2. THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF
TELEVISION
In 1948, only 1 percent of America’s households had aTV set
By 1953, more than 50 percent had one
Since the early 1960s, more than 90 percent of all homes have aTV
3. EARLY INNOVATIONS INTVTECHNOLOGY
If audio signals (radio) could be transmitted, why couldn’t visual signals?
From roughly 1897 to 1907, several inventors developed the cathode ray tube, the
fore-runner of theTV picture tube, combined the principles of the camera and
electricity
4. ELECTRONICTECHNOLOGY: ZWORYKIN
AND FARNSWORTH
The story of television’s invention included a complex patents battle between two
independent inventors:Vladimir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth
Zworykin left Russia and came to the U.S. to work forWestinghouse and then RCA
In 1923, he invented the iconoscope, the firstTV camera tube to convert light rays
into electrical signals, and received a patent for it in 1928
In 1927, Idaho resident Philo Farnsworth transmitted the first electronicTV
picture: he rotated a straight line scratched on a square of painted glass by 90
degrees
RCA challenged Farnsworth in a major patents battle over Zworykin’s invention
In 1930, Farnsworth received a patent for the first electronic television
5. SETTINGTECHNICAL STANDARDS
In the late 1930s, the NTSC (NationalTelevision Systems Committee) began
outlining industry-wide manufacturing practices and compromising on technical
standards
The FCC, in 1941, adopted an analog standard for all U.S.TV sets
Analog signals were used until 2009 when they were replaced by digital signals
HDTV signals offer the highest resolution and sharpest image
6. ASSIGNING FREQUENCIES AND FREEZING
TV LICENSES
In the early days ofTV, the number of stations were limited by the broadcast
spectrum (same as radio)
Cable fixed this problem by sending channels through cable wires that don’t
interfere with one another
In the 1940s, the FCC began assigning channels in specific geographic areas to
make sure there was no interference
Amid a growing concern about the finite number of channels, there was a freeze
on licenses between 1948 and 1952
In cities that hadTV stations (some had none), movie theaters declined, libraries
declined, taxi receipts and nightclub attendance declined
By the mid 1950s, there were more than 400 stations in operation andTV became
a mass medium—today there are 1700 stations
7. THE INTRODUCTION OF COLORTV
In 1952, the FCC tentatively approved an experimental CBS color system
However, mostTV sets were black-and-white, and couldn’t receive the signal
In 1954, RCA’s color system sent color signals but allowed olderTVs to receive the
signal in black-and-white, becoming the color standard
It wasn’t until 1966—after the consumer market for color sets had taken off—that
the BigThree Networks broadcast their entire lineups in color
8. CONTROLLING CONTENT:TV GROWS UP
By the early 1960s,TV had become a dominant mass medium and cultural force,
with more than 90 percent of U.S. households owning at least one set
TV’s new influence came as its programs moved away from radio formats and
established a separate identity
Two important contributors to this identity were a major change in the
sponsorship structure ofTV programming and a major scandal
9. PROGRAM FORMAT CHANGES INHIBIT
SPONSORSHIP
EarlyTV programs were often supported by a single sponsor
Networks didn’t like that sponsors had so much control over creative and content
PatWeaver (Sigourney Weaver’s dad), NBC president, decided to changeTV
shows from 15 minutes to 30 minutes, substantially raising program costs for
advertisers and discouraging them from sponsoring entire programs
Magazine programs featured multiple segments—news, talk, comedy, music—
such as the Today show, or the Tonight Show
Television specials featured productions like Peter Pan, or specials hosted by
famous singers such as Judy Garland or Frank Sinatra
10. THE RISE AND FALL OF QUIZ SHOWS
Prime time:The hours between 8 and 11 p.m., when networks traditionally draw
their largest audiences and charge their highest advertising fees
In 1955, CBS started airing the $64,000 Question (sponsored by Revlon)
By the end of 1956, 22 quiz shows aired on network television
