This presentation outlines traditional practices around the world that hurt women in general. It was originally produced for Chinese female college students.

1. TRADITIONSTHAT HURT
WOMEN
Ercilia Delancer
Returned Peace CorpsVolunteer
Neijiang Normal University
May 24, 2014

2. FORMER U.S. PRESIDENT JIMMY CARTER

3. ALL ROADS LEADTOWOMEN
▪“When it comes to development and
poverty reduction, all roads lead to
women: their education, their health, and
their economic independence.”
▪- Marjorie Margolies,WCI President and
Founder

4. 4
GENDER EQUALITY- DEFINITION
▪ “equality is the cornerstone of every democratic society that aspires to
social justice and human rights.” UN General Assembly, 2002
▪ “gender equality in terms of capabilities (education, health, and
nutrition) and opportunities (economic and decision-making).” UNDP,
1995
▪ “equality under the law, equality of opportunity (including equality of
rewards for work and equality in access to human capital and other
productive resources that enable opportunity), and equality of voice (the
ability to influence and contribute to the development process).” World
Bank, 2000

5. WOMEN’S RIGHTS: LACK OF AWARENESS
▪ Most women in developing countries are unaware of their basic
human rights.
▪ It is this state of ignorance which ensures their acceptance-and,
consequently, the perpetuation of harmful traditional practices
affecting their well-being and that of their children.
▪ Even when women acquire a degree of economic and political
awareness, they often feel powerless to bring about the change
necessary to eliminate gender inequality.
▪ Empowering women is vital to any process of change and to the
elimination of these harmful traditional practices.

6. A STARKVIEW ONTHE STATUS OFWOMEN
TODAY
▪ In the 21st century, women enjoy more freedom and power
than ever before. However, they are still disadvantaged
when compared to men in virtually all aspects of life.
▪ Women are deprived of equal access to education, health
care, capital, and decision making powers in the political,
social, and business sectors.
▪ Whereas men are credited with performing three quarters
of all economic activities in developing countries, women
actually perform 53 percent of the work, according to the
United Nations.

7. FAMOUS QUOTE FROM CHAIRMAN MAO

8. ANDYET…..
▪ 60% of the world’s extreme poor are women (UNDP
Gender Equality)
▪ 1/3 women will suffer physical or sexual abuse (UN
Women)
▪ 2/3 of the world’s illiterate people are women - 41
million girls are denied education (UNWomen)
▪ Only 20% of politicians are women
▪ Less than 4% of global government aid has been
allocated to gender equality

9. ANDYET….
▪ 70% of small-holder farmers are women and they produce
50% of global food. (Action Aid & FAO 2011)
▪ Investing in women benefits the whole community: girls
and women spend 90% of income on their families, while
men only spend 30-40% (Nike Foundation,The Girl Effect)
▪ Women and children are the main water collectors in 76%
of households (45-country survey:WHO/UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Programed (JMP) forWater Supply and
Sanitation 2010)

10. LACK OF ACCESSTO BANKING
▪ Women are more likely than men to be
employed in the informal employment sector,
which usually offers minimal job security, little
to no benefits, and much lower wages.
▪ 75% of women worldwide cannot get bank
loans because they have unpaid or insecure
jobs and do not own property.
▪ 40 billion hours are spent by women and
children every year traveling to and from
water sources

11. DISPLACED PERSONS /REFUGEES
▪ 70 - 80 % of refugee and internally displaced
populations are women and children
▪ Nearly 100 % of girls who escape or are
released from rebel control exhibit one or
more sexually-transmitted disease

12. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
▪ Approximately 50.3% of the world’s
population is female.
▪ However, as of 2010 19% of
parliamentarians worldwide are
female.
▪ 17% of members of US Congress are
women
▪ Why do you think this is?

13. THE DEVALUEING OF A GIRL’S LIFE
▪According to an
Asian proverb,
"bringing up girls
is like watering the
neighbor's
garden".

