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Research for Human Services Michael R. Perkins, MSW, LCSW, Contributing Editor This edition is adapted from a Psychology research text originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that they not receive attribution, with some material from Principles of Sociological Inquiry – Qualitative and Quantitative Methods by Amy Blackstone, University of Maine. Both published under this license: Conditions of Use FIGURE 1 IS THE SYMBOL FOR CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE THIS WORK IS RELEASED UNDER. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA This work is a derivative that is also published under that license which states: You are free to:  Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format  Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms if you follow the license terms. The terms of the license are:  Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.  NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.  ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits. Notices: You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the book which are in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation. No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Forward About This Book I did not write this book. I did contribute, rewrote parts of it, created some original material, and added sections. My role is rather amorphous. Such is the nature of an open source project like this. An open source project such as this, (when it is done properly) takes on a life of its own - which is exactly what it is supposed to do. I did adapt, edit, and transform the original works (primarily an introductory text on research for Psychology students along with some material from an introductory text on research for Sociology students) into a text for Human Services majors. This book is based on those .

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Research for Human Services Michael R. Perkins, MSW, LCSW, Contributing Editor This edition is adapted from a Psychology research text originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that they not receive attribution, with some material from Principles of Sociological Inquiry – Qualitative and Quantitative Methods by Amy Blackstone, University of Maine. Both published under this license: Conditions of Use FIGURE 1 IS THE SYMBOL FOR CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE THIS WORK IS RELEASED UNDER. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA This work is a derivative that is also published under that license which states: You are free to: — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format — remix, transform, and build upon the material
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms if you follow the license terms. The terms of the license are: — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. areAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits. Notices: You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the book which are in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation. No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Forward About This Book I did not write this book. I did contribute, rewrote parts of it, created some original material, and added sections. My role is rather amorphous. Such is the nature of an open source project like this. An open source project such as this, (when it is done properly) takes on a life of its own - which is exactly what it is supposed to do. I did adapt, edit, and transform the original works (primarily an introductory text on research for Psychology students along with some material from an introductory text on research for Sociology students) into a text for Human Services majors. This book is based on those original works. Most of the material is from the psychology text. The material from the psychology text is by an author who has requested that they not receive attribution. There is also some material from another book. The author of the other book is Amy Blackstone from the University of Maine. I am deeply indebted to both of them for the work that they did, which made this derivative possible. This was all made possible through the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US) License.
The changes I have made reflect my own view of the research process, and what I think undergraduate students in Human Services need to know. It reflects an approach developed during my first career as a Human Service practitioner, and the twenty years following that teaching an introductory research class in Social Work and Human Services. It also reflects my forays into qualitative and quantitative research over the past three decades. To that end the focus has been shifted to Human Services, and there is much less emphasis on statistics. The emphasis on this text is to assist students into becoming better consumers of quality research, rather than producers of it. I think the latter is more appropriate for graduate work, or a more advanced class specifically designed to accomplish that purpose. Open Source Earlier I mentioned open source, so what is it exactly? Probably the best place to explore the concept is www.opensource.org . They define open source software (even though in this case it applies to a book) in terms of the license granted: The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The license shall not require a royalty or other fee for such sale. Notice it says software, which is where the open source concept originated, and most notably with the development of the Linux operating system which was developed using that model. However, the same concept has been adapted for other creative endeavors including the written word. This book is open
source and released into the wild under a generous creative commons license. For more information on the philosophy and approach of open Source please see The Cathedral and the Bazaar by Eric Steven Raymond (available to read online). I am a devoted proponent of open source efforts such as Linux, Libre Office, and the growing number of textbooks that are being made available free to the public. And finally, many thanks to Rebecca Whitworth who has joined me in this project, and who made, and continues to make, many contributions. Sincerely, Michael R. Perkins, MSW LCSW http://www.opensource.org/ Table of Contents Conditions of Use ............................................................................................... .......................................... 1 Forward ............................................................................................... ............................................................. 2 About This Book ............................................................................................... ............................................ 2 Open Source ...............................................................................................
.............................................. 2 Table of Contents ............................................................................................... .............................................. 3 Preface ............................................................................................... ............................................................... I Relevance, Balance, and Accessibility ............................................................................................... .......... 1 Introduction: Human Services ............................................................................................... .......................... 2 What is Human Services? ............................................................................................... ............................. 2 A Brief History of Human Services ............................................................................................... ................ 2 Origins of Human Services in Deinstitutionalization .................................................................................... 3 .Chapter 1: Science in the Social Sciences ............................................................................................... ...... 5 Who talks more? ............................................................................................... ............................................ 6
1.1 Understanding Science ............................................................................................... ........................... 6 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 6 Science & Human Services ............................................................................................... ....................... 6 Empirically Based Research ............................................................................................... ...................... 7 The Emergence of Science and the Scientific Method ................................................................................ 7 Features of Science ............................................................................................... ................................... 7 1. Systematic Empiricism.............................................................................. ............................................ 7 2. The Scientific Approach ............................................................................................... ........................ 8 3. Public Knowledge ......................................................................................... ...... .................................. 8
Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons:................................................................ 9 Science Versus Pseudoscience ............................................................................................... .................... 9 Karl Popper ............................................................................................... .............................................. 10 The Skeptic’s Dictionary ............................................................................................... .......................... 10 1.2 Scientific Research in the Human Services ..................................................................................... .... 12 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 12 A Model of Scientific Research ............................................................................................... ................ 12 Who Conducts Scientific Research? ............................................................................................... ....... 13 The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research in the Human Services .................................................. 13 Two Categories: Basic and Applied Research
...................................................................................... 13 Summary ............................................................................................... .................................................. 14 1.3 Science and Common Sense ............................................................................................... ................ 15 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 15 Can We Rely on Common Sense?.................................................................................... ..................... 15 Some Great Myths ............................................................................................... ................................... 15 How Could We Be So Wrong? ............................................................................................... ................ 15 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 16 1.4 Science and Human Services Practice ............................................................................................... . 18 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
....................... 18 Empirically Supported Treatments ............................................................................................... .......... 18 Discussion: ............................................................................................... ............................................... 19 Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research ............................................................................................... ......... 20 2.1 Basic Concepts ............................................................................................... ...................................... 20 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 20 Variables ............................................................................................... .................................................. 20 Sampling and Measurement .......................................................................................... ..... ....................... 21 Statistical Relationships Between Variables .............................................................................................. 21 Single Variable ...............................................................................................
......................................... 21 Statistical Relationship Between Multiple Variables ............................................................................... 22 Differences Between Groups ............................................................................................... ................... 22 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables ......................................................................................... 23 Scatterplots ............................................................................................... .................................................. 23 Pearson’s r ......................................................................................... ...... ................................................... 24 Independent and Dependent Variables ............................................................................................... ... 25 Correlation and Causation ............................................................................................... ........................... 25 Directionality Problem ............................................................................................... .............................. 26 Third-Variable Problem ............................................................................................... ............................ 26
“Lots of Candy Could Lead to Violence” ............................................................................................... .. 26 Experiment ............................................................................................... ................................................... 26 Practice ............................................................................................... .................................................... 27 2.2 Generating Good Research Questions ............................................................................................... ...... 27 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 27 Finding Inspiration ............................................................................................... ....................................... 28 Informal Observations ............................................................................................... .............................. 28 Practical Problems ............................................................................................... ................................... 28 Previous Research ...............................................................................................
.................................. 28 Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions .......................................................................... 28 Evaluating Research Questions ............................................................................................... .................. 29 Interestingness........................................................................ ................................................................ 29 Does it fill a gap? ............................................................................................... ..................................... 30 Feasibility ............................................................................................... ................................................. 30 Types of Studies in the Literature................................................................................ ............................... 30 Summary ............................................................................................... .................................................. 31 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 31 2.3 Reviewing the Research Literature ............................................................................................... ....... 31
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 31 What Is the Research Literature?.............................................................................. ................................. 32 Professional Journals ............................................................................................... .............................. 32 Peer Review ............................................................................................... ............................................. 33 Scholarly Books ............................................................................................... ....................................... 33 Literature Search Strategies ............................................................................................... .................... 33 Using Other Search Techniques ............................................................................................... ............. 34 What to Search For ............................................................................................... ..................................... 34 Newer Work ............................................................................................... ............................................. 34
Reviews of the Topic and Meta-analysis ............................................................................................... . 34 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 35 Chapter 3: Research Ethics ............................................................................................... ........................... 36 3.1 Moral Foundations of Ethical Research ......................................................................................... ...... .... 36 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 36 A Framework for Thinking About Research Ethics ................................................................................ 36 Moral Principles to Consider and Who Research Affects: ..................................................................... 37 Ethical Principles ............................................................................................... ......................................... 37 Weighing Risks Against Benefits ............................................................................................... ............. 37 The Milgram Study on Obedience ...............................................................................................
............... 37 Was It Worth It? ............................................................................................... ....................................... 38 Acting Responsibly and With Integrity ............................................................................................... ..... 38 Seeking Justice: The Tuskegee Experiment .......................................................................................... 38 “They Were Betrayed” ............................................................................................... ............................. 39 Respecting People’s Rights and Dignity ............................................................................................... . 39 Unavoidable Ethical Conflict ............................................................................................... .................... 39 Practice: ............................................................................................... ....................................................... 40 3.2 From Principles to Ethics Codes .................................................................................. ............. ............... 40
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 40 Historical Overview ............................................................................................... ...................................... 41 Ethics Codes...................................................................................... ......................................................... 41 Research Ethics and Human Services ............................................................................................... ........... 42 Other Social Science Ethical Codes .................................................................................... ........... ........... 42 Research Ethics & Social Work ............................................................................................... ............... 42 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 42 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 42 3.3 Putting Ethics into Practice ............................................................................................... ....................... 43
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................ ....... ........................... 43 Know and Accept Your Ethical Responsibilities ......................................................................................... 43 Identify and Minimize Risks ............................................................................................... ......................... 43 Identify and Minimize Deception ............................................................................................... ................. 44 Weigh the Risks Against the Benefits ............................................................................................... ......... 45 Create Informed Consent and Debriefing Procedures ............................................................................... 45 Get Approval ............................................................................................... ................................................ 46 Follow Through ................................................................................ ............... ............................................ 46 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 47 Practice ...............................................................................................