Compared with dramas and sitcoms, quiz shows were (and are) cheap to produce,
with inexpensive sets and mostly non-actors as guests
Quiz shows were rigged, and contestants were rehearsed and given the answers
in order to heighten the tension
In 1959, after a congressional investigation about cheating/rigging, prime-time
quiz shows ended
11. QUIZ-SHOW SCANDAL HURTSTHE
PROMISE OFTV
The impact of the quiz-show scandals was enormous
First, the sponsors’ pressure onTV executives to rig the programs and the
subsequent fraud put and end to any role that major sponsors had in creatingTV
content
Second, the fraud undermined Americans’ expectation of the democratic promise
of television—to bring inexpensive information and entertainment into homes
Third, they magnified the division between “high” and “low” culture attitudes
toward television
Quiz shows were kept out of prime time for 40 years. In 1999, ABC had great—but
brief—success with WhoWants to be a Millionaire
13. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CABLE
Most historians mark the period from the late 1950s—when the networks gained
control overTV content—to the end of the 1970s as the network era
This was a time when the BigThree broadcast networks (CBS, NBC, and ABC)
dictated virtually every trend in programming and collectively accounted for more
than 95 percent of all prime-timeTV viewing
In 2012, this figure was less than 40 percent…..
14. CATV- COMMUNITY ANTENNATELEVISION
The first major cable systems (CATV) originated in the 1940s in Oregon,
Pennsylvania, and NYC, where mountains or tall buildings blockedTV signals
CATV served only 10 percent of the country and had only 12 channels
Cable eliminated over-the-air interference
Running signals through coaxial cable increased channel capacity
15. THEWIRES AND SATELLITES BEHIND
CABLETELEVISION
In 1960, AT&T launchedTelstar, the first communication satellite capable of
receiving, amplifying, and returning signals
For cableTV, the breakthrough was the launch of domestic communication
satellites: Canada’s Anik in 1972, and the U.S.’Westar in 1974
Local headends receive and sendTV signals through satellite dishes
Advances in satellite technology in the 1970s dramatically changed the fortunes
of cable by creating a reliable system for the distribution of programming to cable
companies across the nation
The first cable network to use satellites for regular transmission ofTV programs
was HBO, which began delivering programming such as uncut, commercial free
movies or major boxing matches for a monthly fee in 1975
16. CABLETHREATENS BROADCASTING
In 1977, 14 percent of homes had cable. By 1985 it was 46 percent. In 1997, basic
cable channels had captured a larger prime-time audience than broadcast
networks
Narrowcasting: Providing specialized programming for diverse and fragmented
groups, which attracts advertisers and audiences
As cable channels become more specialized, they have siphoned off viewers from
the networks, eroding the networks’ role as the chief programmer of shared
culture
17. CABLE SERVICES
Cable consumers usually choose programming from a two-tiered structure
1. Basic cable services like CNN
2. Premium cable services like HBO
These services are the production arm of the cable industry, supplying
programming to the nation’s cable operations, which function as program
distributors to cable households
18. BASIC CABLE SERVICES
A typical basic cable system today includes more than a hundred-channel lineup
composed of local broadcast signals, access channels, regional PBS stations, and a
variety of cable channels, such as ESPN, CNN, MTV, USA, Bravo, Nickelodeon,
Disney, Comedy Central, BET,Telemundo, and the Weather Channel
Each channel (which generally is bundled in a cable package) costs from 6 cents
(C-SPAN) up to $4 (ESPN)
The channel fees are averaged together and passed along to consumers as part of
the basic monthly rate, generally between $70 and $90
19. PREMIUM CABLE SERVICES
Premium cable lures customers with the promise of no advertising
Programming includes recent and classic movies, and original movies or series
Premium services also include pay-per-view and video-on-demand
Cable companies make lots of money from premium services, which generally
only cost $4 to $6 to the cable companies, but they charge $10 for them