14. Son preference and its implications for the
status of the girl child
▪ One of the principal forms of discrimination and one which has far-
reaching implications for women is the preference accorded to the
boy child over the girl child.This practice denies the girl child good
health, education, recreation, economic opportunity and the right to
choose her partner, violating her rights under articles 2, 6, 12, 19, 24,
27 and 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
▪ Son preference refers to a whole range of values and attitudes which
are manifested in many different practices, the common feature of
which is a preference for the male child, often with concomitant
daughter neglect.

15. Son preference and its implications for the
status of the girl child (Cont.)
▪ It may mean that a female child is disadvantaged from birth;
▪ it may determine the quality and quantity of parental care and the
extent of investment in her development;
▪ and it may lead to acute discrimination, particularly in settings where
resources are scarce.
▪ Although neglect is the rule, in extreme cases son preference may
lead to selective abortion or female infanticide.

16. Son preference and its implications for the
status of the girl child (Cont.)
▪ In many societies, the family lineage is carried on by male children.
The preservation of the family name is guaranteed through the
son(s).
▪ Except in a few countries (e.g. Ethiopia), a girl takes her husband's
family name, dropping that of her own parents.The fear of losing a
name prompts families to wish to have a son.
▪ Some men marry a second or a third wife to be sure of having a male
child. Among many communities in Asia and Africa, sons perform
burial rites for parents.
▪ Parents with no male child do not expect to have an appropriate
burial to "secure their peace in the next world".

17. Son preference and its implications for the
status of the girl child (Cont.)
▪ In almost all religions, ceremonies are performed by men.
▪ Priests, pastors, sheikhs and other religious leaders are men of great
status to whom society attaches great importance, and this
important role for men obliges parents to wish for a male child.
▪ Religious leaders have a major involvement in the perpetuation of
son preference.
▪ Son preference is universal and not unique to developing countries or
rural areas. It is a practice enshrined in the value systems of most
societies. It thus dictates the value judgments, expectations and
behavior of family members.

18. Son preference and its implications for the
status of the girl child (Cont.)
▪ The practice of son preference emerged with the shift from
subsistence agriculture, which was primarily controlled by women, to
settled agriculture, which is primarily controlled by men.
▪ In the patrilineal landowning communities with settled agriculture
which are prevalent in the Asian region, the economic obligations of
sons towards parents are greater.
▪ The son is considered to be the family pillar, who ensures continuity
and protection of the family property.
▪ Sons provide the workforce and have to bring in a bride-"an extra
pair of hands". Sons are the source of family income and have to
provide for parents in their old age.
▪ As soldiers, sons protect the community and hold political power.

19. Where is there anti-girl discrimination and a resulting shortage of girls?
▪ East Asia: China, Taiwan, South Korea (not Japan)
▪ South Asia: India, Nepal, Pakistan
▪ Not in most Muslim countries of Arab Middle East, North Africa, Southeast
Asia, or Central Asia
▪ Not in most of Latin America, Africa, Middle East, Less Developed, or Least
Developed Countries
▪ Not in Europe, North America, Russia
▪ Only certain cultures have such strong traditional anti-daughter bias that is
now exacerbated by declining and low fertility, leading to sex-selective
abortion and/or excess mortality of daughters

20. Consider these neo-Confucian sayings:
1. A woman’s duty is not to control or take charge.
2. Woman’s greatest duty is to produce a son.
3. A woman ruler is like a hen crowing.
4. A husband can marry twice, but a wife must never remarry.
5. A woman with no talent is a woman of virtue.
6. Disorder is not sent down by Heaven, it is produced by women.
7. Those who cannot be taught, cannot be instructed. These are women and eunuchs.
8. Women’s nature is passive.
9. A woman should look on her husband as if he were Heaven itself, and never weary of thinking
how she may yield to him.
10. There are three unfilial acts. The greatest is a failure to produce sons.

