2. Chapter 8 Overview: Big Questions
• What Is Thinking?
• How Do You Use Thinking?
• What Is Intelligence?
• How Is Intelligence Measured?
3. Chapter 8 Overview: Study Units
• 8.1 Thinking Is the Mental Manipulation of Representations
• 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking
• 8.3 Schemas Are the Basis of Stereotypes
• 8.4 You Use Thinking in Three Ways
• 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making
• 8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals
• 8.7 You Overcome Obstacles to Solve Problems
• 8.8 One General Factor May Underlie Intelligence
• 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence
• 8.10 Intelligence Is a Result of Genes and Environment
• 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests
• 8.12 Intelligence Is Associated with Cognitive Performance
• 8.13 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in Intelligence
4. What Is Thinking?
8.1 Thinking Is the Mental Manipulation of Representations
8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking
8.3 Schemas Are the Basis of Stereotypes
5. 8.1 Thinking Is the Mental Manipulation of Representations (1)
Thinking: The mental manipulation of representations
of information we encounter in our environments.
• Cognitive psychologists study thought and the
understanding that results from thinking.
6. 8.1 Thinking Is the Mental Manipulation of Representations (2)
Analogical and symbolic
representations
• Analogical representations:
Mental representations that
have some of the physical
characteristics of objects.
• Symbolic representations:
Abstract mental
representations that consist
of words or ideas.
7. 8.1 Thinking Is the Mental Manipulation of Representations (3)
Mental maps
• Include a combination of
analogical and symbolic
representations
o Such shortcuts are useful,
but they can sometimes
lead to errors, because we
can represent only a
limited range of
knowledge.
8. 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking (1)
Schemas allow categorization of
concepts.
• Schemas: Mental structures—
collections of ideas, prior
knowledge, and experiences—
that help organize information
and guide thought and behavior.
• Schemas are related to your
mental organization of analogical
and symbolic representations.
9. 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking (2)
When we use a schema to group things based on
shared properties, we create a category.
Concept: A mental representation of objects, events, or
relations organized around common themes.
11. 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking (4)
Model Ways of categorizing concepts Examples for the category of Sports
Prototype model • Concepts are organized in hierarchical
categories.
• The prototype is the concept that is the
most typical category member.
• Other concepts are categorized as
similar or different from the prototype
based on how many characteristics they
share with the prototype.
• In the category of Sports, the prototype
might be baseball.
• Characteristics of baseball might include
that the game uses a ball.
• Sports with shared characteristics
(basketball) are similar to the prototype.
• Sports with dissimilar characteristics
(surfing) are different from the
prototype
Exemplar model • Concepts are not organized
hierarchically.
• No single concept is the best member of
a category.
• All examples, or exemplars, of concepts
in a category equally represent the
category.
• The category of Sports is equally
represented by all exemplars in the
category (including baseball, basketball,
surfing, etc.).
Table 8.1
Models of Organizing Concepts into Categories
12. 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking (5)
Prototype model of
categorization
• Prototype model: A
way of thinking about
concepts. Within each
category, there is a
best example—a
prototype—for that
category
13. 8.2 Schemas Are the Basis of Thinking (6)
Exemplar model of
categorization
• Exemplar model: A way of
thinking about concepts. All
concepts in a category are
examples (exemplars);
together, they form the
category
14. 8.3 Schemas Are the Basis of Stereotypes
Stereotypes
• Schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of
information about people, events, or groups, based
on their membership in particular groups
15. How Do You Use Thinking?
8.4 You Use Thinking in Three Ways
8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making
8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals
8.7 You Overcome Obstacles to Solve Problems
16. 8.4 You Use Thinking in Three Ways (1)
Sometimes the terms reasoning, decision making, and
problem solving are used interchangeably, but they are
not really the same.
17. 8.4 You Use Thinking in Three Ways (2)
Reasoning
• Using information to determine if a conclusion is
valid or reasonable
o Informal reasoning: relying on opinions
o Formal reasoning: relying on logical and objective
methods
18. 8.4 You Use Thinking in Three Ways (3)
Decision making
• Attempting to select the best alternative among
several options
Problem solving
• Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
19. 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making (1)
An algorithm is a systematic set of procedures
to follow when thinking and making a
decision.
• “Rule of thumb” decisions are generally
fine—they are good enough in our daily
lives.
20. 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making (2)
Heuristic
• A shortcut (rule of thumb or informal guideline)
used to reduce the amount of thinking that is
needed to make decisions
21. 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making (3)
The availability heuristic is the tendency to make a
decision based on information that comes most easily
to mind.
The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to
place people or objects in a category if they are similar
to the concept that is the prototype.
• Can lead to faulty reasoning if we fail to take other
information into account (e.g., the base rate).
22. 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making (4)
Framing
• How information is presented
affects how that information is
perceived and influences
decisions.
23. 8.5 How You Think Biases Decision Making (5)
The paradox of choice
• When too many options are
available, especially when all
of them are attractive, we
experience conflict and
indecision.
o Maximizers try to make
the perfect choice.
o Satisficers seek to find a
“good enough” choice.
