1. Copyright © 2003 by TheCopyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Individual Behavior andIndividual Behavior and
DifferencesDifferences

2. 4 -4 - 22McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Study ofThe Study of
OrganizationalOrganizational
BehaviorBehavior
PsychologyPsychology
SociologySociology
Social PsychologySocial Psychology
AnthropologyAnthropology
Political SciencePolitical Science

3. 4 -4 - 33McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Behavior FrameworkIndividual Behavior Framework
The
Environment
The
Individual Behaviors Outcomes

4. 4 -4 - 44McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
To understand individual differences,To understand individual differences,
managers must:managers must:
 Observe and recognize the differencesObserve and recognize the differences
 Study variables that influence individualStudy variables that influence individual
behaviorbehavior
 Discover relationships among the variablesDiscover relationships among the variables

5. 4 -4 - 55McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Key questions to help managers focus onKey questions to help managers focus on
performance problems:performance problems:
 Does the employee have the skills and abilities toDoes the employee have the skills and abilities to
perform the job?perform the job?
 Does the employee have the necessaryDoes the employee have the necessary
resources to perform the job?resources to perform the job?
 Is the employee aware of the performanceIs the employee aware of the performance
problem?problem?
 When did the performance problem surface?When did the performance problem surface?
 How do the employee’s co-workers react to theHow do the employee’s co-workers react to the
performance problem?performance problem?
 What can I do as a manager to alleviate theWhat can I do as a manager to alleviate the
performance problem?performance problem?

6. 4 -4 - 66McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Differences: Abilities and SkillsIndividual Differences: Abilities and Skills
 AbilityAbility
 A biological or learned trait that permits aA biological or learned trait that permits a
person to do something mental or physical.person to do something mental or physical.
 SkillsSkills
 Task-related competencies.Task-related competencies.
 Job AnalysisJob Analysis
 Process of defining and studying a job inProcess of defining and studying a job in
terms of behavior and specifying educationterms of behavior and specifying education
and training needed to perform the job.and training needed to perform the job.

7. 4 -4 - 77McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Ability and IntellectAbility and Intellect
Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.

8. 4 -4 - 88McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial (occupying space) visualization
• Memory
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial (occupying space) visualization
• Memory
Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions of Intellectual Ability
Home AssignmentHome Assignment

9. 4 -4 - 99McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina,
dexterity (good physical
coordination ), strength, and
similar characteristics.

10. 4 -4 - 1010McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
Home AssignmentHome Assignment

11. 4 -4 - 1111McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Ability-Job
Fit
The Ability-The Ability-Job FitJob Fit
Employee’sEmployee’s
AbilitiesAbilities
Job’s AbilityJob’s Ability
RequirementsRequirements

12. 4 -4 - 1212McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Differences: DemographicsIndividual Differences: Demographics
GenderGender
DifferencesDifferences
Racial andRacial and
CulturalCultural
DiversityDiversity

13. 4 -4 - 1313McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Psychological VariablesIndividual Psychological Variables
PerceptionPerception
AttributionAttribution
AttitudesAttitudesPersonalityPersonality
EmotionalEmotional
IntelligenceIntelligence

14. 4 -4 - 1414McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Perception –Perception – The process byThe process by
which an individual giveswhich an individual gives
meaning to the environment.meaning to the environment.
It involves organizing andIt involves organizing and
interpreting various stimuli into ainterpreting various stimuli into a
psychological experience.psychological experience.

15. 4 -4 - 1515McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences
behavior:behavior:
 A manager believes that an employee is givenA manager believes that an employee is given
opportunities to use his judgment about how to doopportunities to use his judgment about how to do
the job, while the employee feels that he hasthe job, while the employee feels that he has
absolutely no freedom to make judgments.absolutely no freedom to make judgments.
 A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s requestA subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request
is based on what she thought she heard theis based on what she thought she heard the
supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.
 The manager considers the product sold to be ofThe manager considers the product sold to be of
high quality, but the customer making a complainthigh quality, but the customer making a complaint
feels that it’s poorly made.feels that it’s poorly made.

