4. The term reference is traditionally used in
semantics for the relationship which holds
between a word and what it points to in the
real world.
The word “chair” referring to something that
made of wood, use to sit, etc
5. Instead of denoting a direct relationship
between words and extra linguistics objects,
reference is limited here to the relationship
of identity which holds between two
linguistics expression.
“Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. She announced
her decision this morning”
6. “Mrs.Thatcher has resigned. She announced her
decision this morning”
The pronoun “She” points to Mrs. Thatcher within the
textual words itself.
7. The most common reference items in English and a
large number of other languages are pronouns.
Apart from personal reference, English also uses
items such as the, this, and those to establish
similar links between expression in the text.
8. Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. This delighted her
opponents.
In this sentence, the reader has to go back to the
previous stretch of discourse to establish what This
refers to.
9. So,reference is a device which allows the
reader/the hearer to trace participants,
entities, events, etc in a text.
10. Some languages, unlike English, prefer to use
proper names to trace participant through a
discourse. So, where English would normally
use a pronoun refer to a participant who has
already been introduced, Hebrew is more
likely to repeat the participant‟s name, it is
also happened in Brazilian Portuguese
language.
11. In some languages, such as Japanese and Chinese,
pronouns are hardly ever used and once a
participant is introduced, continuity of reference is
signalled by omitting the subject of following
clauses
So, different preferences exist across language for
certain general patterns of reference
12. Substitution and ellipsis are
grammatical rather than
semantic relationship. In
substitution, an item is replaced
by another item
13. I like movies
And I do
In the example above, do is a substitute for like
movies.
Items commonly used in substitution in English
include do, one, the same.
14. You think Joan already knows? – I think everybody
does. (Does replaces knows)
My axes is too blunt. I must get a sharper one (One
replaces axes)
A: I‟ll have two poached eggs on toast, please.
B: I‟ll have the same. (The same replaces two
poached eggs on toast)
15. Ellipsisinvolves the omission of an item. In other
words, in ellipsis, an item is replaced by nothing
Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some
sweet peas. (elliptic item: brought in second
clause).
16. The operation of substitution and ellipsis in
English are not the same with other
languages, for example Arabic.
Every language has its own battery of devices
for creating links between textual elements.
Arabic uses a number of devices which
cannot be easily represented in back
translation.
17. Unlikethe Arabic grammatical system, the
English system makes very few distinctions in
term of number, gender, and verb agreement
18. Conjunction involves the use of formal
markers to relate sentences, clauses and
paragraphs to each other. Unlike reference,
substitution, and ellipsis, of conjunction
does not instruct the reader to supply
missing information either by looking for it
elsewhere in the text or by filling structural
slots.
19. involves the use of formal markers to
Conjunction :
relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each
other. Unlike reference, substitution, and
ellipsis, theuse of conjunction does not instruct
the reader to supply missing information either
by looking for it elsewhere in the text or by
filling structural slots. Instead, conjunction
signals the way the writer wants the reader to
relatewhat is about to be said.
20. a. additive: and, or, also, in addition,
furthermore, besides,similarly, likewise,
by contrast, for instance.
b. adversative: but, yet, however, instead,
on the other hand.
c. causal: so, consequently, it follows, for,
because, underthe circumstances, for this
reason
e. continuatives now, of course, well,
anyway, surely, after all
21. a. English, a temporal relation may be expressed
by means ofverb such asfollow or precede, and a causal
relation is inherent in the meanings of verbssuch as
cause and lead to.
b. a temporal relation may be expressed by means
of a verb such asfollow or precede, and a causal
relation is inherent in the meanings of verbssuch as
cause and lead to.
c. conjunctive relations do not justreflect relations
between external phenomena, but may also be set up
toreflect relations which are internal to the text or
communicative situation.
22. temporal relations are not restricted to
sequence in real time;they may reflect
stages in the unfolding text. A good example
is the use offirst, second, and third in this
paragraph.
whether conjunctions which occur within
sentences can be considered cohesive, since
cohesionis considered by some linguists to be
a relation between sentences ratherthan
within sentences .
23. For example : After they had fought the
battle, it snowed.
by afterward They fought a battle.
Afterwards, it snowed.
Compared to Arabic, English generally
prefers to present information in relatively
small chunks and to signal the relationship
between.
24. The following is an example of a fairly free
translation into Arabic.
The translated version conforms more to
Arabic than to English norms ofcohesion. Not
in particular, the use of typical.
for example : the use of typical Arabic
conjunctions: wa(roughly: „and‟),5 hatha-wa
(literally: „this and‟), and kama (roughly:
„also‟/
25. conjuction in english
English: Today (temporal);
so (causal);
because ( causal)
but(adversative )
and yet (additive +
adversative),
howeve (adversative);
and finally (additive +
temporal);
26. German: Today (temporal);
so (causal);
on the one hand (additive, comparison), but on the other
hand (adversative + additive, comparison);
finally (temporal);
now (continuative, with additional force of adversative);
yet (adversative), because (causal);
and then (adversative), for this purpose (causal);
lastly (temporal);
now (continuative or concession – see below);
however/in any event (adversative);
There are noticeably fewer conjunctions in the English text (eight) than
in
the German (twelve). German seems to be generally more conjunctive
than
English7 The use of explicit conjunction.
27. Lexical cohesion refers to the role played
by the selection of vocabulary inorganizing
relations within a text.
lexical cohesion into two main categories:
reiteration and collocation.
28. Reiteration : as the name suggests, involvesrepetition
of lexical items. A reiterated item may be repetition of an
earlier item, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, or
a general word.
Example of Reiteration :
There‟s a boy climbing that tree.
a. The boy is going to fall if he doesn‟t take care.
(repetition)
b. The lad’s going to fall if he doesn‟t take care.
(synonym)
c. The child’s going to fall if he doesn‟t take care.
(superordinate)
d. The idiot’s going to fall if he doesn‟t take care.
(general word)
29. Collocation, as a sub-class of lexical cohesion
which involves a pair of lexical items that are
associated with each other in the language in
some way.
30. - Various kinds of oppositeness of meaning: e.g. boy/girl;
love/hate;
order/obey.
- Associations between pairs of words from the same
ordered series:
e.g.Tuesday/Thursday; August/December;
dollar/cent.
- Associations between pairs of words from unordered
lexical sets:
e.g.part–whole relations: car/brake; body/arm;
bicycle/wheel;
- Part–part relations: mouth/chin; verse/chorus;co-
hyponymy: red/green
(colour); chair/table (furniture).
- Associations based on a history of co-occurrence
(collocation proper)