........................................................ 47 Chapter 4: Theory ............................................................................................... ........................................... 48 4.1 Phenomena and Theories ............................................................................................... ......................... 49 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 49 Phenomena ............................................................................................... ................................................. 49 Some Famous Phenomena from Psychology ............................................................................................ 49 What Is a Theory? ............................................................................................... ........................................... 50 What Are Theories For? ............................................................................................... .............................. 51 Organization ............................................................................................... ................................................ 51 Occam’s Razor & Parsimony ...............................................................................................
...................... 52 Prediction ............................................................................................... ..................................................... 52 Generation of New Research ............................................................................................... ...................... 53 Multiple Theories: Competing and Complementary .................................................................................. 53 Example of Competing Theories: Where Do Multiple Personalities Come From? .................................... 53 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 54 Discussion: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 54 4.2 The Variety of Theories ............................................................................................... ............................... 55 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 55 Formality
............................................................................................... ...................................................... 55 Formal Theories ............................................................................................... .......................................... 55 Scope ............................................................................................... ........................................................... 55 Theoretical Approach ...................................................................................... ......... .................................. 56 Functional Theories ............................................................................................... ................................. 56 Mechanistic Theories ............................................................................................... ............................... 56 Stage Theories.................................................................................. ...................................................... 57 Practice: ............................................................................................... ....................................................... 58 Discussion: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 58 4.3 Using Theories in Social Research
............................................................................................... ........... 58 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 58 Theory Testing and Revision ............................................................................................... ....................... 58 Hypothetical-Deductive method ............................................................................................... ............... 59 Constructing or Choosing a Theory ............................................................................................... ............ 59 Deriving A Hypotheses ............................................................................................... ................................ 60 Evaluating and Revising Theories ............................................................................................... ............... 60 Incorporating Theory into Your Practice ............................................................................................... ...... 61 Incorporating Theory into Practice ............................................................................................... .............. 62 Practice:
............................................................................................... ....................................................... 62 Chapter 5: Measurement........................................................................... .................................................... 64 Do You Feel You Are a Person of Worth? ............................................................................................... .. 64 5.1 Understanding Clinical Measurement ............................................................................................... ... 66 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 66 What Is Measurement? ............................................................................................... ............................... 66 Constructs ............................................................................................... .................................................... 66 Aspects of the Human Personality: The Big Five .................................................................................. 67 Operational Definitions ............................................................................................... ................................ 68
Converging Operations ............................................................................................... ............................ 68 Levels of Measurement ............................................................................................... ............................... 69 Nominal Level ............................................................................................... .......................................... 69 Ordinal Level ............................................................................................... ............................................ 69 Interval Level ............................................................................................... ............................................ 69 Ratio Level ............................................................................................... ............................................... 69 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 71 5.2 Reliability and Validity of Measurement ............................................................................................... 71 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 71
Reliability ............................................................................................... ..................................................... 71 Test-Retest Reliability ............................................................................................... .................................. 72 Internal Consistency .................................................................................. ............. .................................... 72 Interrater Reliability ............................................................................................... ...................................... 73 Using Interrater Reliability ............................................................................................... ........................... 73 Validity ............................................................................................... ......................................................... 73 Face Validity ............................................................................................... ................................................ 74 How Prejudiced Are You? ............................................................................................... ........................... 74 Content Validity ............................................................................................... ........................................... 74
Criterion Validity ............................................................................................... .......................................... 74 Discriminant Validity ............................................................................... ................ .................................... 75 5.3 Practical Strategies for Clinical Measurement ......................................................................................... 77 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 77 Conceptually Defining the Construct ............................................................................................... ........... 77 Deciding on an Operational Definition ............................................................................................... ......... 77 Using an Existing Measure ............................................................................................... ...................... 77 Creating Your Own Measure ............................................................................................... ................... 78 Implementing the Measure ............................................................................................... .......................... 79 Evaluating the Measure
............................................................................................... ............................... 79 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 80 Chapter 6: Experimental Research ....................................................................................... ........ ................ 81 The Parable of the 38 Witnesses ............................................................................................... ................ 81 6.1 Experiment Basics ............................................................................................... ..................................... 82 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 82 What Is an Experiment? ............................................................................................... .............................. 82 Internal and External Validity .............................................................................................. . ....................... 82 Internal Validity ............................................................................................... ........................................ 82
External Validity ............................................................................................... ....................................... 83 Manipulation of the Independent Variable.................................................................................. ................ 84 Control of Extraneous Variables................................................................................. ................................ 84 Extraneous Variables as “Noise” ............................................................................................... ................. 85 Extraneous Variables as Confounding Variables ....................................................................................... 85 Practice ..................................................................................... .......... ........................................................ 86 6.2 Experimental Design ............................................................................................... ................................. 86 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 87 Between-Subjects Experiments ............................................................................................... .................. 87
Random Assignment ............................................................................................... ................................... 87 Block Randomization ............................................................................................... ................................... 87 Treatment and Control Conditions ............................................................................................... .............. 88 No-Treatment Control Condition & the Placebo Effect........................................................................... 88 The Powerful Placebo ............................................................................................... ................................. 90 Within-Subjects Experiments ............................................................................................... ...................... 90 Carryover Effects and Counterbalancing ............................................................................................... .... 90 Counterbalancing ............................................................................................... ........................................ 91 When 9 Is “Larger” Than 221 ............................................................................................... ...................... 91 Simultaneous Within-Subjects Designs
............................................................................................... ...... 91 Between-Subjects or Within-Subjects? ............................................................................................... ....... 92 Summary: ............................................................................................... .................................................... 92 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 93 6.3 Conducting Experiments ............................................................................................... ........................... 93 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 93 Recruiting Participants ............................................................................................... ................................. 93 The Volunteer Subject ............................................................................................... ................................. 94 Characteristics of Volunteer Participants ............................................................................................... 94 Standardizing the Procedure
............................................................................................... ....................... 94 Experimenter Gender as an Extraneous Variable ..................................................................................... 95 Experimenter Expectancy Effect ............................................................................................... ................. 95 Record Keeping ............................................................................................... ........................................... 96 Pilot Testing ............................................................................................... ................................................. 96 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 97 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 97 Chapter 7: Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... .......... 98 7.1 Overview of Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................. ................ 98
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 98 What Is Nonexperimental Research? ............................................................................................... ......... 98 When to Use Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... ... 99 Types of Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... .......... 99 Nonexperiments ............................................................................................... ........................................ 100 Correlational and Quasi-Experimental Research ................................................................................. 100 Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ............................. 100 Internal Validity Revisited ............................................................................................... .......................... 100 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 101
7.2 Correlational Research ............................................................................................... ........................... 102 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 102 What Is Correlational Research? ............................................................................................... .............. 102 Misconceptions about Correlational Research ........................................................................................ 102 Data Collection in Correlational Research ............................................................................................... 103 Naturalistic Observation ............................................................................................... ............................ 104 The Question of What will be Observed ............................................................................................... .... 104 Coding Data ............................................................................................... ........................................... 105 Archival Data ............................................................................................... ............................................. 105 Content Analysis
....................................................................................... ........ .................................... 105 Summary: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 106 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 106 7.3 Quasi-Experimental Research ............................................................................................... ................ 107 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 107 Nonequivalent Groups Design ............................................................................................... .................. 107 Pretest-Posttest Design ............................................................................................... ............................. 108 Regression to the Mean...................................................................................... .................................. 108 Spontaneous Remission ............................................................................................... ........................ 108 Does Psychotherapy Work?
............................................................................................... ...................... 108 Interrupted Time Series Design ..................................................................................... .......... ................. 109 Combination Designs ............................................................................................... ................................ 110 Quasi-Experimental Research ............................................................................................... .................. 111 7.4 Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ............................... 112 What Is Qualitative Research? ............................................................................................... .................. 112 Characteristics of Quantitative Research Methods .............................................................................. 112 Characteristics of Qualitative Methods ............................................................................................... .. 113 Origins of Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ................. 113
The Purpose of Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ....... 113 Weaknesses of Quantitative Research are Strengths of Qualitative Research .................................. 114 Thick Description ............................................................................................... ................................... 114 Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research ............................................................................. 114 Interviews ............................................................................................... ............................................... 114 Focus Groups ............................................................................................... ........................................ 114 Participant Observation .................................................................................. ............. ......................... 114 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research ............................................................................................... .... 115 Grounded Theory ............................................................................................... ................................... 115 Grounded Research in Action
............................................................................................... ............... 115 Five Themes of Postpartum Depression .............................................................................................. 116 The Quantitative-Qualitative “Debate” ............................................................................................... ....... 116 Mixed Methods and Triangulation ............................................................................................... ......... 116 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 117 Chapter 8: Survey Research ............................................................................................... ......................... 118 Why Survey Research? ............................................................................................... ............................. 118 General Social Survey ............................................................................................... ............................... 118 8.1 Survey Research: What Is It and When Should It Be Used? ............................................................ 118 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
......................... 118 Surveys are a Quantitative Method ............................................................................................... ........... 119 Exercise ............................................................................... ................ ..................................................... 119 8.2 Pros and Cons of Survey Research ............................................................................................... ........ 119 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 119 Strengths of Survey Method ............................................................................................... .................. 119 Versatility ............................................................................................... ................................................... 120 Weaknesses of Survey Method ............................................................................................... ................. 120 Validity & Surveys ............................................................................................... .................................. 121 Exercises ...............................................................................................