16. 4 -4 - 1616McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences
behavior:behavior: (continued)(continued)
 An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hardAn employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard
worker who gives good effort and by anotherworker who gives good effort and by another
colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.
 The salesperson regards his pay increase as totallyThe salesperson regards his pay increase as totally
inequitable, while the sales manager considers it ainequitable, while the sales manager considers it a
fair raise.fair raise.
 One line operator views working conditions asOne line operator views working conditions as
miserable; a co-worker right across the line regardsmiserable; a co-worker right across the line regards
working conditions as pleasant.working conditions as pleasant.

17. 4 -4 - 1717McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
AttributionAttribution
 AttributionAttribution
 The process of perceiving the causes ofThe process of perceiving the causes of
behavior and outcomes.behavior and outcomes.
 Dispositional AttributionsDispositional Attributions
 Emphasize some aspect of the individual,Emphasize some aspect of the individual,
such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.
 Situational AttributionsSituational Attributions
 Attributions that emphasize the environment’sAttributions that emphasize the environment’s
effect on behavior.effect on behavior.

18. 4 -4 - 1818McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
AttitudesAttitudes
 AttitudeAttitude –– a positive or negative feeling ora positive or negative feeling or
mental state of willingness, learned andmental state of willingness, learned and
organized through experience, that exertsorganized through experience, that exerts
specific influence on a person’s response tospecific influence on a person’s response to
people, objects, and situations.people, objects, and situations.
 AffectAffect –– the emotional segment of an attitude.the emotional segment of an attitude.
 CognitionCognition –– the perception, opinion, or beliefthe perception, opinion, or belief
segment of an attitude.segment of an attitude.
 BehaviorBehavior –– the behavior segment of an attitude.the behavior segment of an attitude.

19. 4 -4 - 1919McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Three Components of AttitudesThe Three Components of Attitudes
Work factorsWork factors ComponentsComponents ResponsesResponses
Job designJob design
Manager styleManager style
Company policiesCompany policies
TechnologyTechnology
SalarySalary
Employee benefitsEmployee benefits
AffectAffect
CognitionCognition
BehaviorBehavior
Emotional:Emotional:
Statement about likingStatement about liking
Perceptual:Perceptual:
Statement about beliefStatement about belief
Action:Action:
Statement aboutStatement about
behaviorbehavior
StimuliStimuli AttitudesAttitudes OutcomesOutcomes

20. 4 -4 - 2020McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes and Values
ValuesValues ––
The guidelines andThe guidelines and
beliefs that a personbeliefs that a person
uses when confronteduses when confronted
with a situation in whichwith a situation in which
a choice must be made.a choice must be made.

21. 4 -4 - 2121McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Basic convictions that a specific mode ofBasic convictions that a specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence ( a wayconduct or end-state of existence ( a way
of living) is personally or sociallyof living) is personally or socially
preferable (i.e., what is right & good)preferable (i.e., what is right & good)
ValuesValues

22. 4 -4 - 2222McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Types of ValuesTypes of Values
Terminal ValuesTerminal Values
Desirable end-state of existence; the goals that aDesirable end-state of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.
((Desirable End States)Desirable End States)
Instrumental ValuesInstrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achievingPreferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one`s terminal values. (one`s terminal values. (The ways/means for achievingThe ways/means for achieving
one’s terminal values)one’s terminal values)

23. 4 -4 - 2323McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Importance of ValuesImportance of Values
 Values are important to the study of OB becauseValues are important to the study of OB because
they lay the foundation for the understanding ofthey lay the foundation for the understanding of
attitudes & motivation & they influence ourattitudes & motivation & they influence our
perceptions.perceptions.
 Individuals enter an org. with preconceivedIndividuals enter an org. with preconceived
notions of what “notions of what “oughtought” & what “” & what “ought notought not” to be.” to be.
 Of course, these notions are not “Of course, these notions are not “value-freevalue-free”.”.
They contain interpretations of “They contain interpretations of “right & wrongright & wrong”.”.
 Furthermore, they imply that certain behaviors areFurthermore, they imply that certain behaviors are
preferred over others. As a result,preferred over others. As a result, values cloudvalues cloud
objectivity & rationalityobjectivity & rationality..