21. What causes the shortage of girls in China?
▪ Poverty? No, some of China’s poorest areas have no missing girl
problem. But economic considerations matter
▪ Political or economic system? (No)
▪ Illiteracy, low educational level? (No)
▪ Chinese culture? YES
▪ Low fertility? YES. Combined with son preference.
▪ One-child policy? Maybe. Seems to worsen excess female infant
mortality. Perhaps shortage of girls is more severe than without the
one-child policy

22. Where do Chinese women stand now?
• Out of China’s 220 million illiterate/semiliterate people, 70% are women.
• 70% of school dropouts in China are female.
• Domestic violence strikes nearly 1 in 3 families in China.
• More than 6 million women across Mainland China are involved in prostitution
according to WHO.
• WHO issued a statement that estimated “more than 50 million women were
‘missing’ in China because of the institutionalized killing and neglect of girls due
to Beijing’s population control program that limits parents to one child.”
• Due to the prediction that Asia will soon become the new epicenter of the
AIDS epidemic and the lack of knowledge about the disease and how it is spread,
experts often refer to China as “a potential AIDS time bomb.” In China, this is
especially problematic for women, as they are being infected at record rates.

23. FEMALE SEXUAL MUTILATION (FMG)
One of the most
dangerous and
degrading
practices hurting
young girls
around the world.

24. FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION
▪ Female genital mutilation (FGM), or female circumcision as it is
sometimes erroneously referred to, involves surgical removal of parts
or all of the most sensitive female genital organs.
▪ It is an age-old practice which is perpetuated in many communities
around the world simply because it is customary.
▪ FGM forms an important part of the rites of passage ceremony for
some communities, marking the coming of age of the female child.
▪ It is believed that, by mutilating the female's genital organs, her
sexuality will be controlled; but above all it is to ensure a woman's
virginity before marriage and chastity thereafter.

25. ORIGINS OFTHIS PRACTICE
▪ The origin of FGM has not yet been established, but records show that the
practice predates Christianity and Islam in practicing communities of today.
▪ In ancient Rome, metal rings were passed through the labia minora of
slaves to prevent procreation; in medieval England, metal chastity belts
were worn by women to prevent promiscuity during their husbands'
absence;
▪ Evidence from mummified bodies reveals that, in ancient Egypt, both
excision and infibulation were performed, hence Pharaonic circumcision;
▪ In tsarist Russia, as well as nineteenth-century England, France and
America, records indicate the practice of clitoridectomy.
▪ In England and America, FGM was performed on women as a "cure" for
numerous psychological ailments.

26. Worldwide Perspective

27. EDUCATION
▪ Access to education by itself is not enough to eliminate values
held by society, for such values are in most countries
transmitted into educational curricula and textbooks.
▪ Women are thus still depicted as passive and domestically
oriented, while men are depicted as dominant and as
breadwinners.
▪ Education does, however, offer the female child an improved
opportunity to be less dependent on men in later life.
▪ It increases her prospects of obtaining work outside the home.

28. EDUCATION
The average sub-Saharan African girl from a low-
income, rural household gets less than two years of
schooling and never learns to read and write, to add
and subtract, as opposed to the average sub-
Saharan African boy who fully completes primary
education.
Women make up 2/3 of the 876 million adults that
can’t read
Girls make up 2/3 of the 77 million children who
don’t attend school
When a girl in the developing world receives 7 or
more years of education, she marries 4 years later
and has 2.2 fewer children.
Why do you think that happens?

29. DROPOUT RATES
▪ The reasons for the high drop-out rate among girls are poverty, early
marriage, helping parents with housework and agricultural work,
▪ The distance of schools from homes and the high costs of schooling,
▪ Parents' illiteracy and indifference, and the lack of a positive
educational climate.
▪ Girls begin school very late and withdraw with the onset of puberty.
▪ Parents do not see the benefits of girls' education because girls are
given away in marriage to serve the husband's family.
▪ Sons are given priority. In certain countries, enrolment rates for girls
have actually declined despite attempts to increase them.

30. Recreation and work opportunities
▪ From an early age, girls from rural and poor urban homes are
burdened with domestic tasks and child care, which leaves them no
time to play.
▪ Studies have shown that recreation plays a vital part in a child's
emotional and mental development. When time for play is found by
girls, it often takes place near the home.
▪ Young boys, however, have fewer demands made of them and are
allowed to engage in activities outside the home.
▪ The status of girls is linked to that of women and their exploitation. A
woman's work never ends, especially in rural areas and in poor urban
households.