................................................... 121 8.3 Types of Surveys ............................................................................................... ..................................... 121 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 121 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Surveys .............................................................................................. 121 Cross-Sectional Research ............................................................................................... ..................... 122 One Problem with Cross-Sectional Surveys ........................................................................................ 122 Longitudinal Surveys ............................................................................................... ................................. 122 Trend Survey ............................................................................................... ......................................... 122 Panel Surveys ............................................................................................... ........................................ 123
Cohort Survey ............................................................................................... ............................................ 123 Table 8.1 Types of Longitudinal Surveys ............................................................................................... .. 124 Retrospective ............................................................................................... ............................................. 124 Administration ............................................................................................... ............................................ 124 Example ....................................................................................... ........ ................................................. 125 Online Delivery ............................................................................................... .......................................... 126 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 126 Exercises ............................................................................................... ................................................... 127 8.4 Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires......................................................................... ...... 128
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 128 Asking Effective Questions ............................................................................................... ........................ 128 Are the questions clear? ............................................................................................... ........................ 128 Avoiding Confusing Questions ............................................................................................... .................. 130 Double-Barreled Questions ............................................................................................... ................... 131 Social Desirability ............................................................................................... ...................................... 131 Pilot Testing ............................................................................................... ............................................... 132 Response Options ............................................................................................... ..................................... 132 Closed Ended Questions ............................................................................................... ....................... 132
Open-Ended Questions ............................................................................................... ......................... 133 Fence Sitting and Floating ............................................................................................... ......................... 133 Fence Setting ............................................................................................... ......................................... 133 Floating ............................................................................................... .................................................. 133 Using a Matrix ............................................................................................... ............................................ 133 Designing Questionnaires ............................................................................................... ......................... 135 Order of Questions: It Does Matter ............................................................................................... ...... 136 Questions of Time ............................................................................................... ..................................... 136 Pretesting & Time to Complete
............................................................................................... ................. 137 Appearance ............................................................................................... ............................................... 137 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 137 Exercises ............................................................................................... ................................................... 137 8.5 Analysis of Survey Data ............................................................................................... .......................... 138 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 138 From Completed Questionnaires to Analyzable Data .............................................................................. 138 Response Rate ............................................................................................... ...................................... 138 How to Improve Response Rate ............................................................................................... ............ 139 Have we been too concerned with high response rates? .................................................................... 139
Managing, Sorting, and Ordering Your Data ........................................................................................ 140 Using Statistical Software ............................................................................................... .......................... 140 Excel and Open Source Options ............................................................................................... ........... 140 PSPP....................................................................................... .............................................................. 140 Libre Office and Calc ............................................................................................... ............................. 140 R .......................................................................................... ..... ............................................................. 140 Specialty Commercial Software Options .............................................................................................. 141 Identifying Patterns ............................................................................................... .................................... 141 Frequency Distribution ............................................................................................... ............................... 141 Measures of Central Tendency
............................................................................................... ................. 142 The Three Measures of Central Tendency .............................................................................................. 142 Mode ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 142 Median ............................................................................................... ................................................... 142 Mean ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 142 Bivariate Analysis ............................................................................................... ...................................... 143 Contingency Tables ............................................................................................... ............................... 143 Collapsing Categories ............................................................................................... ............................ 144 Conventions ............................................................................................... ........................................... 144 Multivariate Analysis
............................................................................................... .................................. 144 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................ 144 Exercises ............................................................................................... ............................................... 145 Chapter 9 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... .................... 146 9.1 Describing Single Variables ............................................................................................... ................ 146 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 146 Descriptive statistics ............................................................................................... .................................. 146 The Distribution of a Variable ............................................................................................... .................... 146 Frequency Tables ...............................................................................................
...................................... 146 Conventions for Frequency Distribution Tables ................................................................................... 147 Histograms ............................................................................................... ................................................. 148 Distribution Shapes ............................................................................................... ................................... 149 Symmetrical or Skewed ............................................................................................... ............................. 149 Outlier ............................................................................................... .................................................... 151 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability ........................................................................................ 151 Central Tendency ............................................................................................... .................................. 151 Mean ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 151 Median ............................................................................................... ................................................... 151
MODE ............................................................................................... .................................................... 151 Bimodal ............................................................................................... .................................................. 152 Measures of Variability ............................................................................. .................. .......................... 152 Standard Deviation ............................................................................................... ................................ 153 Computing the Standard Deviation ............................................................................................... ....... 154 N or N-1? ............................................................................................... ............................................... 154 Simple Standard Deviation Problem: Step by Step ............................................................................. 154 The Standard Deviation in More Detail ............................................................................................ ... . 155 Percentile Ranks and z Scores ............................................................................................... ................. 155 Percentile Rank
................................................................................ ............... ..................................... 156 Commonly Used Terms for Specific Percentiles .................................................................................. 156 Some Examples ............................................................................................... ..................................... 156 Z Score ............................................................................................... .................................................. 157 Online Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... ...................... 157 Use of Spreadsheets for Data Management ............................................................................................ 158 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 158 Practice ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 159 9.2 Describing Statistical Relationships ............................................................................................... ........ 159 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
......................... 159 Differences Between Groups or Conditions ............................................................................................. 159 Cohen’s d ............................................................................................... ................................................... 160 Sex Differences Expressed as Cohen’s d ............................................................................................ 161 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables .......................................................................................... 161 Nonlinear Relationship ............................................................................................... ........................... 165 Limited or Restricted Range ............................................................................................... .................. 165 Chapter 10: Single-Subject Research Designs .......................................................................................... 168 LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................... ..... ......................... 168
The Single-Subject Design ............................................................................................... ........................ 168 Single-Subject Design Conventions ............................................................................................... .......... 168 The X and Y Axis ............................................................................................... ................................... 169 AB Design ............................................................................................... .............................................. 169 The ABA Design ............................................................................................... ........................................ 169 ABAB Design ............................................................................................... ......................................... 170 Multiple-Treatment Reversal Design ............................................................................................... ..... 171 Potential Problems with the Reversal Design .......................................................................................... 171 Multiple Baseline Design ............................................................................................... ....................... 171
Other Single-Subject Designs ............................................................................................... ............... 172 Data Analysis in Single-Subject Research ............................................................................................... 172 Visual Inspection ............................................................................................. .. .................................... 172 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................... ..................................... 173 Christopher: A Case History ............................................................................................... ...................... 173 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 174 Practice ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 174 RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. I Preface The research methods course, or something very much like it, is inevitably required in the Human Services curriculum. And for good reason. While the importance of
understanding research methods is usually clear to students who intend to pursue an advanced degree, I’ve long thought that those of us who teach research methods could do a better job of demonstrating to all of our students the relevance of what it is that we’re teaching. Why should students want what this class has to offer? That question is especially relevant for undergraduate students. As someone who has used both qualitative and quantitative methods, I appreciate the need not only for students to understand the relevance of research methods for themselves, but also for them to understand the relevance of both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Also, as a teacher I have learned that students will not get much from sources they perceive to be overly boring, too full of jargon, or overly technical. Altogether, my experiences as a student, researcher, and teacher shape the three overriding objectives of this text: relevance, balance, and accessibility. Relevance, Balance, and Accessibility This text emphasizes the relevance of research methods for the everyday lives of its readers: undergraduate students. The book describes how research methodology is useful for students in the multiple roles they fill: citizens in a society where findings from social research shape our laws, policies, and public life; and connections to these roles throughout and directly within the main text of the book rather than their being relegated to boxes.
Using a variety of examples, this text also aims to provide balanced coverage of qualitative and quantitative approaches. We’ll also cover some of the debates regarding the values and purposes of qualitative and quantitative research. In addition, we’ll discuss the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches. One of the most important goals of this text is to introduce you to the core principles of social research in a way that is straightforward and keeps you engaged. As such, the text reflects an emphasis on research being accessible and readable. In summary? Above all, the purpose of this textbook is to help you to become a more critical thinker, who can identify, implement, evaluate, and communicate best practices (from high quality and reliable sources) in your personal and professional life. One of the key marks of the educated person. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 2 Introduction: Human Services It is appropriate for us, no matter which Human Services class we are in at the moment, to review the definition of Human Services and our history as a profession. One of the better definitions of Human Services, can be found on Wikipedia: What is Human Services?
Human services is an interdisciplinary field with the objective of meeting human needs through an applied knowledge base, focusing on prevention as well as remediation of problems, and maintaining a commitment to improving the overall quality of life of service populations. The process involves the study of social technologies (practice methods, models, and theories), service technologies (programs, organizations, and systems), and scientific innovations that are designed to ameliorate problems and enhance the quality of life of individuals, families and communities to improve the delivery of service with better coordination, accessibility and accountability.[1] The mission of human services is to promote a practice that involves simultaneously working at all levels of society (whole-person approach) in the process of promoting the autonomy of individuals or groups, making informal or formal human services systems more efficient and effective, and advocating for positive social change within society. Human services practitioners strive to advance the autonomy of service users through civic engagement, education, health promotion and social change at all levels of society. Practitioners also engage in advocating so human systems remain accessible, integrated, efficient and effective. Human services academic programs can be readily found in colleges and universities, which award degrees at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate levels. Human services programs exist in countries all around the world. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_services on 11 July 2017.
