The concept of karma, which is central in Buddhist teachings, makes it one of the key linchpins in Thai society. It becomes the motivation for people to maximise their good deeds and minimise their evil deeds. This paper explores how the concept of karma is portrayed in Thai literature, namely through three books – Four Reigns by Kukrit Pramoj (2005), The Prostitute by Kanha Surangkhanang (1994), and Khun Chang Khun Phan (1995). I give a macro picture of how karma is depicted in the books, followed by a more in-depth look of karma in four female characters – Mae Phloi, Khun Un, Wan Thong and Reun. The paper concludes by looking at how Thai society’s belief in karma has also evolved through time, as evidenced in the books.

1. Reaping What You Sow:
Looking at Karma through the lens of Thai literature
Please contact xingledout[at]gmail.com if you’d like to use any information in this paper.
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2. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
DEFINING KARMA (กรรม) 2
SNAPSHOTS OF KARMA 3
Karma as fatalism or predetermination 4
Karma as cause of ups and downs in life 6
Karma as an excuse for their behaviour 8
Karma as insurance 9
KARMA, ACTION! 10
The Good Woman 11
The Fallen Angel 13
The Reformed Villain 14
The Hidden Angel 15
CONCLUSION 16
REFERENCES 20
APPENDIX 1 21
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3. INTRODUCTION
The concept of karma, which is central in Buddhist teachings, makes it one of the
key linchpins in Thai society. It becomes the motivation for people to maximise their
good deeds and minimise their evil deeds. But interestingly, people seem to have
widely different interpretations of the concept. It is not uncommon to hear people
blame their bad karma for a spate of bad luck. Or those with a fatalistic bent might
see themselves as floating along the stream of karma, unable to change any of their
circumstances.
This paper aims to explore how the concept of karma is portrayed in Thai
literature, namely through three books – Four Reigns by Kukrit Pramoj (2005), The
Prostitute by Kanha Surangkhanang (1994), and Khun Chang Khun Phan (1995).
First, I will give a macro picture of how karma is depicted in the books, followed by a
more in-depth look of karma in four female characters – Mae Phloi, Khun Un, Wan
Thong and Reun. Finally, I conclude the paper by looking at how Thai society’s
belief in karma has also evolved through time, as evidenced in the books.
My research methodology is most unsophisticated, consisting of reading the books
a few times and flagging every explicit reference to karma. The limitation of using
translated versions for textual analysis is that there might actually have been more (or
less) references to karma in the original versions. Also as a non-Buddhist, I am aware
that my reading of the text and classification of the karma references may perhaps
come across as sacrilegious to conventional Buddhist interpretation. Perhaps a more
apt sub-title for my paper would be “A non-Buddhist’s initiation into Karma through
the lens of Thai literature”. Limitations aside, I do hope that this paper provides an
objective view of karma as seen through Thai literary works.
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4. DEFINING KARMA (กรรม)
This is not a treatise on karma but I will sketch out main tenets of the concept to
serve as a framework for the following discussion. My understanding of karma is
drawn largely from the teachings of Thailand’s foremost Buddhist scholar – Phra
Dhammapitaka (Payutto).
Etymologically, the Sanskrit word “karma” (Pali: kamma) is derived from the root
“kar” meaning “to do”, “to commit”, or “to perform”. Karma means an action, never
its result. The doctrine of karma is based on the law of cause and effect. It is the
natural law of morality which states than an intentional action will lead to a result
proportionate in nature and intensity to that intention. This is succinctly expressed in
Buddha’s statement:
“As the seed, so the fruit.
Whoever does good, receives good,
Whoever does bad, receives bad.”
Karma can be divided into two main types: kusala karma and akusala karma. The
former refers to actions which are skilful or good, specifically actions which are born
from the three kusala mūla (or roots of skill) which are non-greed, non-hatred and
non-delusion. The latter refers to actions which are not good or are evil, specifically
actions which are born from the akusala mūla (or roots of unskillfulness), which are
greed, hatred and delusion. Kusala (กุศล) and akusala (อกุศล) are conditions which arise
in the mind, introducing results initially in the mind, and from there to external
actions and physical features. The meanings of kusala and akusala therefore stress
the state, the contents and the events of mind as their basis. So kusala can be
rendered generally as “intelligent, skilful, contented, beneficial, good” or “that which
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5. removes affliction”. Akusala is defined in the opposite way. Some examples of
kusala conditions are: sati, or mindfulness; mettā (เมตตา), or goodwill; wisdom, clear
understanding of the way things are; calm, relaxation and peace; a desire to know and
act according to the truth; and gladness at the good fortune of others. Examples of
akusala conditions are: sexual desire; ill will; sloth and torpor; restlessness and
anxiety; doubt, anger, jealousy and avarice. To put it simply, kusala leads to an
increase in merit (บุญบารมี) while akusala leads to increased defilement.
SNAPSHOTS OF KARMA
Literature, as a mirror of society, is affected and influenced by how the people of
that country live. Likewise for Thai literature. The three books that will be discussed
in this paper are set in different periods, although there is a slight overlap between
Four Reigns and The Prostitute. Khun Chang Khun Phan is set in the Ayutthaya era,
Four Reigns covers 54 years from 1892 to 1946 while The Prostitute is set in the
1930s. I would like to explore how characters in these three books articulate their
belief and concept of karma.