31. FEMALE INFANTICIDE
▪ Sex bias or son preference places the female child in a
disadvantageous position from birth. In some communities, however,
particularly in Asia, the practice of infanticide ensures that some
female children have no life at all, violating the basic right to life laid
down in article 6 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
▪ Selective abortion, feticide and infanticide all occur because the
female child is not valued by her culture, or because certain economic
and legislative acts have ruled her life worthless.
▪ In India, for example, infanticide was formally legislated against
during British rule, after centuries of practice in some communities.
However, recent reports have shown that there is a revival.

32. CHILD BRIDES
COUNTRY/REGION PERCENTAGE OF GIRLS
MARRIED BEFORETHE
AGE OF 18
South Asia 48%
Africa 29%
LatinAmerica and the
Caribbean
22%

33. Early marriage and dowry
▪ The practice of giving away girls for marriage at the age of 11, 12 or
13, after which they must start producing children, is prevalent
among certain ethnic groups in Asia and Africa.
▪ The principal reasons for this practice are the girls‘ virginity’ and the
bride-price.
▪ Young girls are less likely to have had sexual contact and thus are
believed to be virgins upon marriage; this condition raises the family
status as well as the dowry to be paid by the husband.
▪ In some cases, virginity is verified by female relatives before the
marriage.

34. Early marriage and dowry
▪ Child marriage robs a girl of her childhood-time necessary to develop
physically, emotionally and psychologically.
▪ In fact, early marriage inflicts great emotional stress as the young
woman is removed from her parents' home to that of her husband
and in-laws.
▪ Her husband, who will invariably be many years her senior, will have
little in common with a young teenager. It is with this strange man
that she has to develop an intimate emotional and physical
relationship.
▪ She is obliged to have intercourse, although physically she might not
be fully developed.

35. Early marriage and dowry
▪ The dowry price of a woman is her exchange value in cash, kind or any
other agreed form, such as a period of employment.
▪ This value is determined by the family of the bride-to-be and her future in-
laws. Both families must gain from the exchange.The woman's in-laws
want an extra pair of hands and children; her family desire payment which
will provide greater security for other relatives.
▪ The dowry price will be higher if the woman's virginity has been preserved,
notably through genital mutilation.
▪ In certain communities in South Asia, the low status of girls has to be
compensated for by the payment of a dowry by the parents of the girl to
the husband at the time of marriage.
▪ This has resulted in a number of dowry crimes, including mental and
physical torture, starvation, rape, and even the burning alive of women by
their husbands and/or in-laws in cases where dowry payments are not met.

36. CHILD MARRIAGE
▪ Child brides a more likely to have health problems, remain uneducated, live in poverty, and
die young. Some of the effects from child marriage include the following:
▪ Premature Pregnancy
▪ Maternal Mortality
▪ Infant Mortality
▪ Health Problems
▪ HIV/Aids
▪ Illiteracy
▪ Poverty
▪ Abuse andViolence
▪ Mental Health
▪ Isolated and Abandoned

37. Early pregnancy, nutritional taboos and
practices related to child delivery
▪ Babies of mothers younger than 18 tend to be born premature and
have low body weight; such babies are more likely to die in the first
year of life.
▪ The risk to the young mother's own health is also greater. Poor health
is common among indigent pregnant and lactating women.
▪ Although many countries have raised the legal age for marriage, this
has had little impact on traditional societies where marriage and
child-bearing confer "status" on a woman.
▪ Those who start having children early generally have more children,
at shorter intervals, than those who embark on parenthood later.

38. MATERNAL MORTALITY
▪ The devastating effects of these tragedies cannot be over-
emphasized.
▪ When mothers die during delivery, their newborns are
much more likely to die within two years; children up to the
age of ten who do not have a mother are three to ten times
more likely to die within two years than are children who
have a mother.
▪ Every year there are two million more children without a
living mother.

39. MATERNAL MORTALITY (CONT.)
▪ In other words, when mothers die, children die, and those kids who do
survive are more likely to have poor health, stunted growth, suffer from
malnutrition, and not receive immunizations.They also become greater
targets for oppression and abuse.
▪ These children will enter school later and exit school earlier than their peers
with mothers.
▪ Girls are even more affected as they are often expected to do the work
their mothers would have done. Often these girls will be married at a
younger age so as to lessen the financial burden on their families.
▪ Girls who give birth before the age of fifteen are five times more likely to
die in childbirth than mothers in their twenties. It is easy to see how a cycle
of maternal mortality is created and continued.