After defining Human Services, the same page provides a brief history: A Brief History of Human Services Human services has its roots in charitable activities of religious and civic organizations that date back to the Colonial period. However, the academic discipline of human services did not start until the 1960s [during the deinstitutionalization movement]. At that time, a group of college academics started the new human services movement and began to promote the adoption of a new ideology about human service delivery and professionalism among traditional helping disciplines. [2] The movement's major goal was to make service delivery more efficient, effective, and humane. The other goals dealt with the reeducation of traditional helping professionals (interprofessional education), to have a greater appreciation of the individual as a whole person (humanistic psychology) and to be accountable to the communities they serve (postmodernism). Furthermore, professionals would learn to take responsibility at all levels of government, use systems approaches to consider human problems, and be involved in progressive social change. Traditional academic programs such as education, nursing, social work, law and medicine were resistant to the new human services movement's ideology because it appeared to challenge their professional status. Changing the traditional concept of professionalism involved rethinking consumer control and the distribution of power. The new
movement also called on human service professionals to work for social change.[3] It was proposed that the reduction of the monopolistic control of professionals could result in democratization of knowledge and would lead to professionals advocating on behalf of clients and communities against professional establishments.[4] The movement also hoped that human service delivery systems would become integrated, comprehensive, and more accessible, which would make them more humane for RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 3 service users.[5][6] Ultimately, the resistance from traditional helping professions served as the impetus for a group of educators in higher education to start the new academic discipline of human services. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_services on 11 July 2017. Origins of Human Services in Deinstitutionalization A glaring omission of the history, as outlined in Wikipedia, is why Human Services began in the first place. Deinstitutionalization was a government policy that moved mental health patients out of state-run psychiatric hospitals into federally funded community mental health centers. At least that was the theory. It
began in the 1960s due to a number of coalescing factors, but largely as a cost saving measure. The process of deinstitutionalization was always underfunded and, as we shall see later, understaffed. The result is that many people ended up homeless, or without services that would help them cope in society. Deinstitutionalization can still be seen in the criminal justice system where persons with severe mental health issues who run afoul of the law end up incarcerated. It is a major problem in prisons and jails throughout the country. As institutions were closed thousands of their inmates were released, many with no place to go, into overwhelming societies ability to care for them [7]. It was supposed to be a way to improve treatment of the mentally ill, and other persons warehoused in total institutions including children, while cutting government expenditures. A total institution is a place where people exist, cut off from mainstream society living together enclosed in a formally administered existence. The movement gained new force after the 1972 exposure of the horrible conditions under which children were warehoused in a now defunct institution called Willowbrook [8], as well as a flurry of court action which has continued over time exemplified by the Olmstead v. L.C. finding [9], which was itself an outgrowth of the Americans with Disabilities Act. In the mid-1960s a literal flood of persons was released with no place to go. This was a class of people who were ill equipped for a number of reasons to fend for themselves, who quickly overran existing services, and created a severe shortage of personnel trained to work with them using more modern, humane, and effective interventions. The profession was
created to fill that gap. 1.Herzberg, Judith T. (2015). Foundations in human services practice: A generalist perspective on individual, agency, and community (1st ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780205858255. OCLC 881181908 2. Chenault, Joann; Burnford, Fran (1978). Human services professional education: Future directions. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780070107328. OCLC 3650238. 3. Dumont, M (1970). "The changing face of professionalism". Social Policy. 1: 26–31. 4. Reiff, R. (1970). "Community psychology, community mental health and social needs: The need for a body of knowledge in community psychology". In Iscoe, Ira; Spielberger, Charles D. Community psychology: Perspectives in training and research. New York: Appleton. pp. 1–. ISBN 9780390477712. OCLC 92432. 5. Agranoff, R. (1974). "Human services administration: Service delivery, service integration, and training". In Mikulecky, Thomas J. Human services integration: a report of a special project conducted by the American Society for Public Administration. Washington, DC: American Society for Public Administration. pp. 42–51. OCLC 918115. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 4
6. Baker, F (June 1974). "From community mental health to human service ideology". American Journal of Public Health. 64 (6): 576–581. PMC 1775477 Freely accessible. PMID 4829069. doi:10.2105/ajph.64.6.576. 7. Michael J. Dear, Jennifer R. Wolch (1987) Landscapes of Despair: From Deinstitutionalization to Homelessness (Human Geography) Hardcover, Princeton University Press. 8. Rivera, Geraldo (1972). Willowbrook: A Report on How it is and Why it Doesn’t Have to Be That Way. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-71844-5. 9. Olmstead v. L.C., 527 U.S. 581 (1999): a United States Supreme Court case regarding discrimination against people with mental disabilities. The court ruled that under the Americans with Disabilities Act, persons with mental disabilities have a right to live in the community rather than in institutions if "the State's treatment professionals have determined that community placement is appropriate, the transfer from institutional care to a less restrictive setting is not opposed by the affected individual, and the placement can be reasonably accommodated, taking into account the resources available to the State and the needs of others with mental disabilities." RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 5 Chapter 1: Science in the Social Sciences
Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense-experience correspond to a logically uniform system of thought. — Albert Einstein Truth is not created. It is discovered. Science is an organized attempt to discover truth. First of all, which science are we talking about? There are three main categories. 1. Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, chemical, and biological factors of the universe) 2. Formal sciences: the study of mathematics and logic, which use an a priori, as opposed to factual, methodology) 3. Social sciences: the study of human behavior and societies. From: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science Einstein was a theoretical physicist which seems to fall mostly into the formal sciences. He did not like things that were, or at least seemed, unpredictable. Einstein was very much bothered by chaos, and tried to find a way to predict, what might in the end, be unpredictable. The social sciences are what we are interested in for this class, and in particular how that knowledge can be applied to help systems of all sizes (micro, mezzo, and macro). In other words, Human Services is looking to apply the methods and findings from social science to
improve the lives of people as individuals, in groups such as families, and in the larger social context of communities. However, all sciences have much in common. For example, chaos theory is a branch of mathematics, which is itself a science, that deals with conditions where prediction is not possible. [1] Chaotic diversity not only describes things on the quantum level (which is what Einstein was interested in), but also the human condition. Chaos theory with its origins in mathematics has implications when working with people that has only recently been realized [2] [3]. Like Einstein, we in the Human Services dislike chaos. We want to find ways of explaining, possibly even predicting, and preventing human misery. So, what is Einstein’s message? Einstein is telling us that we have a rich and imaginative sensory capability that provides us with a vast way of experiencing and interpreting our world. However, from an evolutionary standpoint, it is built for survival in the heat of the moment, rather than the cool calculation of empirical analysis which is by design a longer process. Things like intuition and instinct are certainly useful. But, we SYSTEMS THEORY – SYSTEMS ARE USUALLY MADE UP OF SMALLER COMPONENTS THAT “FIT” INSIDE THE LARGER ONES. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 6 can add science to our toolbox which is what this text is about.
With the tool of science, we can explore our world, social and physical, in a way which allows us to test our assumptions and theories about the way things are. Science helps us to increase our rational understanding of the totality of the world we live in. We have had some success. Science can not only give us theories about how people act, it can also test our assumptions as we will see in the following example of social science at work. Who talks more? Many people believe that women tend to talk more than men— with some even suggesting that this difference has a biological basis. One widely cited estimate was that women spoke 20,000 words per day on average and men only 7,000. This claim seemed plausible, but was it true? A group of psychologists led by Matias Mehl decided to find out. How did they check? They used a literature review, a powerful tool we will discuss in depth later on in the text. When they checked the literature to see if anyone had actually tried to count the daily number of words spoken by women and men, no one had. All they found were theories and assumptions, many of them culturally derived based on stereotypical beliefs about gender rather than any real science. The researchers conducted a study of their own in which a sample of 369 female and male college students wore audio recorders while they went about their day. The result? The women spoke an average of 16,215 words per day and the men spoke an average of 15,669 which was a difference of just under one percent. It was an extremely small difference that could easily be explained by chance. In an article in the journal Science, these researchers summed up their findings as follows: “We therefore conclude, on the basis of available empirical evidence,
that the widespread and highly publicized stereotype about female talkativeness is unfounded” (Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Slatcher, & Pennebaker, 2007, p. 82) [4]. Sometimes what we think is true, just isn’t so. In this case, we had a working assumption about the way things are. However, when that theory was tested it turned out not to be true. What we believe about people, and how they behave, is fundamental to effectively working with our clients. This example shows how what we believe individually or collectively can sometimes be wrong. Sometimes what we believe is inaccurate or incomplete. We should keep in mind that as professionals, whenever possible, we should act according to the best information that we have at hand. This means we need to be informed as to what science has empirically indicated. [1] Oestreicher C. (2007), Dialogues Clinical Neuroscience. 2007;9(3):279-89. [2] Chamberlain L. (Editor), Butz, M. (Editor), (1998). Clinical Chaos: A Therapist's Guide To Non-Linear Dynamics And Therapeutic Change 1st Edition, Routeledge. [3] Eenwyk, J, (2012), Clinical Chaos, Inner City Books. [4] Mehl, M. R., Vazire, S., Ramirez-Esparza, N., Slatcher, R. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2007). Are women really more talkative than men? Science, 317, 82. 1.1 Understanding Science LEARNING OBJECTIVES
eudoscience and give some examples. Science & Human Services Human Services is not a science but a profession, and an evolving one at that. As such it is interdisciplinary, drawing not just on our profession’s research, but also that of our good colleagues in such diverse disciplines as social work, anthropology, sociology, education, criminal justice, education, and nursing to name just a few. Some of those disciplines are considered to be social sciences, and some like RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 7 Human Services, are considered to be professions. However, we are all engaged in research to find the best possible methods for helping improve the human condition on practical terms. That is not to say that Human Service professionals do not engage in the research process, because we do. Human Services practice should be based on empirically based information. That means practice should be research based whenever possible. Empirically Based Research Empirically based practice is considered best practice. Whenever possible, Human Service practitioners should strive to use only those techniques, methods, and approaches in the helping process that are empirically derived.
Empirically based practice means using quality research from peer reviewed sources in your professional practice. Professional journals, online databases, and continuing education, are all ways that we can keep informed as to what is happening in our field. It also means assessing the results of your practice, and doing so in an ethical way. In summary, empirically based research is the application of empirically derived best practices into your everyday practice. That is, we have a moral imperative to use science. The Emergence of Science and the Scientific Method The Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses1" Since then, the method has expanded from the natural sciences into the social sciences to including such disciplines as anthropology, sociology, psychology, psychology and such professions as social work and Human Services. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered to be the first person to have conceptualized the scientific method, but he did so under the influence of other great minds such as his contemporary Galileo (1564- 1642), and those who came before him such as Copernicus (1473-1543). But the list goes back even
further to the likes of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, and even further back as our ancestors struggled to make this world (which is such an unpredictable and dangerous place where disasters still seem like random happenstance) into a more tolerable and predictable place to dwell. This led to the ability to make fire, create shelter, and of course finding something to eat. The rise of technologies was, in their own time, no less miraculous to them then than time travel would be to us now. Otherwise we lived brutish and short lives. Knowledge was gained slowly but accumulated over the years, handed down person-to-person through an oral tradition. The invention of writing and then printing sped up the process as it became possible to transmit knowledge across time and space. The scientific method was just one innovation but we will focus on it now as it forms the foundation for all modern research. We have a legal, moral, and ethical, responsibility to our profession, ourselves, society, and certainly our clients to do just that. What are the implications? While not all Human Service practitioners are engaged in research, all Human Service practitioners are consumers of research in their personal and professional lives. Research is based on a scientific approach to knowledge. What are the modern features of science?
Features of Science The modern scientific approach has three fundamental features (Stanovich, 2010): 1. Systematic Empiricism The first feature is systematic empiricism. Empiricism refers to learning based on observation. Scientists learn about the natural and social world systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and 1 "scientific method", Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English, 2017, retrieved 7 Nov 2017 RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 8 analyzing observations of it. A lot of what we learn and what we might know (that may or may not be true) is actually acquired haphazardly. As we will see, logical reasoning, and even creativity, play important roles in science, but scientists are unique in their insistence on checking ideas about the way the world seems to be, against more systematic observations. That is, using the practice of science rather than tradition, superstition, guessing, or any number of other ways we have of knowing. Notice, for example, that Mehl and his colleagues did not trust other people’s stereotypes or even their own informal observations. Instead, they systematically recorded, counted, and compared the number of words spoken by a large sample of women and men. Furthermore, when their systematic observations turned out to conflict with people’s stereotypes, they trusted their systematic observations.