20. DBS: CABLE WITHOUT WIRES
Direct Broadcast Satellite transmits its signal directly to small satellite dishes near
(or on) a customer’s home
Useful in areas where the installation of cable wiring hasn’t always been profitable
or possible
22. TECHNOLOGY AND CONVERGENCE
CHANGEVIEWING HABITS
Among the biggest technical innovations inTV are nontelevision delivery systems
Not only isTV being reinvented, but its audiences—although fragmented—are
also growing
By 2012, when you include downloading, streaming, DVR, and smartphone/tablet
viewing, people watch more than 8 hours a day
23. HOMEVIDEO
In the 1970s,VCRs allowed people to tape-recordTV shows and watch them later
Film studios sued Sony (VCR manufacturer) saying that their product violated
copyright laws, but the courts ruled in Sony’s favor
Movie studios quickly capitalized by selling movies on videocassette
VCRs gave way to DVDs and DVRs
More than 95 percent of homes are now equipped with DVD or DVR
Video rentals (Blockbuster) gave way to services like Netflix
DVRs have enabled an increase in time-shifting, which allows viewers to watchTV
shows whenever they want
24. TV CONVERGES WITHTHE INTERNET
Services like iTunes and Amazon InstantVideo offer the ability to download full
seasons ofTV shows
Streaming services like Hulu or Netflix allow viewers to watch full episodes and
series
Netflix (with 36 million subscribers) is bigger than Comcast (22 million)
Netflix has been in negotiations to have the rights to stream current episodes of
prime-timeTV shows
Services like HBOGo let people download premium cable shows
These services often act as a “catch-up” service
25. SMARTPHONES AND MOBILEVIDEO
Consumers no longer needTV sets
The concept of “second screen” means that not only are people watchingTV
shows on their phones, but they are using their phones/tablets to talk to other
viewers about theTV shows viaTwitter, Facebook etc.
27. MAJORTRENDS IN PROGRAMMING
TV programming began by borrowing genres from radio, such as variety shows,
sitcoms, and soap operas
Los Angeles and NewYork came to represent the two major branches ofTV
programming: entertainment and information
28. TV ENTERTAINMENT: OUR COMIC CULTURE
Sketch comedy: “Resurrected the essentials of stage variety entertainment,”
variety shows that included singers, dancers, animal acts, stand-up comics, and
ventriloquists
Sketch comedies were produced as hour-long shows, and were more expensive to
produce than other types of shows
Since the 1980s, network variety shows have appeared only as yearly specials
Situation comedy: Sitcoms, features a recurring cast, each episode establishes its
own narrative situation, complicates it, develops confusion among the characters,
and resolves its complications
Character development is downplayed in favor of zany plots, and characters do
not develop over the course of the series
29. TV ENTERTAINMENT: OUR DRAMATIC
CULTURE
Because the production ofTV entertainment was centered in NYC in its early
days, many of its ideas, sets, technicians, actors, and directors came from New
York theater
TheTV dramas that grew from these early influences fit roughly into two
categories: the anthology drama and the episodic series
30. ANTHOLOGY DRAMA ANDTHE MINISERIES
Anthology dramas: Brought live dramatic theater to the audience through stage
plays that were written forTV. Each episode had new casts, directors, writers, and
sets
Advertisers disliked anthologies because they often presented complex stories
that were not easily resolved
Working and middle-class audiences did not like anthologies (too “high culture”)
Anthology dramas were expensive to produce
Anthologies were labeled as “politically controversial”
By the 1960s, anthologies had virtually disappeared, although now we have
miniseries such asTrue Detective andAmerican Horror Story
31. EPISODIC SERIES
Episodic series: Main characters continue from week to week, sets and locations
remain the same, and technical crews stay with the program
Two types of episodic series—chapter shows and serial programs
Chapter shows are self-contained stories with a recurring set of main characters
who confront a problem, face conflicts, and find a resolution
Serial programs are open-ended shows where a storyline continues from episode
to episode