40. FEMALE SUICIDE IN CHINA
▪ The real oddity of the Chinese suicide epidemic is that most cases,
unlike almost anywhere else in the world, are women. In fact 56% of
all female suicides worldwide take place in China.
▪ As China holds the majority of the world’s female suicides, many
questions are raised about why this may be the case. As previously
mentioned, suicide is a greater problem in the more rural areas of
China where suicide accounts for one third of all female deaths.
▪ There seems to be a view that suicide is a legitimate means of
conveying a message or even just escaping shame. The shame that
comes with losing face and being diagnosed as mentally ill is often
enough to light the fuse, and look for a final escape.

41. “AWOMAN’S JOB IS NEVER DONE”
▪ In nearly every country, women work longer
hours than men, but are usually paid less and are
more likely to live in poverty.
▪ In subsistence economies, women spend much
of the day performing tasks to maintain the
household, such as carrying water and collecting
fuel wood.
▪ In many countries women are also responsible
for agricultural production and selling. Often
they take on paid work or entrepreneurial
enterprises as well.

42. UNPAID DOMESTICWORK
▪ Unpaid domestic work – from food
preparation to care giving – directly affects
the health and overall well being and quality
of life of children and other household
members.
▪ Poor women do more unpaid work, work
longer hours and may accept degrading
working conditions during times of crisis,
just to ensure that their families survive.

43. TASKS PERFORMED EXCLUSIVELY BYWOMEN
▪ What responsibilities do women have that
are different from men?
▪ -Child care
▪ -Domestic tasks
▪ -Farming for families
▪ -Finding water (40 billion hours are spent
by women and children every year
traveling to and from water sources)

44. WAGE DISPARITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
Women still earn less than
men in the labor market.
On average in developed
countries, women in the
wage sector earn 77% of
what men earn; in
developing countries 73%

45. Violence against women
▪ Violence against women manifest itself in many forms:
▪ Physical, verbal and emotional abuse perpetrated by male members
of the family.
▪ Rape inflicted by male relatives, friends of the family and strangers
▪ Rape practiced within the confines of the marriage relationship
▪ Sexual harassment at work
▪ Violence inflicted by older children

46. CountriesWith Highest Rape Rates
(Rate / 100,000)
▪ Lesotho 91.6
▪ Trinidad andTobago 58.4
▪ Sweden 53.2
▪ Korea 33.7
▪ New Zealand 30.9
▪ United States 28.6
▪ Belgium 26.3
▪ Zimbabwe 25.6
▪ United Kingdom 23.2

47. GENDER-BASEDVIOLENCE
Violence kills and disables as many women between the ages of
15 and 44 as cancer
Percentage of women abused by partner or formal partner
Percentage Country
71% Ethiopia
52% West Bank
30% United Kingdom
29% Canada
22% United States
21% Nicaragua
16% Cambodia

48. DOMESTICVIOLENCE IN CHINA
▪ The latest comprehensive data on domestic violence in China was
disclosed by the All ChinaWomen’s Federation in late 2011, and
suggests that nearly one in every four women in China experiences
domestic violence in her life in the forms of :
▪ verbal abuse,
▪ assault and battery,
▪ restriction of personal liberty,
▪ economic control,
▪ marital rape.

49. SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
▪ 4/5 of maternal deaths result from
complications that could have been
prevented if a skilled birthing attendant had
been present or if emergency obstetric care
had been available
▪ 1 in 3 deaths related to pregnancy and
childbirth could be avoided if effective
contraception is available to all women who
want it

50. ACCESSTO HEALTH CARE
▪ Differences in access to health care can have far-
reaching consequences.Those denied access to basic
health care may live shorter and more constrained
lives.
▪ A dramatic example of this is that inadequate access
to health care is thought to be the primary cause of
the premature deaths of 100 million "missing women"
worldwide.
▪ It is estimated (1990) that 100 million more women
would be alive today, primarily in China, South Asia
and North Africa, if women and girls had equal access
to health care and nutrition across the globe.

51. SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH -
FISTULA
▪ Main Causes: malnutrition and early pregnancies, no access to
medical care, days of obstructed labor, cultural norms
▪ Results in child’s death and mother’s loss of control of urine and feces
▪ Associated with high death rates for mother and child
▪ 100,000 new cases reported each year, estimated 2 million living with
it
▪ Treatment Options
▪ 90% success rate, $300 USD

52. MATERNAL HEALTH CARE
▪ 358,000 mothers die each year due to
pregnancy-related causes.
▪ 80% of maternal deaths could be prevented if
women had access to basic maternal and
health services.
▪ The rate of maternal mortality has dropped
only slightly, at an estimated 2.3% annual
decline, since 1990. Differences in maternal
mortality rates around the world reveal a large
divide between the developed and developing
world, where 99% of all maternal deaths occur.
Women living in the poorest countries are
nearly 300 times more likely to die from
complications of pregnancy or childbirth than
women living in industrialized countries.

53. HIV/AIDS AWARENESS
▪ 33.2 million estimated living with
HIV/AIDS
▪ 61% of people living with HIV are
women
▪ 75% of HIV infected youth in Africa
are girls

54. WOMEN AND HIV/AIDS
▪ The subordinate position that many women and girls hold within
their families, communities and societies restricts their access to
information about sexual and reproductive health and their use of
health-care services. Fear of violence makes many reluctant to be
tested or treated, and inhibits their capacity to negotiate safer sexual
practices.
▪ Women living with HIV may be marginalized, abandoned by their
families or partners, thrown out of their homes, beaten, and even
killed.They have faced forced sterilization and abortion, denial of
treatment, and disclosure of their status to partners without their
consent. Stigma prevents many from seeking even basic medical
care where violence is linked to HIV.

55. Economics of the Human Trafficking Industry

57. Did YOU know?
In 2007, the trafficking industry
generated 32 billion dollars…
That’s more than Nike, Google,
and Starbucks…
COMBINED.

58. There are an estimated
people enslaved today—
that is more than the
number of slaves seized from Africa in
of the Transatlantic slave trade.
27 million
twice
four centuries

59. The United Nations Office of Drug and Crime
define human trafficking as:
▪ “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of
persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power
or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having
control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
▪ Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the
prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced
labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or
the removal of organs” (UNODC, 2012).

60. KEY ELEMENTS:
▪ The Act (What is done)
▪ Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons
▪ The Means (How it is done)
▪ Threat or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or vulnerability, or
giving payments or benefits to a person in control of the victim
▪ The Purpose (Why it is done)
▪ For the purpose of exploitation, which includes exploiting the prostitution of others, sexual
exploitation, forced labor, slavery or similar practices and the removal of organs.
▪
(UNODC, 2012)
▪ Within the next 10 years crime experts expect human trafficking to surpass drug and arms
trafficking in its incidence, cost to human well being and profitability to criminals (Wheaton et.
al, pg. 114)

61. MARKET: LOCATIONS
▪ 1.4 million – 56% - are in Asia and the Pacific
▪ 250,000 – 10% - are in Latin America and the Caribbean
▪ 230,000 – 9.2% - are in the Middle East and Northern Africa
▪ 130,000 – 5.2% - are in sub-Saharan countries
▪ 270,000 – 10.8% - are in industrialized countries
▪ 200,000 – 8% - are in countries in transition

62. MIGRANTWOMEN
• Migrant women now account for almost 50% of
all migrants and are increasingly migrating to
find jobs as individuals, although many still
migrate as dependents.
• As women and foreigners, migrant women often
face double discrimination in the labor market.
• Their status as “dependents” often limit their
access to employment, social and health
programs

63.  It is the duty of States to modify the social and
cultural attitudes of both men and women, with a
view to eradicating customary practices based on the
idea of the inferiority or superiority of either sex or on
stereotyped roles of gender.
 Comprehensive and intensive programs of formal and
informal education, awareness raising and training
are the approach followed by some Governments,
non-governmental organizations and women's
groups.