24. 4 -4 - 2424McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Importance of ValuesImportance of Values
 Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.
 Suppose that you enter an org. with the view thatSuppose that you enter an org. with the view that
““allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrongallocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong”.”.
 How are you going to react if you find that “How are you going to react if you find that “the org. youthe org. you
have just joined rewards seniority & not performancehave just joined rewards seniority & not performance”?”?
 You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead toYou are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to
job dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a highjob dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a high
level of effort since “level of effort since “ it is probably not going to lead toit is probably not going to lead to
more money, anywaymore money, anyway”.”.
 Would your attitudes & behavior be different if yourWould your attitudes & behavior be different if your
values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?

25. 4 -4 - 2525McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin

26. 4 -4 - 2626McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin

27. 4 -4 - 2727McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
 Power DistancePower Distance
 Individualism vs. CollectivismIndividualism vs. Collectivism
 Masculinity vs. FemininityMasculinity vs. Femininity
 Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
 Long-term and Short-termLong-term and Short-term
orientationorientation
Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s FrameworkValues across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework

28. 4 -4 - 2828McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
The Power DistanceThe Power Distance
Extent to which a society accepts that
power in institutions and organizations is
distributed unequally.
Low distance: relatively equal power
between those with status/wealth and those
without status/wealth
High distance: extremely unequal power
distribution between those with
status/wealth and those without
status/wealth

29. 4 -4 - 2929McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Individualism Vs CollectivismIndividualism Vs Collectivism
Collectivism
A tight social framework
in which people expect
others in groups of
which they are a part to
look after them and
protect them.
Individualism
The degree to which
people prefer to act as
individuals rather than
a member of groups.
Vs.

30. 4 -4 - 3030McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Masculinity Vs FaminityMasculinity Vs Faminity
Masculinity
The extent to which the
society values work roles of
achievement, power, and
control, and where
assertiveness and materialism
are also valued.
Femininity
The extent to which
there is little
differentiation
between roles for men
and women.

31. 4 -4 - 3131McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a society feels threatened
by uncertain and ambiguous situations and
have created beliefs & institutions that try to
avoid these. Countries who do not like
uncertainty tend to have high need for security
& a strong belief in experts & their knowledge.

32. 4 -4 - 3232McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
High Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like
ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them. Countries with
this dimension have a great deal of structuring of org.
activities, more written rules, less risk taking by managers,
lower labor turnover, & less ambitious employees.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind
ambiguous situations & embraces them. Such societies have
orgs. With less structuring of activities, fewer written rules,
more risk taking by managers, higher labor turnover, & more
ambitious employees. Orgs. Encourages personnel to use their
own initiative & assume responsibility for their actions

33. 4 -4 - 3333McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Long-term Vs Short- Term OrientationLong-term Vs Short- Term Orientation
Long-term Orientation
A national culture
attribute that
emphasizes the future,
thrift, and persistence.
Short-term Orientation
A national culture
attribute that emphasizes
the present and the here
and now.

34. 4 -4 - 3434McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Attitudes and JobAttitudes and Job
SatisfactionSatisfaction
Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction – The– The
attitude that workersattitude that workers
have about their jobs.have about their jobs.
It results from theirIt results from their
perception of the jobs.perception of the jobs.

35. 4 -4 - 3535McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions
1.1. Pay.Pay. The amount received and perceivedThe amount received and perceived
equity of pay.equity of pay.
2.2. Job.Job. The extent to which job tasks areThe extent to which job tasks are
considered interesting and provideconsidered interesting and provide
opportunities for learning and for acceptingopportunities for learning and for accepting
responsibility.responsibility.
3.3. Promotion Opportunities.Promotion Opportunities. The availabilityThe availability
of opportunities for advancement.of opportunities for advancement.