There are altogether some 45 explicit references to karma in the three books (see
Appendix 1). For purpose of discussion, I have arbitrarily divided them into different
categories. It is possible that a quotation can fall into more than one category but I
will leave it in only one section to avoid confusion and double-counting. The most
common perception of karma, as seen through these three books, is that karma is like
a person’s fate, and people cannot do anything about it except to go along with it.
Seventeen quotations on karma are in this vein. The next most popular way of
looking at karma is through the fruit of karma. Fourteen quotations are related to the
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6. good or bad results of karma. These two perspectives seem to be the dominant way
that Thai people perceive karma.
Karma as fatalism or predetermination
From the three books, especially in Four Reigns, it can be seen that people assume
that karma alone determines whether they will marry, who they will marry, when they
will have children and so on. This is most apparent in Phloi’s life. She saw herself as
a krathong floating down the stream of karma and she never really strained or chafed
against it until her son, Ot, and Rama VIII died. Her perspective was probably shaped
by her mother who, when leaving Phloi’s father, said: “Let the course of karma take
me where it will.” (2005:9)
Phloi seemed to echo her mother when writing to Nuang after she knew of his
impending marriage, saying: “You’ll follow the course of your karma, and I mine.”
(2005:139) Even on the day that she was getting married, as much as she wanted to
turn back, she could not. She had to keep “going forward, plodding on, walking the
path her karma had built for her” (2005:209). She could not “stop the current of life
which is born of karma, destined by karma, and nourished by karma. The force of
karma was too strong for her will to prevent it.” (Mattani 1998:89). And nearing the
end of her life, karma is seen as being responsible for taking her back to her childhood
home:
“Now the course of karma is taking you back to Khlong Bang
Luang. It’s from Khlong Bang Luang that you came to live here in
the Inner Court, so it’s quite right that you should be stopping here
for a while before returning there.” – Choi was speaking to Phloi,
after the latter’s house was destroyed. (2005:622)
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7. In The Prostitute, Reun looked at her newborn daughter and saw a bleak life
ahead of her, saying: “It’s your karma to have a prostitute for a mother, a woman
cursed and despised by everyone.” (1994:107) Reun also worried that Eet will “reap
the karma without knowing of the actions of those who brought her into the world”
(1994:198).
Interestingly, although many of the characters in the book looked upon karma as
fate, Buddhist scholars would insist that this is a misunderstanding of the law of
karma. The law of karma is supposed to be different from the idea of fatalism and
predetermination. The Anguttara Nikāya mentions three views which Buddhism does
not subscribe to. The first is past-action determinism, which asserts that all
experiences in the present life are solely determined by past actions. The second is
theistic determinism, which means that all experiences and all events are due to God’s
creation and will. And the third view rejected by the Buddha is called accidentalism,
which holds that all experiences are merely manifestations of fortuitous elements,
uncaused and unconditioned. The first two views allow no room for free will, and are
fatalistic in nature. The third rejects the principle of causality. However the law of
karma states that experiences are conditioned by actions rather than being
predetermined or willed by God. It allows for a plurality of causes or conditioning
factors, including the factors of will and natural phenomena. The Buddha did not
dismiss the importance of previous karma because it does play a part in the cause and
effect process, and thus has an effect on the present in its capacity as one of the
conditioning factors. (Sunthorn 1994:122)
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8. Karma as cause of ups and downs in life
When something goes wrong, one of the first things that people blame is their bad
karma from their previous lives. This thinking is related to the above discussion on
the law of karma and how it does not predetermine life. Doctrinal (in)accuracy aside,
people are still quick to pin the blame on their past sins when misfortune strikes. I am
aware that a few of the quotations in this category would belong quite comfortably in
the above section. However, the criteria that I set for this section is that a
misfortune/fortune must have taken place and the character links it directly to karma.
On the other hand, the quotations in the previous section depict a mindset towards life
and how it is determined by karma instead of specific incidents.
In Khun Chang Khun Phan, when Debtong found her husband’s impaled body in
the forest, she did not blame the robbers. Instead she blamed his past sins:
“O, my dearest,” wailed Debtong, “what sin did you commit to
come to such a horrible end? In your previous existence, you must
have impaled fish on sticks, so now you yourself are impaled!”
(1995:56)
Wan Thong, too, subscribed to the same kind of karmic logic when Khun Chang
brought false news that Khun Phan had died in battle. Instead of blaming Khun
Chang for her husband’s summons to war in the first place, she attributed the
misfortune to her past sins:
“… Alas what sins have I committed that so much misfortune
befalls me, that my husband should leave me after two or three
days of marriage and since then I have never looked upon his
face?” (1995:166)
In Four Reigns, Phloi – who was the queen of placidity in her earlier years when
everything was going well – also began the it’s-my-karma’s-fault routine as she aged:
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9. “I’d give anything,” Phloi said, “to see my sons settled down with
wives and children – my grandchildren! Tell me, Khun Luang, what
bad deeds have I committed in my previous incarnations that I
should now have three unmarried sons on my hands and not one
grandchild?” (2005:602)
Phloi applied the same reasoning after bombs destroyed her house. Choi asked why
such a harsh punishment had to be meted out on Phloi when she had not committed
any bad deeds in her life. Phloi’s answer: “But perhaps I did in some former life.”
The most poignant moment, however, was probably when Phloi was lamenting Ot’s
death and trying to find a reason for it. What have I done to be so cruelly treated, she
asked. But there was no answer.