2. The Scientific Approach Following logically from the first feature is the second feature which is the scientific approach. It is concerned with empirical questions. These are questions about the way the world actually is rather than what we think it might be, and are answered by systematic observation. The question of whether women talk more than men was a simple question that could be empirically answered but just counting. Either women really do talk more than men or they do not, and this can be determined by systematically observing how much women and men actually talk. There are many interesting and extremely important questions that are not empirically testable and that science cannot answer. Among them are questions about values—whether things are good or bad, just or unjust, or beautiful or ugly, and how the world ought to be. Although the question of whether a stereotype is accurate or inaccurate is an empirically testable one that science can answer, the question of whether it is wrong for people to hold to inaccurate stereotypes is not. Similarly, the question of whether criminal behavior has a genetic component is an empirical question, but the question of what should be done with people who commit crimes is not. Questions about permitting the death penalty, abortion, or the legalization of marijuana are ultimately moral rather than scientific issues. It is especially important for researchers in Human Services to be mindful of this distinction. 3. Public Knowledge The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge. After asking their empirical questions, making their systematic observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientists publish their work. This
usually means writing an article for publication in a professional journal, in which they put their research question in the context of previous research, describe in detail the methods they used to answer their question, and clearly present their results and conclusions. These are the kind of articles you use for your RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 9 research papers, and the kinds of articles that should be informing your practice with clients. Earlier we discussed how we progressed from an oral tradition, to the written word, and then to printing. We noted that the venerable art of printing allowed for knowledge to be transferable through time and space. It was more reliable, durable, and transportable. Knowledge was spread far and wide. We have now come to the digital age, maybe even past it, which has exponentially increased the growth of knowledge as well as the speed it is created and disseminated. While this is generally considered progress, we will soon discuss new problems which have arisen because of new communication technologies such as social media, and massive online databases. One thing that has not changed is that knowledge dies if it is not passed on, and now that is through publication in whatever form be it, print or digital. Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons: 1. Science is a social process—a large scale collaboration among many researchers distributed across
both time and space. Our current scientific knowledge of most topics is based on many different studies conducted by many different researchers who have shared their work with each other over the years. 2. Publication allows science to be self-correcting. Individual scientists understand that despite their best efforts, their methods can be flawed and their conclusions incorrect. Publication allows others in the scientific community to detect and correct these errors so that, over time, scientific knowledge increasingly reflects the way the world actually is. If the findings of a research study cannot be reproduced elsewhere, then there is a problem with the original study. The ability of scientist to replicate what others do is how scientific findings are ultimately verified. Science Versus Pseudoscience Pseudoscience refers to activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents—and may appear to be scientific at first glance—but are not. Consider the theory of biorhythms (not to be confused with sleep cycles or other biological cycles that do have a scientific basis). The idea is that people’s physical, intellectual, and emotional abilities run in cycles that begin when they are born and continue until they die. The physical cycle has a period of 23 days, the intellectual cycle a period of 33 days, and the emotional cycle a period of 28 days. So, for example, if you had the option of when to schedule an exam, you would want to schedule it for a time when your intellectual cycle will be at a high point. The theory of biorhythms has been around for more than 100 years, and you can find numerous popular books and websites about biorhythms, often containing
impressive and scientific-sounding terms like sinusoidal wave and bioelectricity. The problem with biorhythms, however, is that there is no good reason to think they exist (Hines, 1998). A set of beliefs or activities can be said to be pseudoscientific if adherents claim or imply that it is scientific but it lacks one or more of the three features of science. It might lack systematic empiricism. Either there is no relevant scientific research or, as in the case of biorhythms, there is relevant scientific research but it is ignored. It might also lack public knowledge. People who promote the beliefs or activities might claim to have conducted scientific research but never publish that research in a way that allows others to evaluate it. WOOD CUT OF AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS. 1 IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN: HTTPS://COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:PRINTER _IN_1568- CE.PNG RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 10 Karl Popper A set of beliefs and activities might also be pseudoscientific because it does not address empirical questions. The philosopher Karl Popper was especially concerned with this idea (Popper, 2002). He argued more specifically
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Research for Human Services Michael R. Perkins, MSW, LCS.docx

  • 1. Research for Human Services Michael R. Perkins, MSW, LCSW, Contributing Editor This edition is adapted from a Psychology research text originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that they not receive attribution, with some material from Principles of Sociological Inquiry – Qualitative and Quantitative Methods by Amy Blackstone, University of Maine. Both published under this license: Conditions of Use FIGURE 1 IS THE SYMBOL FOR CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE THIS WORK IS RELEASED UNDER. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA This work is a derivative that is also published under that license which states: You are free to: — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format — remix, transform, and build upon the material
  • 2. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms if you follow the license terms. The terms of the license are: — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. areAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits. Notices: You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the book which are in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation. No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
  • 3. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Forward About This Book I did not write this book. I did contribute, rewrote parts of it, created some original material, and added sections. My role is rather amorphous. Such is the nature of an open source project like this. An open source project such as this, (when it is done properly) takes on a life of its own - which is exactly what it is supposed to do. I did adapt, edit, and transform the original works (primarily an introductory text on research for Psychology students along with some material from an introductory text on research for Sociology students) into a text for Human Services majors. This book is based on those original works. Most of the material is from the psychology text. The material from the psychology text is by an author who has requested that they not receive attribution. There is also some material from another book. The author of the other book is Amy Blackstone from the University of Maine. I am deeply indebted to both of them for the work that they did, which made this derivative possible. This was all made possible through the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US) License.
  • 4. The changes I have made reflect my own view of the research process, and what I think undergraduate students in Human Services need to know. It reflects an approach developed during my first career as a Human Service practitioner, and the twenty years following that teaching an introductory research class in Social Work and Human Services. It also reflects my forays into qualitative and quantitative research over the past three decades. To that end the focus has been shifted to Human Services, and there is much less emphasis on statistics. The emphasis on this text is to assist students into becoming better consumers of quality research, rather than producers of it. I think the latter is more appropriate for graduate work, or a more advanced class specifically designed to accomplish that purpose. Open Source Earlier I mentioned open source, so what is it exactly? Probably the best place to explore the concept is www.opensource.org . They define open source software (even though in this case it applies to a book) in terms of the license granted: The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The license shall not require a royalty or other fee for such sale. Notice it says software, which is where the open source concept originated, and most notably with the development of the Linux operating system which was developed using that model. However, the same concept has been adapted for other creative endeavors including the written word. This book is open
  • 5. source and released into the wild under a generous creative commons license. For more information on the philosophy and approach of open Source please see The Cathedral and the Bazaar by Eric Steven Raymond (available to read online). I am a devoted proponent of open source efforts such as Linux, Libre Office, and the growing number of textbooks that are being made available free to the public. And finally, many thanks to Rebecca Whitworth who has joined me in this project, and who made, and continues to make, many contributions. Sincerely, Michael R. Perkins, MSW LCSW http://www.opensource.org/ Table of Contents Conditions of Use ............................................................................................... .......................................... 1 Forward ............................................................................................... ............................................................. 2 About This Book ............................................................................................... ............................................ 2 Open Source ...............................................................................................
  • 6. .............................................. 2 Table of Contents ............................................................................................... .............................................. 3 Preface ............................................................................................... ............................................................... I Relevance, Balance, and Accessibility ............................................................................................... .......... 1 Introduction: Human Services ............................................................................................... .......................... 2 What is Human Services? ............................................................................................... ............................. 2 A Brief History of Human Services ............................................................................................... ................ 2 Origins of Human Services in Deinstitutionalization .................................................................................... 3 .Chapter 1: Science in the Social Sciences ............................................................................................... ...... 5 Who talks more? ............................................................................................... ............................................ 6
  • 7. 1.1 Understanding Science ............................................................................................... ........................... 6 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 6 Science & Human Services ............................................................................................... ....................... 6 Empirically Based Research ............................................................................................... ...................... 7 The Emergence of Science and the Scientific Method ................................................................................ 7 Features of Science ............................................................................................... ................................... 7 1. Systematic Empiricism.............................................................................. ............................................ 7 2. The Scientific Approach ............................................................................................... ........................ 8 3. Public Knowledge ......................................................................................... ...... .................................. 8
  • 8. Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons:................................................................ 9 Science Versus Pseudoscience ............................................................................................... .................... 9 Karl Popper ............................................................................................... .............................................. 10 The Skeptic’s Dictionary ............................................................................................... .......................... 10 1.2 Scientific Research in the Human Services ..................................................................................... .... 12 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 12 A Model of Scientific Research ............................................................................................... ................ 12 Who Conducts Scientific Research? ............................................................................................... ....... 13 The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research in the Human Services .................................................. 13 Two Categories: Basic and Applied Research
  • 9. ...................................................................................... 13 Summary ............................................................................................... .................................................. 14 1.3 Science and Common Sense ............................................................................................... ................ 15 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 15 Can We Rely on Common Sense?.................................................................................... ..................... 15 Some Great Myths ............................................................................................... ................................... 15 How Could We Be So Wrong? ............................................................................................... ................ 15 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 16 1.4 Science and Human Services Practice ............................................................................................... . 18 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
  • 10. ....................... 18 Empirically Supported Treatments ............................................................................................... .......... 18 Discussion: ............................................................................................... ............................................... 19 Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research ............................................................................................... ......... 20 2.1 Basic Concepts ............................................................................................... ...................................... 20 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 20 Variables ............................................................................................... .................................................. 20 Sampling and Measurement .......................................................................................... ..... ....................... 21 Statistical Relationships Between Variables .............................................................................................. 21 Single Variable ...............................................................................................
  • 11. ......................................... 21 Statistical Relationship Between Multiple Variables ............................................................................... 22 Differences Between Groups ............................................................................................... ................... 22 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables ......................................................................................... 23 Scatterplots ............................................................................................... .................................................. 23 Pearson’s r ......................................................................................... ...... ................................................... 24 Independent and Dependent Variables ............................................................................................... ... 25 Correlation and Causation ............................................................................................... ........................... 25 Directionality Problem ............................................................................................... .............................. 26 Third-Variable Problem ............................................................................................... ............................ 26
  • 12. “Lots of Candy Could Lead to Violence” ............................................................................................... .. 26 Experiment ............................................................................................... ................................................... 26 Practice ............................................................................................... .................................................... 27 2.2 Generating Good Research Questions ............................................................................................... ...... 27 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 27 Finding Inspiration ............................................................................................... ....................................... 28 Informal Observations ............................................................................................... .............................. 28 Practical Problems ............................................................................................... ................................... 28 Previous Research ...............................................................................................