24. 8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals (1)
Subgoals
• In many cases, solving a
problem requires breaking the
task into subgoals.
o Reaching each subgoal will
result in achieving the main
goal of solving the problem.
25. 8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals (2)
Working backward
• Working backward can
be helpful when the
appropriate steps for
solving a problem are
not clear; it involves
proceeding from the goal
state to the initial state.
Analogy
• Finding an appropriate
analogy for a problem
can help achieve goals.
26. 8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals (3)
Insight
• Insight is the metaphorical
lightbulb that goes on in
your head when you
suddenly realize the
solution to a problem.
o Köhler’s experiment on
insight in chimpanzees
27. 8.6 You Solve Problems to Achieve Goals (4)
Strategy Characteristics Sample Problem Solution
Subgoals Identify the goal state and several
subgoals to be achieved.
You want to repair your car
muffler, but you dont have
enough money to pay for repairs.
To reach the goal of having
enough money for repairs, you
research the best price, cut
spending for a month, and work
more.
Working backward Begin from the goal state and
work backward to the current
state.
You want to graduate in 2 years,
but you arent sure what courses
you need to take.
You identify the credits needed to
graduate, then the credits needed
per term, then the credits needed
this term, and finally the classes
that provide the needed credits
for this term.
Analogy Identify a previously solved
problem that is similar to the
current problem.
You cook beef with broccoli, but
the broccoli ends up soggy.
You think about how, when you
put an iced coffee in your lunch
bag, your sandwich got damp.
Similarly, moisture from the beef
ruins the broccoli. Next time, you
cook the beef and broccoli
separately, then combine them.
Insight Take a break from actively
thinking about the problem, and
the answer may spontaneously
become apparent.
You have a hard time solving a
difficult calculus homework
problem.
You put the problem away. After a
while, the solution pops into your
mind, and you write the answer in
your homework.
Table 8.2
Problem Solving Strategies
28. 8.7 You Overcome Obstacles to Solve Problems (1)
Restructuring
• Thinking about a
problem in a new
way in order to solve
it
Overcoming mental sets
• Mental sets: A
tendency to
approach a problem
in the same way that
has worked in the
past, which may
make it harder to
solve.
29. 8.7 You Overcome Obstacles to Solve Problems (2)
Overcoming functional
fixedness
• Functional fixedness:
A tendency to think of
things based on their
usual functions, which
may make it harder to
solve a problem.
30. What Is Intelligence?
8.8 One General Factor May Underlie Intelligence
8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence
8.10 Intelligence is a Result of Genes and Environment
31. 8.8 One General Factor May Underlie Intelligence (1)
Intelligence
• The ability to use
knowledge to reason,
make decisions, make
sense of events, solve
problems, understand
complex ideas, learn
quickly, and adapt to
environmental challenges
32. 8.8 One General Factor May Underlie Intelligence (2)
IQ scores reveal intelligence
• Alfred Binet
o Binet-Simon Intelligence
Scale
• Intelligence quotient (IQ):
A mathematical measure of
intelligence (originally
computed by dividing a
child’s estimated mental age
by the child’s chronological
age and then multiplying this
number by 100).
33. 8.8 One General Factor May Underlie Intelligence (3)
General intelligence
• Charles Spearman
o General intelligence:
The idea that one general
factor underlies
intelligence.
 Influences important life
outcomes
34. 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence (1)
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
• Raymond Cattell
o Fluid intelligence: Intelligence
that reflects the ability to process
information, particularly in novel
or complex circumstances.
o Crystallized intelligence:
Intelligence that reflects both the
knowledge a person acquires
through experience and the
ability to use that knowledge.
35. 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence (2)
Multiple intelligences
• Howard Gardner
• Multiple intelligences: The
idea that people have many
different types of intelligence
that are independent of one
another.
o Bodily-kinesthetic
o Linguistic
o Mathematical/logical
o Spatial
o Musical
o Intrapersonal and
interpersonal
36. 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence (3)
Multiple intelligences
• Robert Sternberg
• Triarchic theory: The idea that
people have three types of
intelligence: analytical, creative,
and practical.
o Analytical intelligence is
similar to that measured by
standard intelligence tests.
o Creative intelligence involves
the ability to gain insight and
solve novel problems.
o Practical intelligence refers to
dealing with everyday tasks.
37. 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence (4)
Emotional intelligence (EI)
• Four abilities
o Managing our own emotions
o Using our emotions to guide our thoughts and
actions
o Recognizing other people’s emotions
o Understanding emotional language
38. 8.9 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence (5)
Theory Key Characteristics Example
General Intelligence • There is a single factor underlying
intelligence
• This factor tends to yield higher IQ scores
• Your high IQ score reveals that you have
high general intelligence.