Herein lies the second misunderstanding of the law of karma, which stems from
the phrase “good actions bring good results; bad actions bring bad results”. Instead of
understanding the meaning as “in performing good actions, there is goodness”, they
take the meaning to be “good actions result in good things”. Also, most people tend
to take note only of how karma affects external events like prosperity, failure,
happiness, suffering (known as the lokadhamma or worldly conditions) instead of
karma’s more important effect on the mental level. This kind of thinking arises from
the confusion between the law of karma and social preference (สังคมนิยม). The phrase
“as the seed, so the fruit” explains the natural law pertaining to plants: if tamarind is
planted, you get tamarind; if grapes are planted, you get grapes. It does not speak at
all in terms of social preference, such as in “if tamarind is planted, you get money” or
“planting grapes will make you rich”, which are different stages of the process. If
you plant grapes at a time when there is high demand, you will earn a lot of money
and become rich when you sell them. But if there is an over-supply, you will have to
sell cheap and perhaps even throw some of your grapes away. Put simply, bad things
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10. sometimes happen to good people because the events in life are not entirely subject to
the law of karma. There are factors involved from other niyāma and value-systems,
especially social preference.
The best illustration, however, of the good-begets-good and bad-begets-bad
principle is probably found in The Prostitute when Khun Wichai got what was
coming to him for all his evil scams:
The bad karma he had created had turned full circle and rebounded
upon him without the need for anyone to mete out punishment.
Whether there was justice in the world or not, the divine and the
hand of the law had performed their duty by reaching out and
seizing the criminal by the throat. (1994:180)
Although this section is filled mostly with examples of how karma is the cause of
misfortunes, karma is sometimes credited for the good things in life too. A good
example is when Choi, in one sentence, sums up Phloi’s charmed life:
“But you, Phloi, have nothing to worry about. Fortune’s darling,
that’s what you are. You must have accumulated a lot of merit in
your former lives to be so well-favoured in the present one. Born
into a good family, grown up into a beautiful girl to marry a worthy
man who rose to be a Phraya thus making you a Khunying, and now
mother of a successful son.” (2005:475)
It is interesting to note that the number of unhappy quotations in this section far
outnumber the happy ones. It could be an indication that when things are going
well, people do not see a need for spiritual things. But when things fall apart
and people need a reason, they turn to spiritual explanations.
Karma as an excuse for their behaviour
This section is possibly my favourite in the whole paper and is what prompted me
to learn more about karma. In Thai literature, examples abound of how men ditch
their wives for a new love by using karma as an excuse. It seemed to me a most
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11. convenient cop-out to individual responsibility. The quotations in this category are all
from men, except the story of Grandma Jaem taking a husband for the first time at the
age of sixty. When asked by the queen why she did it, she laughingly said: “My bad
karma. My very, very bad karma.” However I would say that “karma” in this case
was used more as a joke. On the other hand, the other quotations on karma from the
men were used intentionally as an excuse for their bad behaviour.
Khun Phan is the worst of the culprits. When leaving the monkhood because he
wanted to be with Wan Thong, he told the abbot: “It must be my past sins that make
me unworthy of membership in the Holy Order.” (1995:106) Or when he chanced
upon Kaew Kiriya in Khun Chang’s house, he told her that “the merit accrued in my
past existences has brought me to your bed”. (1995:255)
Nuang in Four Reigns is no better. He fell in love with Phloi and promised to
marry her. But when he later got involved with another girl, he wrote in his letter to
Choi:
Please tell Phloi I think of her always, but ask her to forgive me. I did
not accumulate enough merit in my former life to deserve her in this
one. (2005:139)
In a follow-up letter to Phloi, he wrote about his “acceptance of what his karma had
decreed for him in this life” (2005:150). Falling in love with another girl was his
choice yet he made it sound as though it was predetermined for him and he had no
free will in making the decision.
Karma as insurance
In previous sections, we have already explored how karma can result in good or in
bad. In Four Reigns, we see yet another function of karma – as insurance against
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12. harm. When Phloi refused to evacuate to the countryside despite the heavy bombing,
Phoem supported her and “trusted to her past good deeds – her accumulated merit – to
keep her from harm” (2005:618). But to make doubly sure that no bad luck would
come away, he got her amulets that were supposed to ward off evil.
Because of their belief in karma, it becomes important for Buddhists to make
merit and accumulate good deeds. For example Wan Thong made merit by
sponsoring the recital of a chapter from Maha Chat while Choi had always been good
to old people, in the hope that by making a lot of merit that way, there would be some
kind-hearted youngster to look after her in her old age. Even Choei realised that Phloi
was making merit by taking in Un despite the latter’s shameful treatment of her in the
past.
KARMA, ACTION!
In this section, I will look at how karma is played out in the lives of four women
whom I have chosen to represent four archetypes – the Good Woman, the Fallen
Angel, the Reformed Villain, and the Hidden Angel. I will give a summary of each
character’s life and discuss the impact of karma (if any) on each of their deaths. This
would be a simplified study because the process of karma fruition is extremely
complex, a process that is beyond most people’s comprehension (Pali: acinteyya).
However, given the largely didactic nature of Thai literature, it would be interesting to
find out whether the women get what their actions deserve.
Before starting on the character analysis, it will be helpful to discuss what
constitutes a “good death” and a “bad death”. According to Buddhism, death can
occur in any one of these four ways:
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13. i. It can be due to the exhaustion of the life span assigned to beings
of that particular species. This type of death is called Ayukkhaya
ii. It can be due to the exhaustion of the karmic energy that caused the
birth of the deceased. This is called Kammakkhaya
iii. It can be due to the simultaneous exhaustion of (i) and (ii). This is
called Ubhayakkhaya
iv. It can be due to external circumstances, viz, accidents, untimely
happenings – working of natural phenomena or due to a kamma of
a previous existence not referred to in (ii). This is called
Upacchedake.
