. Tornadoes and Hurricanes
4. Hailstorm
5. Cloud Burst
6. Heat Wave and Cold Wave
7. Snow Avalanches
8. Droughts
9. Sea Erosion
10. Thunder and Lightning

Geological Disasters
1. Landslides and Mudflows
2. Earthquakes
3. Dam Failures/ Dam Bursts
4. Mine Fires

Chemical and Industrial Disasters
1. Chemical and Industrial Disasters
2. Nuclear Disasters

Accident related Disasters
1. Forest Fires
2. Urban Fires
3. Mine Flooding
4. Oil Spill
5. Major Building Collapse

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6. Serial Bomb Blasts
7. Festival related disasters
8. Electrical Disasters and Fires
9. Air, Road and Rail Accidents
10. Boat Capsizing
11. Village Fire

Biological Disasters
1. Biological Disasters and Epidemics
2. Pest Attacks
3. Cattle Epidemics
4. Food Poisoning
The list is not a very comprehensive one and needs to be revised.

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Appendix 3: Map of Mumbai

Figure 9: Map of Mumbai (Source www.mapofmumbai.com)

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Bibliography:
1. ALNAP. (2009). ALNAP Responding to urban disasters.
2. Bombay, I. I. T. (2005). Mumbai Flood: Act of God or Inaction of Human.
3. Chakrabarti, P. G. D., Davis, I., Bendimerad, F., Shaw, R., Fernandez, G., Setchell, C. A.,
Luther, C. N., et al. (2010). Urban Risk Management in South Asia.
4. Disaster, A. (2004). Environmental Degradation and Disaster Risk Asian Disaster
Preparedness Centre, (February).
5. For, A. H., & Government, L. (2010). How to Make Cities More Resilient A Handbook
For Local Government Leaders.
6. Kuroiwa, J. (n.d.). Integrated Natural Risk Reduction through a Sustainable Cities
Programme, 61–67.
7. IIPA. (2001). The High Powered Committee Report, 71.
8. Patankar, A., Patwardhan, A., Andharia, J., & Lakhani, V. (2010). Mumbai City Report,
(August).
9. Nehru, J., Urban, N., Mission, R., Alliance, T. N., Reduction, D. R., Reduction, D. R.,
Drr, D., et al. (2007). JNNURM - Recommendations for DRR Linkage Integrating
Disaster Management with programmes and policies of Urban Sector.

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