  • 13. .................................. 28 Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions .......................................................................... 28 Evaluating Research Questions ............................................................................................... .................. 29 Interestingness........................................................................ ................................................................ 29 Does it fill a gap? ............................................................................................... ..................................... 30 Feasibility ............................................................................................... ................................................. 30 Types of Studies in the Literature................................................................................ ............................... 30 Summary ............................................................................................... .................................................. 31 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 31 2.3 Reviewing the Research Literature ............................................................................................... ....... 31
  • 14. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 31 What Is the Research Literature?.............................................................................. ................................. 32 Professional Journals ............................................................................................... .............................. 32 Peer Review ............................................................................................... ............................................. 33 Scholarly Books ............................................................................................... ....................................... 33 Literature Search Strategies ............................................................................................... .................... 33 Using Other Search Techniques ............................................................................................... ............. 34 What to Search For ............................................................................................... ..................................... 34 Newer Work ............................................................................................... ............................................. 34
  • 15. Reviews of the Topic and Meta-analysis ............................................................................................... . 34 Practice: ............................................................................................... ................................................... 35 Chapter 3: Research Ethics ............................................................................................... ........................... 36 3.1 Moral Foundations of Ethical Research ......................................................................................... ...... .... 36 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 36 A Framework for Thinking About Research Ethics ................................................................................ 36 Moral Principles to Consider and Who Research Affects: ..................................................................... 37 Ethical Principles ............................................................................................... ......................................... 37 Weighing Risks Against Benefits ............................................................................................... ............. 37 The Milgram Study on Obedience ...............................................................................................
  • 16. ............... 37 Was It Worth It? ............................................................................................... ....................................... 38 Acting Responsibly and With Integrity ............................................................................................... ..... 38 Seeking Justice: The Tuskegee Experiment .......................................................................................... 38 “They Were Betrayed” ............................................................................................... ............................. 39 Respecting People’s Rights and Dignity ............................................................................................... . 39 Unavoidable Ethical Conflict ............................................................................................... .................... 39 Practice: ............................................................................................... ....................................................... 40 3.2 From Principles to Ethics Codes .................................................................................. ............. ............... 40
  • 17. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 40 Historical Overview ............................................................................................... ...................................... 41 Ethics Codes...................................................................................... ......................................................... 41 Research Ethics and Human Services ............................................................................................... ........... 42 Other Social Science Ethical Codes .................................................................................... ........... ........... 42 Research Ethics & Social Work ............................................................................................... ............... 42 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 42 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 42 3.3 Putting Ethics into Practice ............................................................................................... ....................... 43
  • 18. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................ ....... ........................... 43 Know and Accept Your Ethical Responsibilities ......................................................................................... 43 Identify and Minimize Risks ............................................................................................... ......................... 43 Identify and Minimize Deception ............................................................................................... ................. 44 Weigh the Risks Against the Benefits ............................................................................................... ......... 45 Create Informed Consent and Debriefing Procedures ............................................................................... 45 Get Approval ............................................................................................... ................................................ 46 Follow Through ................................................................................ ............... ............................................ 46 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 47 Practice ...............................................................................................
  • 19. ........................................................ 47 Chapter 4: Theory ............................................................................................... ........................................... 48 4.1 Phenomena and Theories ............................................................................................... ......................... 49 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 49 Phenomena ............................................................................................... ................................................. 49 Some Famous Phenomena from Psychology ............................................................................................ 49 What Is a Theory? ............................................................................................... ........................................... 50 What Are Theories For? ............................................................................................... .............................. 51 Organization ............................................................................................... ................................................ 51 Occam’s Razor & Parsimony ...............................................................................................
  • 20. ...................... 52 Prediction ............................................................................................... ..................................................... 52 Generation of New Research ............................................................................................... ...................... 53 Multiple Theories: Competing and Complementary .................................................................................. 53 Example of Competing Theories: Where Do Multiple Personalities Come From? .................................... 53 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 54 Discussion: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 54 4.2 The Variety of Theories ............................................................................................... ............................... 55 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 55 Formality
  • 21. ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 55 Formal Theories ............................................................................................... .......................................... 55 Scope ............................................................................................... ........................................................... 55 Theoretical Approach ...................................................................................... ......... .................................. 56 Functional Theories ............................................................................................... ................................. 56 Mechanistic Theories ............................................................................................... ............................... 56 Stage Theories.................................................................................. ...................................................... 57 Practice: ............................................................................................... ....................................................... 58 Discussion: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 58 4.3 Using Theories in Social Research
  • 22. ............................................................................................... ........... 58 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 58 Theory Testing and Revision ............................................................................................... ....................... 58 Hypothetical-Deductive method ............................................................................................... ............... 59 Constructing or Choosing a Theory ............................................................................................... ............ 59 Deriving A Hypotheses ............................................................................................... ................................ 60 Evaluating and Revising Theories ............................................................................................... ............... 60 Incorporating Theory into Your Practice ............................................................................................... ...... 61 Incorporating Theory into Practice ............................................................................................... .............. 62 Practice:
  • 23. ............................................................................................... ....................................................... 62 Chapter 5: Measurement........................................................................... .................................................... 64 Do You Feel You Are a Person of Worth? ............................................................................................... .. 64 5.1 Understanding Clinical Measurement ............................................................................................... ... 66 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ....................... 66 What Is Measurement? ............................................................................................... ............................... 66 Constructs ............................................................................................... .................................................... 66 Aspects of the Human Personality: The Big Five .................................................................................. 67 Operational Definitions ............................................................................................... ................................ 68
  • 24. Converging Operations ............................................................................................... ............................ 68 Levels of Measurement ............................................................................................... ............................... 69 Nominal Level ............................................................................................... .......................................... 69 Ordinal Level ............................................................................................... ............................................ 69 Interval Level ............................................................................................... ............................................ 69 Ratio Level ............................................................................................... ............................................... 69 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 71 5.2 Reliability and Validity of Measurement ............................................................................................... 71 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 71
  • 25. Reliability ............................................................................................... ..................................................... 71 Test-Retest Reliability ............................................................................................... .................................. 72 Internal Consistency .................................................................................. ............. .................................... 72 Interrater Reliability ............................................................................................... ...................................... 73 Using Interrater Reliability ............................................................................................... ........................... 73 Validity ............................................................................................... ......................................................... 73 Face Validity ............................................................................................... ................................................ 74 How Prejudiced Are You? ............................................................................................... ........................... 74 Content Validity ............................................................................................... ........................................... 74
  • 26. Criterion Validity ............................................................................................... .......................................... 74 Discriminant Validity ............................................................................... ................ .................................... 75 5.3 Practical Strategies for Clinical Measurement ......................................................................................... 77 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 77 Conceptually Defining the Construct ............................................................................................... ........... 77 Deciding on an Operational Definition ............................................................................................... ......... 77 Using an Existing Measure ............................................................................................... ...................... 77 Creating Your Own Measure ............................................................................................... ................... 78 Implementing the Measure ............................................................................................... .......................... 79 Evaluating the Measure
  • 27. ............................................................................................... ............................... 79 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 80 Chapter 6: Experimental Research ....................................................................................... ........ ................ 81 The Parable of the 38 Witnesses ............................................................................................... ................ 81 6.1 Experiment Basics ............................................................................................... ..................................... 82 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 82 What Is an Experiment? ............................................................................................... .............................. 82 Internal and External Validity .............................................................................................. . ....................... 82 Internal Validity ............................................................................................... ........................................ 82
  • 28. External Validity ............................................................................................... ....................................... 83 Manipulation of the Independent Variable.................................................................................. ................ 84 Control of Extraneous Variables................................................................................. ................................ 84 Extraneous Variables as “Noise” ............................................................................................... ................. 85 Extraneous Variables as Confounding Variables ....................................................................................... 85 Practice ..................................................................................... .......... ........................................................ 86 6.2 Experimental Design ............................................................................................... ................................. 86 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 87 Between-Subjects Experiments ............................................................................................... .................. 87
  • 29. Random Assignment ............................................................................................... ................................... 87 Block Randomization ............................................................................................... ................................... 87 Treatment and Control Conditions ............................................................................................... .............. 88 No-Treatment Control Condition & the Placebo Effect........................................................................... 88 The Powerful Placebo ............................................................................................... ................................. 90 Within-Subjects Experiments ............................................................................................... ...................... 90 Carryover Effects and Counterbalancing ............................................................................................... .... 90 Counterbalancing ............................................................................................... ........................................ 91 When 9 Is “Larger” Than 221 ............................................................................................... ...................... 91 Simultaneous Within-Subjects Designs
  • 30. ............................................................................................... ...... 91 Between-Subjects or Within-Subjects? ............................................................................................... ....... 92 Summary: ............................................................................................... .................................................... 92 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 93 6.3 Conducting Experiments ............................................................................................... ........................... 93 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 93 Recruiting Participants ............................................................................................... ................................. 93 The Volunteer Subject ............................................................................................... ................................. 94 Characteristics of Volunteer Participants ............................................................................................... 94 Standardizing the Procedure
  • 31. ............................................................................................... ....................... 94 Experimenter Gender as an Extraneous Variable ..................................................................................... 95 Experimenter Expectancy Effect ............................................................................................... ................. 95 Record Keeping ............................................................................................... ........................................... 96 Pilot Testing ............................................................................................... ................................................. 96 Practice ............................................................................................... ........................................................ 97 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................... 97 Chapter 7: Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... .......... 98 7.1 Overview of Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................. ................ 98
  • 32. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ........................... 98 What Is Nonexperimental Research? ............................................................................................... ......... 98 When to Use Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... ... 99 Types of Nonexperimental Research ............................................................................................... .......... 99 Nonexperiments ............................................................................................... ........................................ 100 Correlational and Quasi-Experimental Research ................................................................................. 100 Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ............................. 100 Internal Validity Revisited ............................................................................................... .......................... 100 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 101
  • 33. 7.2 Correlational Research ............................................................................................... ........................... 102 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 102 What Is Correlational Research? ............................................................................................... .............. 102 Misconceptions about Correlational Research ........................................................................................ 102 Data Collection in Correlational Research ............................................................................................... 103 Naturalistic Observation ............................................................................................... ............................ 104 The Question of What will be Observed ............................................................................................... .... 104 Coding Data ............................................................................................... ........................................... 105 Archival Data ............................................................................................... ............................................. 105 Content Analysis
  • 34. ....................................................................................... ........ .................................... 105 Summary: ............................................................................................... .................................................. 106 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 106 7.3 Quasi-Experimental Research ............................................................................................... ................ 107 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 107 Nonequivalent Groups Design ............................................................................................... .................. 107 Pretest-Posttest Design ............................................................................................... ............................. 108 Regression to the Mean...................................................................................... .................................. 108 Spontaneous Remission ............................................................................................... ........................ 108 Does Psychotherapy Work?