Death is given great importance in Buddhism. Hence the Tibetans have their
Book of the Dead while the Mahayana Buddhists have a list of 15 bad deaths1. From
the literature on death, a “good death” can generally be described as one where the
person dies peacefully and painlessly after fulfilling his obligations on earth, with his
loved ones by his side. On the other hand, a “bad death” is described as being full of
regrets, fears, troubles and pain.
The Good Woman
Mae Phloi was the typical ideal woman. She was obedient, gentle, sweet, pretty,
kind and even loved her enemies. Nobody had anything bad to say about her and
everybody liked her instinctively. Sadet’s parting words to Phloi before her marriage
summed up the latter’s impeccable character:
“…Looking after you has been an easy and gratifying task because
you’re so easy to teach, because you’re amenable to reason and
apply yourself diligently. Time and time again you have proven
yourself a person of steadfast nature with a strong sense of gratitude
worthy of your birth and upbringing. Your gentleness and tolerance
should stand you in good stead in your new life.” (2005:208)
1
Die of starvation or privation; Die from having been yoked, imprisoned, caned or otherwise beaten;
Die at the hands of hostile enemies; Killed in military battle; Killed by tigers, wolves, or other tough
beasts; Die from the venom of poisonous snakes, black serpents, or scorpions; Drown or be burned to
death; Poisoned to death; Killed by poisonous insects; Die of madness or insanity; Killed by landslides
or falling trees; Die of nightmares sent by evil people; Killed by deviant spirits or evil ghosts; Die of
evil illnesses that bind the body; Commit suicide
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14. Her peers also recognised her as one who must have accumulated a lot of merit in
previous lives to lead such a happy and good life in the present.
However, as Phloi grew older, her happy life started to disintegrate and she started
blaming her past sins for her present misfortune. Her husband died, the family was
split over political ideologies, her favourite son died, and her house was destroyed by
the bombs during the war. She finally died of a heart ailment. Just before she died,
she became rather distressed over the death of young Rama VIII:
She felt deeply tired and went to lie down on her bed…. But before
sleep finally came certain thoughts, confused and blurred, did flit
through some part of her mind. Had it really happened? But how
could it be? What gods or demons, what dark powers of the universe
had allowed this to come to pass? What devious course of karma?
Why did Nai Luang have to die? Why did Ot have to die? Dearest
beloved son, and sovereign…. Where are you, Khun Prem? Help me
to understand… I begin to understand a little… But I’m so tired. I’ve
lived under four reigns – lived a long time – long enough…
(2005:656)
Going by didactic conventions, Phloi should have a “good death” because she was
a good woman. Her death was not painful but her thoughts were not peaceful, laden
down by the death of her son and King Ananda. Yet right at the end, she said she
begins to understand a little of her confusion, almost like seeing the light at the end of
the tunnel. Her death is probably best classified as Ayukkhaya since she lived to the
end of her days and her life span was exhausted. I have to confess that I was a bit
surprised by the ending. Perhaps I was expecting a more fairytale-like ending.
Afterall, Phloi was the heroine and had been the good girl, so I thought she would
deserve more than losing her husband, her son and her house. But she had a good life
and she lived to the end of it.
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15. The Fallen Angel
Wan Thong, or Pimpilalai as she was formerly known, was born into a wealthy
family and brought up as a proper young lady. She was also known as the local beauty
in Suphan Buri at that time. Her “goodness” was evident from her sponsorship of the
recital of a chapter from the Maha Chat. Besides, the chapter that she sponsored was
about Queen Matsi who was a prime example of the ideal self-sacrificial woman. Wan
Thong then married Khun Phan but instead of a happily-ever-after ending, she was
soon caught in a tug-of-war between Khun Chang and Khun Phan, and was abducted
alternately by both. Meanwhile, Wan Thong begins to sense the erosion of her
goodness:
Already at my age, I have two husbands.
Very bad, very wicked, from head to toe,
Very shameful and very sad.
Even after death, my name will be notorious.
(Suwadee 1999:17)
When the scandal was brought before the king and Wan Thong could not decide
on either of them because she now sees their true nature, the king condemned as her
being worse than a prostitute because even such a “bad” woman has one man at a time
while Wan Thong wanted both husbands at the same time. She was then executed and
her name became a synonym for a woman with sexual greed and uncertainty in Thai
society.
Despite making merit when she was younger, Wan Thong still could not escape a
most gruesome death. Going by didactic convention, it was imperative that she had a
terrible ending so that women would know not to follow in her footsteps. Her death
by beheading could certainly be classified as Upacchedake and a “bad death”.
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16. The Reformed Villain
Khun Un was the proverbial evil step-sister. She made life terrible for Phloi and
her mother, causing them to leave Khlong Bang Luang. She took every opportunity
to bully Phloi and would not even show some decent charity on the day of Phloi’s
wedding, giving her only a paltry gift. Young Choei’s vehement description of her
older sister is an apt one:
“I knew she’d make you cry. She’s horrible, isn’t she? She likes
hurting people and everyday she tries to make me unhappy. I tell
you she has a demon’s heart.” (2005:71)
But pride comes before a fall and Khun Un was brought to ruin by her much-
pampered brother Khun Chit. Her partiality towards him blinded her to his faults. By
the time she realised her mistake, he had already squandered most of the family
treasures. They would have lost the family home too if Khun Un had not humbled
herself to ask Phloi for help and if Phloi had not forked out the 8,000 baht to pay off
the creditors. Khun Un then became a live-in dependant on her former victim. She
finally died of breast cancer after her spinster’s modesty prevented her from seeking
medical help earlier.
