1. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Chapter 1
The School as a
Social System

2. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
What is Organizational Theory?
A set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that describes and explains patterns
of behavior in organizations.
Elements of Theory:
Concepts
Generalizations
Assumptions
Purposes of Theory:
Provide an explanation of how things generally work.
Guide research
Guide practice
Hypotheses:
Conjectural statements that explain relationships.
Use to test theories.
Guide research
Scientific Knowledge:
Propositions supported by systematic research.
Purpose of Science: To test theory and to provide reliable explanation.
Chapter 1: The School as a Social System

3. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Theory
Figure 1.1: Theory-Research Relation (©Hoy 2007)
Concepts Concepts
Hypotheses Empirical
Testing
Principles
Assumptions
And
Generalizations
Variables

4. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
I. Rational-Systems Perspective: A Machine Model
Scientific Management (The Beginning) Rational-Systems Perspective
Frederick Taylor-Scientific Management
•Time and Motion Studies
•Standardization
•Exception Principle
•Division of Labor
•Span of Control
Henri Fayol-Functions of Administration
•Planning
•Organizing
•Commanding
•Coordinating
•Controlling
Luther Gulick--Functions of the
Executive
•POSDCoRB
(A Contemporary View of Scientific Management)
•Goals--Organizations exist to attain collective
goals
•Division of Labor for efficiency
•Specialization for expertise
•Standardization for routine performance
•Formalization for uniformity and coordination
•Hierarchy for unity of command and coordination
•Span of Control for effective supervision
•Exception Principle to free superiors from routine
•Coordination for administrative effectiveness
•Formal Organization is the official blueprint of the
structure that guarantees efficiency and
effectiveness. The formal organization is the
key to organizational effectiveness.
Historical Development of
Theory and Thought in Administration

5. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
II. Natural-Systems Perspective: An Organic Model
Human Relations (The Beginning)
Mary Parker Follett
Taylor antagonist and
human relations advocate
Hawthorne Studies
•Illumination Studies--three studies
•Elton Mayo--more studies(1927-32)
•Hawthorne Effect
Informal Organization
•Norms
•Grapevine
•Informal leaders
•Cliques
Informal Norms
“No squealing”
“No rate busting”
“No chiseling”
“Be a regular guy”
Contemporary Natural System (Human Resources View)
•Survival--organizations are more than instruments for goal
attainment; they are social groups that adapt and survive.
•Individuals are more important than the structure.
•Needs motivate performance more than role demands .
•Specialization can promote boredom and frustration.
•Formalization produces rigidity and rule fixation.
•Informal Norms not formal rules are critical to performance.
•Hierarchy is ineffective because it usually neglects talent.
•Span of Control is dysfunctional because it fosters close and
authoritarian supervision.
•Informal Communication is more efficient and open than
formal communication.
•Informal Organization--informal structures are more
important than formal ones just as informal leaders are more
influential than formal ones. The informal organization is the
key to effectiveness.

6. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
II. Open-systems Perspective: An Integration
Social Science: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies
Max Weber Theory of Bureaucracy
Chester Barnard Functions of the Executive
Herbert Simon Administrative Behavior
Talcott Parsons Social Systems Theory
Interdependence is a fact of organizational life.
All organizations are open systems whose parts interact and depend on each other
and are dependent on their environments.
Integration is central to an open-systems perspective.
Integration of goals and needs Behavior is a function of structure and needs.
Integration of rational and natural elements All organization have both rational and natural aspects.
Integration of tight and loose couplings Organizations need both tight and loose couplings.
Integration of planned and unplanned activities Politics pervades organizational life.
Integration of formal and informal. Organizations have two interactive faces:
Formal & Informal.
Contingency Theory
Effectiveness is contingent upon matching There is no one best way to organize, motivate,
the situation with the appropriate technique. decide, lead, or communicate-- “it depends.”

7. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Historical Development of
Theory and Thought in Administration

8. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Key Properties of Open Systems
Inputs --people, materials, and resources from the outside
Transformation -- the process transforming inputs into something of value by
the system.
Outputs -- the byproduct of the transformation.
Feedback -- how the system communicates to its parts and the
environment.
Boundaries -- systems are differentiated from their environments.
Environment -- is anything outside the system.
Homeostatis --a steady state of equilibrium
Entropy -- the tendency for all systems for run down and die.
Equifinality --the same end can be achieved many ways.

9. Open System with Feedback Loops
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
ThroughputThroughput
[Transformation][Transformation]
InputsInputs OutputsOutputs
People
Materials
Finances
Products
Services
Feedback
EnvironmentEnvironment
Performance

10. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Social Systems Model: Key
Assumptions
• Social systems are open systems.
• Social systems consists of interdependent parts, which interact
with each other and the environment.
• Social systems are goal oriented.
• Social systems are peopled.
• Social systems have structure.
• Social systems are political.
• Social systems have cultures.
• Social systems have norms.
• Social systems are conceptual and relative.
• All formal organizations are social systems, but not all social systems
are organizations.

11. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Key Elements of the School as a Social System
Schools are social systems with the following key parts:
Structure: roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy.
Individual: the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position,
people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive
understandings of the job.
Culture: represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations:
its shared values
Politics: informal power relations that develop spontaneously.
Core: the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.
Environment: everything outside the organization; source of inputs.
Outputs: the products of the organizations, e. g. educated students.
Feedback: communication that monitors behavior.
Effectiveness: the congruence between expected and actual outcomes.

12. Internal Elements of the System
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Transformation ProcessTransformation Process
Structural SystemStructural System
(Bureaucratic Expectations)(Bureaucratic Expectations)
Cultural SystemCultural System
(Shared Orientations)(Shared Orientations)
Political SystemPolitical System
(Power Relations)(Power Relations)
Individual SystemIndividual System
(Cognition and Motivation)(Cognition and Motivation)
Learning
Learning
Teaching
Teaching
OutputsOutputsInputsInputs
EnvironmentEnvironment

13. Social System Model for Schools
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Transformation ProcessTransformation Process
Structural SystemStructural System
(Bureaucratic Expectations)(Bureaucratic Expectations)
CulturalCultural
SystemSystem
(Shared(Shared
Orientations)Orientations)
PoliticalPolitical
SystemSystem
(Power(Power
Relations)Relations)
Individual SystemIndividual System
(Cognition and Motivation)(Cognition and Motivation)
Learning
Learning
Teaching
Teaching
OutputsOutputsInputsInputs
Environmental
constraints
Human and
capital resources
Mission and
board policy
Materials and
methods
Achievement
Job satisfaction
Absenteeism
Dropout rate
Overall quality
Discrepancy between
Actual and Expected
Performance
EnvironmentEnvironment

14. The Triadic Relations ofThe Triadic Relations of
Theory, Practice, and ResearchTheory, Practice, and Research
Theory, research, and practice are in a dynamic relationship.
Each set of relationships is reciprocal: theory guides practice,
but practice reinforces, refines, or disconfirms theory; theory
guides research, but research creates and refines theory; and
research guides practice, but practice directs research.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
TT
PPRR

15. Practical Imperatives
1. Seek and test good explanations in your administrative practice:
Be both reflective and guided by evidence.
2. Be prepared for both rational and irrational behavior in schools:
Both abound.
3. Cultivate informal relations to solve formal problems:
The informal organization is a source of ingenious ideas.
4. Use multiple perspectives to frame school challenges:
Framing the problem is often the key to its solution.
5. Engage informal leaders in problem solving:
Cooperation between the formal and the informal is a key to success.
6. Be politically astute as you represent the school and its students:
Politics is a fact of school life.
7. Encourage both stability and spontaneity as appropriate:
Both are essential to good schools.
8. Be responsive to the community: The school is an open system.
9. Cultivate expertise as the basis for solving problems:
Knowledge should be the basis of decision making.
10. Harness administration to the facilitation of sound teaching and learning:
Teaching and learning is what schools are about.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011