  • 35. ............................................................................................... ...................... 108 Interrupted Time Series Design ..................................................................................... .......... ................. 109 Combination Designs ............................................................................................... ................................ 110 Quasi-Experimental Research ............................................................................................... .................. 111 7.4 Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ............................... 112 What Is Qualitative Research? ............................................................................................... .................. 112 Characteristics of Quantitative Research Methods .............................................................................. 112 Characteristics of Qualitative Methods ............................................................................................... .. 113 Origins of Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ................. 113
  • 36. The Purpose of Qualitative Research ............................................................................................... ....... 113 Weaknesses of Quantitative Research are Strengths of Qualitative Research .................................. 114 Thick Description ............................................................................................... ................................... 114 Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research ............................................................................. 114 Interviews ............................................................................................... ............................................... 114 Focus Groups ............................................................................................... ........................................ 114 Participant Observation .................................................................................. ............. ......................... 114 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research ............................................................................................... .... 115 Grounded Theory ............................................................................................... ................................... 115 Grounded Research in Action
  • 37. ............................................................................................... ............... 115 Five Themes of Postpartum Depression .............................................................................................. 116 The Quantitative-Qualitative “Debate” ............................................................................................... ....... 116 Mixed Methods and Triangulation ............................................................................................... ......... 116 Discussion ............................................................................................... ................................................. 117 Chapter 8: Survey Research ............................................................................................... ......................... 118 Why Survey Research? ............................................................................................... ............................. 118 General Social Survey ............................................................................................... ............................... 118 8.1 Survey Research: What Is It and When Should It Be Used? ............................................................ 118 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
  • 38. ......................... 118 Surveys are a Quantitative Method ............................................................................................... ........... 119 Exercise ............................................................................... ................ ..................................................... 119 8.2 Pros and Cons of Survey Research ............................................................................................... ........ 119 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 119 Strengths of Survey Method ............................................................................................... .................. 119 Versatility ............................................................................................... ................................................... 120 Weaknesses of Survey Method ............................................................................................... ................. 120 Validity & Surveys ............................................................................................... .................................. 121 Exercises ...............................................................................................
  • 39. ................................................... 121 8.3 Types of Surveys ............................................................................................... ..................................... 121 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 121 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Surveys .............................................................................................. 121 Cross-Sectional Research ............................................................................................... ..................... 122 One Problem with Cross-Sectional Surveys ........................................................................................ 122 Longitudinal Surveys ............................................................................................... ................................. 122 Trend Survey ............................................................................................... ......................................... 122 Panel Surveys ............................................................................................... ........................................ 123
  • 40. Cohort Survey ............................................................................................... ............................................ 123 Table 8.1 Types of Longitudinal Surveys ............................................................................................... .. 124 Retrospective ............................................................................................... ............................................. 124 Administration ............................................................................................... ............................................ 124 Example ....................................................................................... ........ ................................................. 125 Online Delivery ............................................................................................... .......................................... 126 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 126 Exercises ............................................................................................... ................................................... 127 8.4 Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires......................................................................... ...... 128
  • 41. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 128 Asking Effective Questions ............................................................................................... ........................ 128 Are the questions clear? ............................................................................................... ........................ 128 Avoiding Confusing Questions ............................................................................................... .................. 130 Double-Barreled Questions ............................................................................................... ................... 131 Social Desirability ............................................................................................... ...................................... 131 Pilot Testing ............................................................................................... ............................................... 132 Response Options ............................................................................................... ..................................... 132 Closed Ended Questions ............................................................................................... ....................... 132
  • 42. Open-Ended Questions ............................................................................................... ......................... 133 Fence Sitting and Floating ............................................................................................... ......................... 133 Fence Setting ............................................................................................... ......................................... 133 Floating ............................................................................................... .................................................. 133 Using a Matrix ............................................................................................... ............................................ 133 Designing Questionnaires ............................................................................................... ......................... 135 Order of Questions: It Does Matter ............................................................................................... ...... 136 Questions of Time ............................................................................................... ..................................... 136 Pretesting & Time to Complete
  • 43. ............................................................................................... ................. 137 Appearance ............................................................................................... ............................................... 137 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 137 Exercises ............................................................................................... ................................................... 137 8.5 Analysis of Survey Data ............................................................................................... .......................... 138 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 138 From Completed Questionnaires to Analyzable Data .............................................................................. 138 Response Rate ............................................................................................... ...................................... 138 How to Improve Response Rate ............................................................................................... ............ 139 Have we been too concerned with high response rates? .................................................................... 139
  • 44. Managing, Sorting, and Ordering Your Data ........................................................................................ 140 Using Statistical Software ............................................................................................... .......................... 140 Excel and Open Source Options ............................................................................................... ........... 140 PSPP....................................................................................... .............................................................. 140 Libre Office and Calc ............................................................................................... ............................. 140 R .......................................................................................... ..... ............................................................. 140 Specialty Commercial Software Options .............................................................................................. 141 Identifying Patterns ............................................................................................... .................................... 141 Frequency Distribution ............................................................................................... ............................... 141 Measures of Central Tendency
  • 45. ............................................................................................... ................. 142 The Three Measures of Central Tendency .............................................................................................. 142 Mode ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 142 Median ............................................................................................... ................................................... 142 Mean ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 142 Bivariate Analysis ............................................................................................... ...................................... 143 Contingency Tables ............................................................................................... ............................... 143 Collapsing Categories ............................................................................................... ............................ 144 Conventions ............................................................................................... ........................................... 144 Multivariate Analysis
  • 46. ............................................................................................... .................................. 144 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................ 144 Exercises ............................................................................................... ............................................... 145 Chapter 9 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... .................... 146 9.1 Describing Single Variables ............................................................................................... ................ 146 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... ......................... 146 Descriptive statistics ............................................................................................... .................................. 146 The Distribution of a Variable ............................................................................................... .................... 146 Frequency Tables ...............................................................................................
  • 47. ...................................... 146 Conventions for Frequency Distribution Tables ................................................................................... 147 Histograms ............................................................................................... ................................................. 148 Distribution Shapes ............................................................................................... ................................... 149 Symmetrical or Skewed ............................................................................................... ............................. 149 Outlier ............................................................................................... .................................................... 151 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability ........................................................................................ 151 Central Tendency ............................................................................................... .................................. 151 Mean ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 151 Median ............................................................................................... ................................................... 151
  • 48. MODE ............................................................................................... .................................................... 151 Bimodal ............................................................................................... .................................................. 152 Measures of Variability ............................................................................. .................. .......................... 152 Standard Deviation ............................................................................................... ................................ 153 Computing the Standard Deviation ............................................................................................... ....... 154 N or N-1? ............................................................................................... ............................................... 154 Simple Standard Deviation Problem: Step by Step ............................................................................. 154 The Standard Deviation in More Detail ............................................................................................ ... . 155 Percentile Ranks and z Scores ............................................................................................... ................. 155 Percentile Rank
  • 49. ................................................................................ ............... ..................................... 156 Commonly Used Terms for Specific Percentiles .................................................................................. 156 Some Examples ............................................................................................... ..................................... 156 Z Score ............................................................................................... .................................................. 157 Online Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... ...................... 157 Use of Spreadsheets for Data Management ............................................................................................ 158 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 158 Practice ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 159 9.2 Describing Statistical Relationships ............................................................................................... ........ 159 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...............................................................................................
  • 50. ......................... 159 Differences Between Groups or Conditions ............................................................................................. 159 Cohen’s d ............................................................................................... ................................................... 160 Sex Differences Expressed as Cohen’s d ............................................................................................ 161 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables .......................................................................................... 161 Nonlinear Relationship ............................................................................................... ........................... 165 Limited or Restricted Range ............................................................................................... .................. 165 Chapter 10: Single-Subject Research Designs .......................................................................................... 168 LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................... ..... ......................... 168
  • 51. The Single-Subject Design ............................................................................................... ........................ 168 Single-Subject Design Conventions ............................................................................................... .......... 168 The X and Y Axis ............................................................................................... ................................... 169 AB Design ............................................................................................... .............................................. 169 The ABA Design ............................................................................................... ........................................ 169 ABAB Design ............................................................................................... ......................................... 170 Multiple-Treatment Reversal Design ............................................................................................... ..... 171 Potential Problems with the Reversal Design .......................................................................................... 171 Multiple Baseline Design ............................................................................................... ....................... 171
  • 52. Other Single-Subject Designs ............................................................................................... ............... 172 Data Analysis in Single-Subject Research ............................................................................................... 172 Visual Inspection ............................................................................................. .. .................................... 172 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................... ..................................... 173 Christopher: A Case History ............................................................................................... ...................... 173 Summary ............................................................................................... ................................................... 174 Practice ............................................................................................... ...................................................... 174 RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. I Preface The research methods course, or something very much like it, is inevitably required in the Human Services curriculum. And for good reason. While the importance of
  • 53. understanding research methods is usually clear to students who intend to pursue an advanced degree, I’ve long thought that those of us who teach research methods could do a better job of demonstrating to all of our students the relevance of what it is that we’re teaching. Why should students want what this class has to offer? That question is especially relevant for undergraduate students. As someone who has used both qualitative and quantitative methods, I appreciate the need not only for students to understand the relevance of research methods for themselves, but also for them to understand the relevance of both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Also, as a teacher I have learned that students will not get much from sources they perceive to be overly boring, too full of jargon, or overly technical. Altogether, my experiences as a student, researcher, and teacher shape the three overriding objectives of this text: relevance, balance, and accessibility. Relevance, Balance, and Accessibility This text emphasizes the relevance of research methods for the everyday lives of its readers: undergraduate students. The book describes how research methodology is useful for students in the multiple roles they fill: citizens in a society where findings from social research shape our laws, policies, and public life; and connections to these roles throughout and directly within the main text of the book rather than their being relegated to boxes.
  • 54. Using a variety of examples, this text also aims to provide balanced coverage of qualitative and quantitative approaches. We’ll also cover some of the debates regarding the values and purposes of qualitative and quantitative research. In addition, we’ll discuss the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches. One of the most important goals of this text is to introduce you to the core principles of social research in a way that is straightforward and keeps you engaged. As such, the text reflects an emphasis on research being accessible and readable. In summary? Above all, the purpose of this textbook is to help you to become a more critical thinker, who can identify, implement, evaluate, and communicate best practices (from high quality and reliable sources) in your personal and professional life. One of the key marks of the educated person. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 2 Introduction: Human Services It is appropriate for us, no matter which Human Services class we are in at the moment, to review the definition of Human Services and our history as a profession. One of the better definitions of Human Services, can be found on Wikipedia: What is Human Services?