Khun Un’s death fits didactic conventions very well. On one hand, her bad
actions in the past should beget a bad result. Assuming that breast cancer was less
common in those days than now, Khun Un getting stricken by it must have seemed
like a clear sign that it was punishment. She acknowledged that herself, saying, “I’m
merely suffering for the bad action I’ve committed.” (2005:544) On the other hand,
because she had turned over a new leaf later in life, the “badness” of her death should
be mitigated. So we see how calm she was when she knew she was going to die. She
had no regrets, no anxiety and no fear. Her only concern was not to impose too great
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17. a burden on Phloi. It was also written that Khun Un must have also accumulated
enough merit because she did not have to suffer too long:
She had gone to bed one night and never woke again. There was no
trace of pain on her face that morning and she looked as though she
had been enjoying a well-earned rest. (2005:544)
On the outset, it may have seemed like a “bad death” because it was painful and her
life was cut short by disease but ultimately, she did not have to suffer for long and
ended life peacefully.
The Hidden Angel
Reun, formerly called Wahn, was tricked into the flesh trade by a scumbag called
Wichai. She later fell in love with the son of a Phraya, Khun Wit, who had promised
to take her away from the brothel and marry her. He of course forgot that promise
while she bore his child and had to go back to prostitution to feed her daughter. She
was always portrayed as the reluctant prostitute with the golden heart – gentle, sweet,
self-sacrificial, and always considerate towards others. (In fact, Reun is the
stereotypical ‘innocent’ Thai prostitute that Westerners in search of a wife hope to
meet in Patpong bars.) Reun’s character is quite similar to Phloi’s except for the
vastly different circumstances. Both are placid by nature and both have a certain
measure of inner strength under their gentle and accommodating exterior. Mae Peu-
ut’s final thoughts of Reun summed up the latter’s character:
Before, they had looked down on her as a prostitute. Now, they
saw that, even if she was a prostitute, she was purer in heart and
more single-minded than anyone they had ever met. (1994:226)
Despite the purity of her being, Reun had a pitiful ending. Her parents had died,
her best friend had died, the husband of her dreams had forgotten her and married
15

18. somebody else, she gave her daughter away and finally died of tuberculosis. It is
difficult to assess the impact of karma on how her life ended because The Prostitute
itself challenges society’s ideas of what is sin and what is virtue. By social
preference (สังคมนิยม), she is seen to be “doing bad” by engaging in sex work although
the motives for her actions were actually pure. Didactic conventions dictate that she
should not have a happy ending because she is supposed to be a “bad woman”, so her
life was cut short by disease and her death could be classified as Upacchedake. Yet
because of her virtuousness, she did not have a “bad death”. She did not die alone;
Mae Peu-ut and Nai Klin truly cared for and looked after her by that time. She did
not die with regrets or fears. Instead she died with the satisfaction and happiness that
came from seeing Khun Wit, albeit behind the curtain, for one last time. Kanha wrote:
“Her face was pale but bore the trace of a happy smile.” (1994:227) It was a peaceful
death.
CONCLUSION
This paper has shown how the law of karma is practised in Thai society as seen
through the characters in Thai literature. Despite what Buddhist scholars define as the
correct understanding of karma, it is obvious that Thai people have their own very
fixed and very prevalent ideas about it, namely, to see karma as a form of fate and
karma as the direct cause of one’s misfortune. One possible explanation for this
disparity in understanding is that the masses actually practise a form of folk
Buddhism which is slightly different from what the Buddha taught. Another probable
explanation is that while the Buddhist scholars are modern contemporary thinkers, the
characters in the three books belong to a much earlier era, where Buddhist concepts
16

19. were perhaps understood and taught differently. Indeed, Four Reigns – which serve
as a good historical chronicle of the changes in values and customs of Thai society
over 50 years – provides us with good examples of how Thai people’s belief and
perceptions of karma have changed over time.
Phloi represented the generation that looked upon karma as a person’s fate or
destiny. One had to walk in the course of one’s karma and there was no way to
change anything because everything was predetermined by karma. Contrast her
floating-down-the-stream-of-karma attitude with son An’s perspective when he broke
the news to Phloi that On has joined the soldiers in revolt against the government:
“I know you love Phi On very much, but there’s nothing you can do.
You must resign yourself to the fact that you can do nothing. He’s
old enough, and he’s responsible for his own misguided actions –
for his own karma, if you like.” (2005:485)
To An, a person’s actions are not predetermined, one has free will in making choices.
Hence one has to be responsible for one’s karma.
Another change in the belief of karma is evident in the mother-daughter
relationship between Phloi and Praphai. To Phloi, marriage and childbirth are all
dependent on karma. She would never have dreamt of divorcing Khun Prem because
she believed that it was their karma that brought them together. In the same way, the
decision to have or not have children is taken out of her hands because for all, it is all
a matter of karma:
“But there’s little choice in the matter,” Phloi said wisely. “When
it comes, it comes. Some people long to have children but have to
accept their fate and wait and wait, sometimes for years. With
others the first child comes in the first year of marriage. It’s
according to your karma.” (2005:535)
17

20. But for modern Praphai, she is not concerned with these old-fashioned ideas of
karma. If she is not happy with Khun Sewi, she can always just get a divorce, like her
elder brother. It would be her choice and not something predetermined by karma.