32. TV INFORMATION: OUR DAILY NEWS
CULTURE
For about 40 years, broadcast news, especially on localTV stations, consistently
topped print journalism in national research polls that asked which news medium
was the most trustworthy
Most studies suggest that this has to do withTV’s intimacy as a medium—its
ability to create loyalty with viewers who connect personally with the news
anchors we “invite” into our living rooms each evening
33. NETWORK NEWS
Daily evening newscasts began on NBC in 1948 with the Camel NewsreelTheater
It was originally shown in movie theaters, but began broadcasting live in 1949
In 1956, CBS had the first news show to be videotaped for rebroadcast on affiliate
stations
34. CABLE NEWS CHANGESTHE GAME
CNN was the first 24/7 cable news channel. It premiered in 1980
Traditional networks began to take notice of cable news
CNN spawned a host of competitors, like Fox News and MSNBC
Cable news has significantly changed theTV news game by offering viewers
information and stories in a 24/7 loop
Rather than waiting to see the news at 5:30 or 6:30 p.m., viewers can access news
updates at any time
These channels often feature opinion shows that celebrate argument, and are
cheap to produce
35. REALITYTV AND OTHER ENDURING
GENRES
Talk shows have fed our curiosity about celebrities and politicians (Today Show)
Game shows have provided families with easy-to-digest current events and
historical trivia (Jeopardy)
Newsmagazines shed light on major events (60 Minutes)
Reality shows are the newest significant trend—TheVoice, Deadliest Catch,Top
Chef,Teen Mom, Keeping UpWith the Kardashians, Real Housewives, Dancing
With the Stars
These shows allows us to see characters who are “like us”
Very cheap and easy to produce
36. PUBLICTELEVISION STRUGGLESTO FIND
ITS PLACE
Congress intended public television to target viewers who were “less attractive”
to commercial networks and advertisers, such as children and the elderly
The major networks largely do not produce content for children under twelve
Public broadcasting stations require federal and private funding to operate
Children’s programming on publicTV faces competition from cable services and
channels like Nickelodeon, Disney, Sprout, and Cartoon Network
Overall, numbers for children’s programming are declining, suggesting that
parents are relying on streaming services to control what their children watch
38. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONSTEMPORARILY
RESTRICT NETWORK CONTROL
PrimeTime Access Rule: Introduced in 1970, reduced the networks’ control of
prime-time programming from four to three hours in an effort to encourage more
local news and public affairs programs
Fin-syn:The FCC banned networks from reaping huge profits from syndication,
because production companies had shouldered a lot of the cost of production
The Department of Justice also started limiting the networks’ production of non-
news shows, forcing them to hire independent production companies
With the growth of cable and home video in the 1990s, the FCC gradually phased
out the ban limiting network production because theTV market became more
competitive
39. BALANCING CABLE’S GROWTH AGAINST
BROADCASTERS’ INTERESTS
By the early 1970s, cable’s rapid growth, capacity for more channels, and better
reception led the FCC to seriously examine industry issues
In 1972, the commission updated or enacted two regulations with long-term
effects on cable’s expansion: must-carry rules and access-channel mandates
40. MUST-CARRY RULES
Must-carry rules required all cable operators to assign channels to and carry all
localTV broadcasts on their systems
This ensured that local network affiliates, independent stations, and publicTV
channels would benefit from cable’s clearer reception
41. ACCESS-CHANNEL MANDATES
The FCC also mandated access channels in the nation’s top 100TV markets,
requiring cable systems to provide and fund a tier of nonbroadcast channels
dedicated to local education, government, and the public
In smaller markets, operators could required education, government, and the
public to share one channel
Leased channels: Citizens could buy time on these channels and produce their
own programs or present controversial views
42. CABLE’S ROLE: ELECTRONIC PUBLISHER
OR COMMON CARRIER?