64. WHAT’S HOLDINGWOMEN BACK?
▪ The first step to understand the challenges that women face, is to
understand how women’s lives are different from those of men.
▪ What stereotypes or cultural obstacles do women face that hold
them back?
▪ -Not strong
▪ -Should not leave the home
▪ -Not good leaders, too sensitive, too soft, too emotional

65. References
Economics of the Human Trafficking Industry 65
Brewer, D. (2012). Globalization and Human Trafficking. Retrieved from http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/trafficking/Globalization.pdf
on September 21, 2012.
COC. (2007). The Economics and Social Context of Human Trafficking. Retrieved from https://www.coc.org/files/Women%20-%20Human%20Trafficking_0.pdf
on September 24, 2012.
Chuang, J. (2006). Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing human trafficking in the global economy. Indiana Journal of Global and Legal studies: Vol. 13, Iss. 1, Article
5. Retrieved from www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1323&content=ijals on September 22, 2012.
Finckenauer, J., & Schrock, J. (2012). Human Trafficking: A growing criminal market in the U.S. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/218462.pdf
on September 22, 2012
UN.Gift. (2012). Human Trafficking: the facts. Retrieved from
http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc/labour/Forced_labour/HUMAN_TRAFFICKING_-_THE_FACTS_-_final.pdf on September 23, 2012.
UNODC. (2012). What is Human Trafficking. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/what-is-human-trafficking.html on September 22,
2012
Polaris Project. (2012). Why Trafficking Exists. Retrieved from http://www.polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/overview/why-trafficking-exists on September 22,
2012.
US Department of State. (2009). Rising Unemployment Leads to Greater Trafficking Vulnerabilities. Retrieved from
www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2009/124798.htm on September 23, 2012.
Wheaton, et. al. (2010). Economics of Human Trafficking. International Migration: 114-136. Retrieved from http://nfsacademy.org/wp-
content/uploads/2011/02/Wheaton-Economics-of-Human-Trafficking.pdf on September 21, 2012.

66. Select Bibliography
▪ Abdalla, Raqiya Haji Dualeh. Sisters in affliction; circumcision and
infibulation of women in Africa. London, Zed Press, 1982. 122 p.
Bibliography.
▪ Dorkenoo, Efua. Cutting the rose; female genital mutilation: the
practice and its prevention. London, Minority Rights Publications,
1994. 196 p. Bibliography.
▪ Hosken, Fran P.The Hosken report; genital and sexual mutilation of
females. 4th rev. ed. Lexington (Mass.),
▪ Women's International Network News, 1994. 444 p. Bibliography.

67. Select Bibliography
▪ Inter-African Committee onTraditional Practices Affecting the Health ofWomen and Children. Report on the
▪ regional seminar on traditional practices affecting the health of women and children in Africa, 6-10April
▪ 1987, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 182 p.
▪ United Nations. Economic and Social Council. Preliminary report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on
▪ violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, in accordance with
▪ Commission on Human Rights resolution 1994/45. 22 November 1994. 92 p. (E/CN.4/1995/42)
▪ . Economic and Social Council. Report of the second United Nations regional seminar on traditional practices
▪ affecting the health of women and children, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 4-8 July 1994. (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/10 and
▪ Corr.1 and Add.1 and Add.l/Corr. 1)

68. Select Bibliography
▪ ___. Economic and Social Council. Report of the United Nations seminar on
traditional practices affecting the health of women and children,
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 29 April-3 May 1991. 12 June 1991. 46 p.
(E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/48)
▪ Economic and Social Council. Report of theWorking Group on traditional
practices affecting the health
▪ of women and children. 4 February 1986. 50 p. (E/CN.4/1986/42) Economic
and Social Council. Study on traditional practices affecting the health of
women and children; final report by the Special Rapporteur, Mrs. Halima
Embarek Warzazi. 5 July 1991. 39 p. (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/6)
▪ ___. Economic and Social Council. Study on traditional practices affecting
the health of women and children; preliminary report by the Special
Rapporteur, Mrs. Halima Embarek Warzazi. 21-22 August 1989. 21 p.
(E/CN.4/Sub.2/1989/42 andAdd. 1)