Also, with science and technology, it seemed like even karma can be thwarted when it
comes to having babies:
“No, Khun Mother,” she said, “not karma. It’s according to when
you plan to have it. Birth can be controlled these days,” she
explained. “Whatever your karma, you don’t need to have a baby
in the first year of marriage if you don’t want to. You can
postpone it until you’re ready to have one.” (2005:535)
Hence, Praphai represents the new educated generation which begins to question the
traditional interpretations of the law of karma
The last example of how people’s view of karma evolved over time can be seen in
a conversation between Phloi, An and Phoem, nearing the end of Phloi’s life. An had
been upset that Sewi wanted to charge him an exorbitant amount for Phloi’s heart
medication. Phoem was equally disgusted but because he was convinced of karma’s
evil-begets-evil principle, he was confident that Sewi would not be laughing and
prospering for long. Then An dropped the bombshell:
“The main thing is to prosper, to succeed. You can lie and cheat
and stab people in the back as much as you like but as long as you
do it expertly and succeed you can be sure of winning praise and
admiration, Uncle. That’s our society today.”
Phoem stared at his nephew with a mixture of impatience and
concern. “You’re saying it causes no harm to commit bad deeds.
But that can’t be!”
“Oh, it causes harm, Uncle, but not to the perpetrators of those
deeds, not to Sewi and Company. They don’t suffer the
consequences of what they do. The suffering is done by other
people. And if you think you’ll be all right because you’re honest
and sincere and kind, you’d better revise your thinking, Uncle.”
(2005:645)
18

21. This outburst from An is like the final attack on what Phoem’s generation had
always firmly believed – that those who do evil will not have a good ending. But now,
his generation is confronted with the possibility that the evildoers could actually get
away with their actions and worse still, be lauded for them. Moreover, while Thai
Buddhists usually believe that they are responsible for their own karma, Kukrit points
out here that the results of karma may affect other innocent people, and not the doers
themselves. Hence innocent people may end up suffering for another person’s bad
actions. Kukrit’s philosophy on the results of karma, which is often expounded in his
books and lectures, is that if karma had a direct effect only on the doer, there is no
need to be afraid of the evil result, if the person is willing to be responsible for it. But
as this is not the case, people should refrain from evil. To him, evil that affects other
people and causes them to suffer is a great sin.
In conclusion, while the Thai society has evolved in their understanding of the law
of karma over time, karma remains very much a cornerstone in the value system of
the Thais and is best encapsulated in Buddha’s words:
“All beings are owners of their karma
Heirs of their karma
Born of their karma
Related to their karma
Supported by their karma…”
19

22. REFERENCES
Kanha Surangkhanang (1994). The Prostitute. Translated from the Thai by David
Smyth. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
Kukrit Pramoj (2005). Four Reigns (4th ed.). Translated from the Thai by Chancham
Bunnag. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Mattani Mordara Rutnim (1988). Modern Thai Literature: The process of
modernisation and transformation of values. Bangkok: Thammasat University
Press.
P. A. Payutto (1996). Good, Evil and Beyond… Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching
(3rd ed.). Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
Prince Prem Purachatra (1995). The Story of Khun Chang Khun Phan. Bangok:
Suksapan Panit.
Sunthorn Plamintr (1994). Getting to Know Buddhism. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma
Foundation.
Suwadee T. Patana (1999) ‘Gender relations in the traditional Thai lower class
family’. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Thai Studies in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 4-8 July.
20

23. APPENDIX 1
Karma as fatalism or predetermination
Four Reigns
1. “Let the course of karma take me where it will.” Mae Phloi’s mother, when
leaving Mae Phloi’s father. (2005:9)
2. “You’ll follow the course of your karma, and I mine.” Mae Phloi on Nuang’s
impending marriage. (2005:139)
3. “Hmm, I don’t know,” Khun Sai said vaguely. “This kind of thing depends on
your karma, I suppose. Maybe it’s happened for the best,” she went on. “Life
would have been more troublesome, I’m almost sure. When you’re old, to be
without ties is better in a way. So it’s hard to decide which was responsible, my
good or my bad karma.” – discussing why Khun Sai remained single. (2005:165)
4. How she longed to do the impossible – call off the trip, turn back and retrieve all
that had ever been, but of course she kept going forward, plodding on, walking the
path her karma had built for her. – when Mae Phloi was leaving the palace to get
married. (2005:209)
5. Slowly she had recovered from the blow, adjusted to the changed shape of her
world and gone on pursuing the course of her karma. – Mae Phloi recovering from
Sadet’s death. (2005:289)
6. “I’m around my old ladies so much that I’ve become old like them. They are my
karma, my destiny. There is nothing else for me in this life.” Mae Choi on looking
after her aging mum and Khun Aunt Sai. (2005:326)
7. Phloi often gave thanks that their respective courses of karma had brought htem
together and kept them together, as permanently as could be in the impermanent
scheme of existence. (2005:445)
8. “Please don’t feel too badly, Your Highness. Let’s accept it as the result of our
karmic past,” Mae Phloi in telling Than Chai that Praphai had chosen Khun Sewi.