Cable operators argued that they should be considered electronic publishers and
be able to choose which channels and content to carry
Cable companies wanted the same “publishing” freedoms and legal protections
that broadcast and print media enjoyed in selecting content
The FCC argued that cable systems were common carriers, providing services that
do not get involved in content—like telephone operators who do not get involved
in your personal phone conversations
In 1979, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the rights of cable companies to
determine which channels they carry
Access channels are no longer a requirement, but most cable companies continue
to offer them in order to remain on good terms with their communities
43. FRANCHISING FRENZY
Essentially, a cable franchise is a mini-monopoly awarded by a local community to
the most attractive bidder, usually for a 15-year period
Although a few large cities permitted two companies to build different parts of
their cable systems, most communities granted franchises to only one company
so that there wouldn’t be more than one operator trampling over private property
to string wire or bury cables
Most cable systems were built between the 1970s and 1990s
Cable companies generally pay a fee to the community they operate in– five
percent is the maximum that a city can charge a cable company
44. THETELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996
Telecommunications Act of 1996: Cable fully came under the control of the
federal rules that had long governed the telephone, radio, and broadcastTV
industries
Cable companies could now offer phone services, and phone companies could
offer internet services
Congress hoped the new rules would spur competition and lower both phone and
cable rates, but this has not usually happened. Instead, cable and phone
companies have merged, keeping prices high in most markets
46. THE ECONOMICS AND OWNERSHIP OF
TELEVISION AND CABLE
It is not much of a stretch to defineTV programming as a system that mostly
delivers viewers to merchandise displayed in blocks of ads
Consumers say thatTV advertising has the most influence on their purchasing
47. PRODUCTION
The key to theTV industry’s success is offering programs that viewers will
habitually watch each week
Production costs generally fall into two categories: below-the-line and above-the-
line
Below-the-line costs—about 40 percent of the budget—relate to the technical
side of production: equipment, special effects, cameras, crew, sets, carpenters,
electricians, wardrobe, lighting, and transportation
Above-the-line costs include creative talent: actors, writers, producers, editors,
and directors.This is about 60 percent of the budget, except in long-running
shows where the actors get larger salaries
48. PRODUCTION
Most prime-time programs today are developed by independent production
companies that are owned or backed by a major film studio, such as Sony or
Disney
The production company leases an episode of a show to the network or cable
channel for a fee that is less than the cost of production, in hopes of recouping
this loss later in rerun syndication
Costs for original programs on cable channels are generally lower than those for
network broadcasts—because of smaller audiences and fewer episodes per
season
Cable channels also keep costs low by airing only 3-4 new programs per year,
where networks will air 10-20 new shows per year
49. PRODUCTION
To save money and control content, many networks and cable stations create
programs that are less expensive than sitcoms and dramas—these include
newsmagazines and reality programs
By producing some shows in-house, networks and cable channels avoid paying
license fees to independent producers and movie studio production companies
50. DISTRIBUTION
Cable service providers rely mostly on customer subscriptions to pay for
distributing their channels, but they also have to pay the broadcast networks
retransmission fees to carry network channels and programming
Networks sell the bulk of the advertising time to recoup their fees and their
investments in these programs
TV Networks do not generally own local affiliates, they actually rent time on local
broadcast stations
Local affiliates can choose not to air a network’s show if they think it is
controversial or unsuitable—however, this is rare
51. SYNDICATION KEEPS SHOWS GOING AND
GOING…
Syndication: LeasingTV stations or cable networks the exclusive right to airTV
shows. It is a critical component of the distribution process
Syndicated shows are often used during fringe time—directly before or after
prime-time programming
Cable channels also syndicate programs, but they are more flexible with time-