Fluid and crystallized intelligence • General intelligence is made up of fluid
and crystallized intelligence
• Fluid intelligence: thinking quickly and
flexibly in novel, complex situations
• Crystallized intelligence: knowledge from
experience that is used to solve problems
• You show fluid intelligence when you
quickly and calmly think of another way
to present your data after your laptop
dies
• Your strong crystallized intelligence helps
you know the answers to crossword
puzzles
Multiple intelligences • Many intelligences are not measurable by
IQ tests
• These intelligences include musical,
bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic,
mathematical/logical, spatial,
intrapersonal, and interpersonal
• You can play any tune on your guitar after
hearing it once. You are probably high in
musical intelligence
• You show high intrapersonal intelligence
when you create a study plan based on
your study habits
Triarchic theory • There are three aspects of intelligence
• Analytical intelligence: skill in solving
problems and puzzles
• Creative intelligence: ability to think in
new and interesting ways.
• Practical intelligence: skill in dealing with
everyday tasks
• You show strong analytical intelligence by
playing chess strategically
• You show creative intelligence by being
able to survive anywhere on just a few
dollars
• You may be low in practical intelligence if
you constantly lose your car keys
Emotional intelligence • Emotional intelligence: skills in managing
emotions and recognizing them in other
people
• When you feel yourself getting angry with
your boss, you take a walk to calm down.
You likely have high emotional
intelligence.
Table 8.3
Theories of Intelligence
39. 8.10 Intelligence Is a Result of Genes and Environment (1)
Behavioral genetics
• Behavioral geneticists
study the genetic basis
of behaviors and traits
such as intelligence.
o Twin and adoption
studies
40. 8.10 Intelligence Is a Result of Genes and Environment (2)
Environmental factors
• Poor nutrition
• Prenatal factors (e.g., the
parents’ intake of drugs and
alcohol)
• Postnatal factors (e.g., family,
social class, education,
cultural beliefs, and our own
drug and alcohol use)
• An enriched environment can
aid in the development of
intelligence.
42. How Is Intelligence Measured?
8.11 Intelligence is Assessed with Psychometric Tests
8.12 Intelligence is Associated with Cognitive Performance
8.13 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in Intelligence
43. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (1)
Alfred Binet’s work in the early 1900s has formed the
basis for the development of psychometric tests that
accurately measure intelligence.
All psychometric tests have some features in common.
• Reliability: How consistently a psychometric test
produces similar results each time it is used.
• Validity: How well a psychometric test measures
what it is intended to measure.
44. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (2)
Achievement tests and aptitude tests
• Achievement test: A psychometric test that is
designed to test what knowledge and skills a person
has learned.
• Aptitude test: A psychometric test that is designed
to test a person’s ability to learn—that is, the
person’s future performance.
45. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (3)
Modern intelligence tests
• Alfred Binet developed the original intelligence test
in 1904.
• Lewis Terman developed the Stanford-Binet test in
1919 from the work of Binet.
• David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale in 1939. The first test for use with
adults, it measured two factors of intelligence.
o Verbal
o Performance
46. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (4)
Intelligence quotient
• Mental age: An assessment of a child’s intellectual
standing compared with that of same-age peers;
determined by comparing the child’s test score with
the average score for children of each chronological
age.
o Normal distribution
48. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (6)
Validity and reliability
• For psychometric tests to be
useful, they must be
standardized, they must have
reliability, and they must have
validity.
• The Miller Analogy Test
predicts not only graduate
students’ academic
performance but also
individuals’ productivity,
creativity, and job
performance in the
workplace.
49. 8.11 Intelligence Is Assessed with Psychometric Tests (7)
Cultural bias
• One important criticism of
intelligence tests is that they
may penalize people who
belong or do not belong to
particular cultures or groups.
o Most measures of IQ reflect
values of what is
considered important in
modern Western culture,
such as being quick-witted
and speaking well.
50. 8.12 Intelligence Is Associated with Cognitive Performance (1)
Speed of mental processing
• People who score lower on intelligence tests
consistently respond more slowly on tests of
reaction time than those who score higher on
intelligence tests.
o Simple reaction time
o Choice reaction time
51. 8.12 Intelligence Is Associated with Cognitive Performance (2)
Working memory and
attention
o General intelligence
scores are also closely
related to working
memory.
o The link between
working memory and
general intelligence
may be attention.
52. 8.12 Intelligence Is Associated with Cognitive Performance (3)
Savants
• Have minimal intellectual
capacities in most domains,
but at a very early age
demonstrate exceptional
ability in some “intelligent”
process
o Kim Peek, the inspiration
for the movie Rain Man
53. 8.13 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in
Intelligence (1)
The most controversial aspect of intelligence testing
over the last century has been the idea that genetics
can explain overall differences in intelligence scores
between racial groups.
• Arthur Jensen
54. 8.13 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in
Intelligence (2)
Environmental differences
• Even if there are differences in IQ score between
races, we cannot conclude that race causes the
differences so long as there are any environmental
differences between the groups.
55. 8.13 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in
Intelligence (3)
Stereotype threat
• Apprehension about
confirming negative
stereotypes related to a
person’s own group
o It has been found that
stereotyped groups
perform worse than non-
stereotyped groups when
they are being evaluated.
This effect is reversed
when the threat is
reduced, such as when an
exam is presented as
nonevaluative.