(2005:526)
9. “But there’s little choice in the matter,” Phloi said wisely. “When it comes, it
comes. Some people long to have children but have to accept their fate and wait
and wait, sometimes for years. With others the first child comes in the first year of
marriage. It’s according to your karma.” (2005:535)
10. “Now the course of karma is taking you back to Khlong Bang Luang. It’s from
Khlong Bang Luang that you came to live here in the Inner Court, so it’s quite
right that you should be stopping here for a while before returning there.” Choi to
Phloi, after she got bombed out of her house. (2005:622)
21

24. 11. In the past, Phloi had been able to do it – accept the death of her loved ones. Each
time she had mourned her loss, then come to terms with it. But it had been many
months now since Ot’s cremation, held in the South without her presence because
she had been too ill to travel, and she had yet to resign herself to the fact that he
was gone from this world while she, his old ailing mother, was fated to go on
living in it. Is this the course of karma? She kept putting the question to herself
whereas on previous occasions she had more or less taken the course of karma for
granted. What have I done to be so cruelly treated? What blundering unjust Power
has snatched Ot from me? She ached for him; she repeated to herself those well-
worn phrases about mortality and ached all the more. Their obvious truth failed to
solace her and she was tired of hearing other people recite them at her. All of us
were born to die. Rich or poor, young or old, death claims us all. So true, and so
meaningless where Ot was concerned. (2005:633)
12. She would recover or she would not: either way it would depend on her karma –
and the question of the disease taking its own course. – Phloi not wanting to take
the expensive medicine for her heart ailment. (2005:644)
13. Had it really happened? But how could it be? What gods or demons, what dark
powers of the universe had allowed this to come to pass? What devious course of
karma? Why did Nai Luang have to die? – Phloi. (2005:656)
.
The Prostitute
14. “… It’s your karma to have a prostitute for a mother, a woman cursed and
despised by everyone.” – Reun speaking to her newborn daughter. (1994:107)
15. Seeing that Reun was dragging up the past, Samorn quickly stopped her. “Don’t
keep talking about what’s in the past. It won’t make things any better. It’s better to
try and think of the new place we’re going to move to. There’s good and bad in
everyone’s life, depending on their karma. People can’t choose just the good
things. If they could, no one would choose to be a prostitute. I’d be a khunying
and you could be a mom, Reun.” (1994:111)
16. “It was their karma that the mother and father should die and Wahn should
become a prostitute.” – Poom, Reun’s childhood friend. (1994:170)
17. “… All I’m afraid of is that without me, the child will suffer because there’ll be
no one to look after her. She will reap the karma without knowing of the actions
of those who brought her into the world.” – Reun speaking to Khun Wit.
(1994:198)
22

25. Karma blamed for misfortune
Khun Chang Khun Phan
1. “O, my dearest,” wailed Debtong, “what sin did you commit to come to such a
horrible end? In your previous existence, you must have impaled fish on sticks, so
now you yourself are impaled!” (1995:56)
2. “… Alas what sins have I committed that so much misfortune befalls me, that my
husband should leave me after two or three days of marriage and since then I have
never looked upon his face?” – Wan Thong lamenting at Khun Chang’s false
news that Khun Phan has died. (1995:166)
3. At this moment, Wan Thong thought more than ever of Plai Kaew. “I know not
whether you are dead or alive. But, surely, if you are dead, there would have been
some evil presage. I cannot go to Ayudhya to find out for myself. As a woman, I
am unable to journey through forest and jungle where wild animals roam. Yet I
cannot go on living like this with danger so near at hand! I must die, for my past
sins have caught up with me!” (1995:187)
4. As she passed the place where Khun Chang still lay prostrate on the floor, pangs
of remorse struck her. She knelt down and embraced his feet, while tears came to
her eyes. “O, I depart from you like a kite that is cut loose and blown away by the
wind! You will wait in vain for me to return. O, your store of merit is truly
exhausted now! However much I try to wake you, you lie there still. And so you
lose a wife! How can I even let you know that Khun Phan forces me to go against
my will, for otherwise he would surely kill you as well as me. I leave you because
I must!” (1995:266)
Four Reigns
5. “My karma,” Chao Khun Father said, “it’s my karma that has brought me these
two hopeless sons.” (2005:125)
6. It showed Khun Un was capable of metta – loving compassion. But what bad
karma, what misfortune, that she had chosen to bestow her metta on the one
person who was beyond its redeeming power. – On Khun Un helping Khun Chit,
giving him another chance again and again. (2005:315)
7. Then her face twitched with pain, and when it had gone she said, “Don’t cry, Mae
Phloi. I’m merely suffering for the bad action I’ve committed.” – Khun Un to
Phloi. (2005:544)
8. “I’d give anything,” Phloi said, “to see my sons settled down with wives and
children – my grandchildren! Tell me, Khun Luang, what bad deeds have I
committed in my previous incarnations that I should now have three unmarried
sons on my hands and not one grandchild?” (2005:602)
23

26. 9. “… I still can’t get over it, Phloi. Why should this harsh punishment have been
meted out to you of all people? You’ve committed no bad action in your life – not
to my knowledge anyway.” “I don’t think I have either. But perhaps I did in some
former life, Choi.” (2005:622)
10. What have I done to be so cruelly treated? What blundering unjust Power has
snatched Ot from me? She ached for him; she repeated to herself those well-worn
phrases about mortality and ached all the more. Their obvious truth failed to
solace her and she was tired of hearing other people recite them at her. All of us
were born to die. Rich or poor, young or old, death claims us all. So true, and so
meaningless where Ot was concerned. (2005:633)
The Prostitute
11. The bad karma he had created had turned full circle and rebounded upon him
without the need for anyone to mete out punishment. Whether there was justice in
the world or not, the divine and the hand of the law had performed their duty by
reaching out and seizing the criminal by the throat. – Wichai’s arrest (1994:180)
Karma credited for good fortune
Four Reigns
1. She heard him chuckle – and knew he was pleased – and then heard his voice
saying: “Don’t feel so shy, my daughter. To marry is a normal thing, you know.