36. 4 -4 - 3636McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions
(continued)(continued)
4.4. Supervisor.Supervisor. The supervisor’s abilities toThe supervisor’s abilities to
demonstrate interest in and concern aboutdemonstrate interest in and concern about
employees.employees.
5.5. Co-workers.Co-workers. The extent to which co-The extent to which co-
workers are friendly, competent, andworkers are friendly, competent, and
supportive.supportive.

37. 4 -4 - 3737McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:
Three ViewsThree Views
2. Job satisfaction2. Job satisfaction
1. Job satisfaction1. Job satisfaction
3. Job satisfaction3. Job satisfaction
Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance
Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance
Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance
causescauses
is caused byis caused by
““The satisfied worker is moreThe satisfied worker is more
productive.”productive.”
““The more productive worker isThe more productive worker is
satisfied.”satisfied.”
““There is no specific direction orThere is no specific direction or
relationship.”relationship.”

38. 4 -4 - 3838McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
PersonalityPersonality
 PersonalityPersonality –– a stable set of characteristicsa stable set of characteristics
and tendencies that determineand tendencies that determine
commonalities and differences in people’scommonalities and differences in people’s
behavior.behavior.
 Personality is influenced by:Personality is influenced by:
 Hereditary factorsHereditary factors
 Cultural factorsCultural factors
 Social factorsSocial factors

39. 4 -4 - 3939McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Types
• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
Score is a combination of all four (e.g.,
ENTJ)
Personality Types
• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
Score is a combination of all four (e.g.,
ENTJ)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies
people into 1 of 16 personality types.
Home
Assignment
Home
Assignment

40. 4 -4 - 4040McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Some Major Forces Influencing PersonalitySome Major Forces Influencing Personality
TheThe
Individual’sIndividual’s
PersonalityPersonality
Cultural forcesCultural forces
Hereditary forcesHereditary forces
Family relationshipFamily relationship
forcesforces
Social class / groupSocial class / group
membership forcesmembership forces

41. 4 -4 - 4141McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by:
1.1. Buffering.Buffering. Managers can look for ways toManagers can look for ways to
absorb the risks of creative decisions madeabsorb the risks of creative decisions made
by their employees.by their employees.
2.2. Organizational time-outs.Organizational time-outs. Give peopleGive people
time off to work on a problem and allowtime off to work on a problem and allow
them to think things through.them to think things through.
3.3. Intuition.Intuition. Give half-baked orGive half-baked or
unsophisticated ideas a chance.unsophisticated ideas a chance.

42. 4 -4 - 4242McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by:
(continued)(continued)
4.4. Innovative attitudes.Innovative attitudes. Encourage everyoneEncourage everyone
to think of ways to solve problems.to think of ways to solve problems.
5.5. Innovative organizational structures.Innovative organizational structures. LetLet
employees see and interact with manyemployees see and interact with many
managers and mentors.managers and mentors.

43. 4 -4 - 4343McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract
An implied understanding ofAn implied understanding of
mutual contributions between amutual contributions between a
person and his or herperson and his or her
organization.organization.

44. 4 -4 - 4444McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from
Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees
 Job securityJob security
 No such thing as security with good chance ofNo such thing as security with good chance of
layoff or downsizing.layoff or downsizing.
 Child-care benefitsChild-care benefits
 Failing to provide adequate care and servicesFailing to provide adequate care and services
for child care during working hours on- or off-for child care during working hours on- or off-
site.site.
 Job feedbackJob feedback
 Poor attention and little effort to providePoor attention and little effort to provide
meaningful job feedback.meaningful job feedback.

45. 4 -4 - 4545McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from
Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees (continued)(continued)
 Merit-based pay raisesMerit-based pay raises
 No relationship between pay and actualNo relationship between pay and actual
performance.performance.
 Job autonomyJob autonomy
 Failure to permit the employee to have theFailure to permit the employee to have the
freedom to make job-related decisions aboutfreedom to make job-related decisions about
how to perform the job.how to perform the job.
 PromotionPromotion
 Reneging on a specific promise to provide aReneging on a specific promise to provide a
promotion for excellent performance.promotion for excellent performance.