slots
For example,TNT runs older episodes of Law and Order or Bones during prime-
time, along with original cable programs like Rizzoli and Isles
52. TYPES OF SYNDICATION
Off-network syndication (commonly called reruns) means that older programs
that no longer run during network prime-time are made available to local stations,
cable operators, and streaming services
This generally occurs after aTV show has built up several seasons worth of
episodes
This type of syndication is almost pure profit for producers, who are looking to hit
the jackpot and have a show that makes money in syndication in order to finance
new shows
First-run syndication is any program that is specifically produced for sale into
syndication markets—think Jeopardy and Dr. Phil
53. BARTERVS. CASH DEALS
Cash deal:The distributor offers a series for syndication to the highest bidder in
exchange for exclusive rights
Barter deals: A syndicator offers a program to a localTV station in exchange for a
split of the advertising revenue
54. MEASURINGTELEVISIONVIEWING
Primarily,TV shows live or die based on how satisfied advertisers are with the
quantity and quality of the viewing audience
Since 1950, the major organization that tracks and rates prime-time viewing has
been the Nielsen Corporation, which estimates what viewers are watching in the
nation’s major markets
Companies like Nielsen provide advertisers, broadcast networks, local stations,
and cable channels with considerable detail about viewers—from race and gender
to age, occupation, and educational background
55. THE IMPACT OF RATINGS AND SHARES ON
PROGRAMMING
Rating:A statistical estimate expressed as the percentage of households that are
tuned in to a program in the market being sampled
Share: A statistical estimate of the percentage of homes that are tuned to a
specific program compared with those using their sets at the time of the sample
Audience measurement tells advertisers not only how many people are watching,
but what kinds of people are watching
Affluent 18-49 year old viewers are the target audience for most shows
Cable shows generally garner a smaller audience than network shows: In it’s last
season, Breaking Bad attracted 6 million viewers. NCIS draws an average of
almost 22 million viewers per episode
56. ACCESSINGTODAY’S CONVERGED AND
MULTISCREEN MARKET
With all the screen options and targeted audiences, it is almost impossible for a
TV program to crack the highest-rated series list (most watched ever was the final
episode of M*A*S*H with 100 million viewers, by contrast, Friends finale had 52
million)
Ratings now include measures for DVR users and people who watch on mobile
devices
57. THE MAJOR PROGRAMMING
CORPORATIONS
After deregulation began in the 1980s, many players inTV and cable consolidated
to broaden their offerings, expand their market share, and lower expenses
This business strategy has produced an oligopoly, in which just a handful of media
corporations now control programming
58. THE MAJOR BROADCAST NETWORKS
Despite their declining reach and the rise of cable, the traditional networks have
remained attractive business investments
In 1995, Disney bought ABC for $19 billion, in 1999,Viacom acquired CBS for $37
billion (they are no longer together), and in 2011, Comcast purchased NBC
Universal—valued at $30 billion
The major networks also began acquiring or developing cable channels to
recapture viewers
ABC owns ESPN, as well as parts of Lifetime, A&E, and History
NBC operates MSNBC, CNBC, and Bravo
59. MAJOR CABLE AND DBS COMPANIES
Cable systems are valuable not only for their ability to carryTV programming, but
also high-bandwith access to the internet
There are about 5200 cable systems in the U.S.
Since the 1990s, thousands of cable systems have been bought by large multiple-
system operators (Comcast,Time-Warner)
Systems are now called “video subscription services,” which includes cable
providers (Xfinity, Charter), satellite (Dish, DirecTV), and subscription services
(Netflix, Hulu)
60. THE EFFECTS OF CONSOLIDATION
The trend towards cable, broadcast, and telephone company mergers leads to
fears that there will be a limit on expressing political viewpoints, programming
options, and technical innovation
Price fixing
When cable providers and programmers get into disputes, it leaves customers
with little recourse and choice in markets with minimal or no competition (so, all
of them)
61. ALTERNATIVEVOICES
After suffering through years of rising rates and limited expansion of services,
some small U.S. cities have decided to challenge the private monopolies of cable
giants by building competing, publicly owned cables systems
These are generally operated by utility systems