I’m glad that I have an obedient daughter. Both of us must have made enough
merit, Phloi, for you to be able to give me happiness, and for me to have lived
long enough to see you securely established.” – Chao Khun Father speaking to
Phloi. (2005:195)
2. “But you, Phloi, have nothing to worry about. Fortune’s darling, that’s what you
are. You must have accumulated a lot of merit in your former lives to be so well-
favoured in the present one. Born into a good family, grown up into a beautiful
girl to marry a worthy man who rose to be a Phraya thus making you a Khunying,
and now mother of a successful son.” (2005:475)
3. She must have also accumulated enough merit, however, for she did not have to
suffer too long. The end came a few months after that first examination. – on
Khun Un’s death. (2005:544)
24

27. Karma as excuse for bad behaviour
Khun Chang Khun Phan
1. Prostrating before the venerable one, he said: “Great sorrow has descended upon
me, my revered teacher. A fire burns within my breast, consuming my whole
being and making the yellow robe too hot for me to wear. It must be my past sins
that make me unworthy of membership in the Holy Order. I humbly beg your
permission to leave it; which, if denied, would surely lead to my destruction.”
(1995:106)
2. “You speak prettily and cleverly, my dear,” observed Khun Phan. “Each of your
sweet words strikes a responsive chord in my heart. It is a pity that you are yet
without a lover. Any man who is fortunate enough to win you and hold you in his
arms would surely attain his ultimate desire. Since there is none other, I myself
will fill the role and prove myself a lover who never tires. No, I do not say this to
deceive you, so be not dismayed. I will deliver you from bondage, even if it costs
me five catties. The merit accrued in my past existences has brought me to your
bed. Dearest, be not amazed and deny not what I seek.” – Khun Phan chancing
upon Kaew Kiriya at Khun Chang’s house. (1995:255)
Four Reigns
3. An old woman laughingly told the queen what had happened to her since their last
encounter and the queen laughed back, saying: “Well, well, taking a husband for
the first time at the age of sixty! What made you do it, Grandma Jaem?” “My bad
karma,” Grandma replied, laughing harder. “My very, very bad karma, isn’t’ that
so and may it please Your Majesty, yes?” (2005:155)
4. Please tell Phloi I think of her always, but ask her to forgive me. I did not
accumulate enough merit in my former life to deserve her in this one. – Nuang’s
letter to Choi disclosing his coming marriage. (2005:139)
5. The letter, another phleng yao, sang of his anguish at having to part with the silk,
his acceptance of what his karma had decreed for him in this life, and his hopes
for a happier encounter with her in the next one. – from Nuang to Phloi in reply.
(2005:150)
Karma as reason for good behaviour
Four Reigns
1. They climbed the steps to the balcony and, call it instinct or the result of past
karma or what you will, when she saw the boy Phloi’s heart went out to him
immediately. (2005:231)
25

28. Karma can prevent harm
Four Reigns
1. He trusted to her past good deeds – her accumulated merit – to keep her from
harm, but to make doubly sure that no bad luck would come her way he took to
providing her with every protective measure he could think of. (2005:618)
Stocking up good karma
Four Reigns
1. “Say no more, my dear Phloi. If you think I’m contemplating going outside to get
myself a husband like the others, forget it. For one thing I can’t leave Khun Aunt.
And for another I can never leave my cage, for I’m a caged bird who will perish if
you release me. I’ve always been good to the old people – made a lot of merit that
way, so I hope that in my extreme old age some kind-hearted youngster will be
ministering to me.” (2005:298)
2. “Well, Mae Phloi,” Khun Choei said before departing that day, “I do think you are
making merit and I rejoice with you. When she’s settled down I’ll come and see
her to make amends. You can count on me to help you, Phloi.” (2005:342)
Responsibility for own karma
Four Reigns
1. “I forgot to warn you,” Khun Choei said on the way back to the big house. “And
now it’s too late. Khun Chit should not have been allowed to see the gold you
gave the children. Too much temptation for him. No, I’m not exaggerating, Mae
Phloi. Don’t be shocked if your gifts turn into opium smoke within the next few
days. You’ve learned many things living in the palace, and now you’re going to
learn a few more here in your own house, like accepting the fact that your own
brother can sink so low. I can speak frankly with you. With other people I’m
ashamed even to mention his name. But I’ve stopped having anxieties about him.
I’ve become immune. It’s his own karma after all, isn’t it?” (2005:124)
2. “I know you love Phi On very much, but there’s nothing you can do. You must
resign yourself to the fact that you can do nothing. He’s old enough, and he’s
responsible for his own misguided actions – for his own karma, if you like.” – An
speaking to Phloi. (2005:485)
The Prostitute
3. “Our surroundings which are necessary for our lives force us all to commit sins
and to face sin with courage. The weak are victims of sin and they can never feel
pure in their hearts until they have paid the debt for their sin.” – Khun Wit
(1994:195)
26