  • 55. Human services is an interdisciplinary field with the objective of meeting human needs through an applied knowledge base, focusing on prevention as well as remediation of problems, and maintaining a commitment to improving the overall quality of life of service populations. The process involves the study of social technologies (practice methods, models, and theories), service technologies (programs, organizations, and systems), and scientific innovations that are designed to ameliorate problems and enhance the quality of life of individuals, families and communities to improve the delivery of service with better coordination, accessibility and accountability.[1] The mission of human services is to promote a practice that involves simultaneously working at all levels of society (whole-person approach) in the process of promoting the autonomy of individuals or groups, making informal or formal human services systems more efficient and effective, and advocating for positive social change within society. Human services practitioners strive to advance the autonomy of service users through civic engagement, education, health promotion and social change at all levels of society. Practitioners also engage in advocating so human systems remain accessible, integrated, efficient and effective. Human services academic programs can be readily found in colleges and universities, which award degrees at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate levels. Human services programs exist in countries all around the world. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_services on 11 July 2017.
  • 56. After defining Human Services, the same page provides a brief history: A Brief History of Human Services Human services has its roots in charitable activities of religious and civic organizations that date back to the Colonial period. However, the academic discipline of human services did not start until the 1960s [during the deinstitutionalization movement]. At that time, a group of college academics started the new human services movement and began to promote the adoption of a new ideology about human service delivery and professionalism among traditional helping disciplines. [2] The movement's major goal was to make service delivery more efficient, effective, and humane. The other goals dealt with the reeducation of traditional helping professionals (interprofessional education), to have a greater appreciation of the individual as a whole person (humanistic psychology) and to be accountable to the communities they serve (postmodernism). Furthermore, professionals would learn to take responsibility at all levels of government, use systems approaches to consider human problems, and be involved in progressive social change. Traditional academic programs such as education, nursing, social work, law and medicine were resistant to the new human services movement's ideology because it appeared to challenge their professional status. Changing the traditional concept of professionalism involved rethinking consumer control and the distribution of power. The new
  • 57. movement also called on human service professionals to work for social change.[3] It was proposed that the reduction of the monopolistic control of professionals could result in democratization of knowledge and would lead to professionals advocating on behalf of clients and communities against professional establishments.[4] The movement also hoped that human service delivery systems would become integrated, comprehensive, and more accessible, which would make them more humane for RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 3 service users.[5][6] Ultimately, the resistance from traditional helping professions served as the impetus for a group of educators in higher education to start the new academic discipline of human services. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_services on 11 July 2017. Origins of Human Services in Deinstitutionalization A glaring omission of the history, as outlined in Wikipedia, is why Human Services began in the first place. Deinstitutionalization was a government policy that moved mental health patients out of state-run psychiatric hospitals into federally funded community mental health centers. At least that was the theory. It
  • 58. began in the 1960s due to a number of coalescing factors, but largely as a cost saving measure. The process of deinstitutionalization was always underfunded and, as we shall see later, understaffed. The result is that many people ended up homeless, or without services that would help them cope in society. Deinstitutionalization can still be seen in the criminal justice system where persons with severe mental health issues who run afoul of the law end up incarcerated. It is a major problem in prisons and jails throughout the country. As institutions were closed thousands of their inmates were released, many with no place to go, into overwhelming societies ability to care for them [7]. It was supposed to be a way to improve treatment of the mentally ill, and other persons warehoused in total institutions including children, while cutting government expenditures. A total institution is a place where people exist, cut off from mainstream society living together enclosed in a formally administered existence. The movement gained new force after the 1972 exposure of the horrible conditions under which children were warehoused in a now defunct institution called Willowbrook [8], as well as a flurry of court action which has continued over time exemplified by the Olmstead v. L.C. finding [9], which was itself an outgrowth of the Americans with Disabilities Act. In the mid-1960s a literal flood of persons was released with no place to go. This was a class of people who were ill equipped for a number of reasons to fend for themselves, who quickly overran existing services, and created a severe shortage of personnel trained to work with them using more modern, humane, and effective interventions. The profession was
  • 59. created to fill that gap. 1.Herzberg, Judith T. (2015). Foundations in human services practice: A generalist perspective on individual, agency, and community (1st ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780205858255. OCLC 881181908 2. Chenault, Joann; Burnford, Fran (1978). Human services professional education: Future directions. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780070107328. OCLC 3650238. 3. Dumont, M (1970). "The changing face of professionalism". Social Policy. 1: 26–31. 4. Reiff, R. (1970). "Community psychology, community mental health and social needs: The need for a body of knowledge in community psychology". In Iscoe, Ira; Spielberger, Charles D. Community psychology: Perspectives in training and research. New York: Appleton. pp. 1–. ISBN 9780390477712. OCLC 92432. 5. Agranoff, R. (1974). "Human services administration: Service delivery, service integration, and training". In Mikulecky, Thomas J. Human services integration: a report of a special project conducted by the American Society for Public Administration. Washington, DC: American Society for Public Administration. pp. 42–51. OCLC 918115. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 4
  • 60. 6. Baker, F (June 1974). "From community mental health to human service ideology". American Journal of Public Health. 64 (6): 576–581. PMC 1775477 Freely accessible. PMID 4829069. doi:10.2105/ajph.64.6.576. 7. Michael J. Dear, Jennifer R. Wolch (1987) Landscapes of Despair: From Deinstitutionalization to Homelessness (Human Geography) Hardcover, Princeton University Press. 8. Rivera, Geraldo (1972). Willowbrook: A Report on How it is and Why it Doesn’t Have to Be That Way. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-71844-5. 9. Olmstead v. L.C., 527 U.S. 581 (1999): a United States Supreme Court case regarding discrimination against people with mental disabilities. The court ruled that under the Americans with Disabilities Act, persons with mental disabilities have a right to live in the community rather than in institutions if "the State's treatment professionals have determined that community placement is appropriate, the transfer from institutional care to a less restrictive setting is not opposed by the affected individual, and the placement can be reasonably accommodated, taking into account the resources available to the State and the needs of others with mental disabilities." RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 5 Chapter 1: Science in the Social Sciences
  • 61. Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense-experience correspond to a logically uniform system of thought. — Albert Einstein Truth is not created. It is discovered. Science is an organized attempt to discover truth. First of all, which science are we talking about? There are three main categories. 1. Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, chemical, and biological factors of the universe) 2. Formal sciences: the study of mathematics and logic, which use an a priori, as opposed to factual, methodology) 3. Social sciences: the study of human behavior and societies. From: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science Einstein was a theoretical physicist which seems to fall mostly into the formal sciences. He did not like things that were, or at least seemed, unpredictable. Einstein was very much bothered by chaos, and tried to find a way to predict, what might in the end, be unpredictable. The social sciences are what we are interested in for this class, and in particular how that knowledge can be applied to help systems of all sizes (micro, mezzo, and macro). In other words, Human Services is looking to apply the methods and findings from social science to
  • 62. improve the lives of people as individuals, in groups such as families, and in the larger social context of communities. However, all sciences have much in common. For example, chaos theory is a branch of mathematics, which is itself a science, that deals with conditions where prediction is not possible. [1] Chaotic diversity not only describes things on the quantum level (which is what Einstein was interested in), but also the human condition. Chaos theory with its origins in mathematics has implications when working with people that has only recently been realized [2] [3]. Like Einstein, we in the Human Services dislike chaos. We want to find ways of explaining, possibly even predicting, and preventing human misery. So, what is Einstein’s message? Einstein is telling us that we have a rich and imaginative sensory capability that provides us with a vast way of experiencing and interpreting our world. However, from an evolutionary standpoint, it is built for survival in the heat of the moment, rather than the cool calculation of empirical analysis which is by design a longer process. Things like intuition and instinct are certainly useful. But, we SYSTEMS THEORY – SYSTEMS ARE USUALLY MADE UP OF SMALLER COMPONENTS THAT “FIT” INSIDE THE LARGER ONES. RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 6 can add science to our toolbox which is what this text is about.
  • 63. With the tool of science, we can explore our world, social and physical, in a way which allows us to test our assumptions and theories about the way things are. Science helps us to increase our rational understanding of the totality of the world we live in. We have had some success. Science can not only give us theories about how people act, it can also test our assumptions as we will see in the following example of social science at work. Who talks more? Many people believe that women tend to talk more than men— with some even suggesting that this difference has a biological basis. One widely cited estimate was that women spoke 20,000 words per day on average and men only 7,000. This claim seemed plausible, but was it true? A group of psychologists led by Matias Mehl decided to find out. How did they check? They used a literature review, a powerful tool we will discuss in depth later on in the text. When they checked the literature to see if anyone had actually tried to count the daily number of words spoken by women and men, no one had. All they found were theories and assumptions, many of them culturally derived based on stereotypical beliefs about gender rather than any real science. The researchers conducted a study of their own in which a sample of 369 female and male college students wore audio recorders while they went about their day. The result? The women spoke an average of 16,215 words per day and the men spoke an average of 15,669 which was a difference of just under one percent. It was an extremely small difference that could easily be explained by chance. In an article in the journal Science, these researchers summed up their findings as follows: “We therefore conclude, on the basis of available empirical evidence,
  • 64. that the widespread and highly publicized stereotype about female talkativeness is unfounded” (Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Slatcher, & Pennebaker, 2007, p. 82) [4]. Sometimes what we think is true, just isn’t so. In this case, we had a working assumption about the way things are. However, when that theory was tested it turned out not to be true. What we believe about people, and how they behave, is fundamental to effectively working with our clients. This example shows how what we believe individually or collectively can sometimes be wrong. Sometimes what we believe is inaccurate or incomplete. We should keep in mind that as professionals, whenever possible, we should act according to the best information that we have at hand. This means we need to be informed as to what science has empirically indicated. [1] Oestreicher C. (2007), Dialogues Clinical Neuroscience. 2007;9(3):279-89. [2] Chamberlain L. (Editor), Butz, M. (Editor), (1998). Clinical Chaos: A Therapist's Guide To Non-Linear Dynamics And Therapeutic Change 1st Edition, Routeledge. [3] Eenwyk, J, (2012), Clinical Chaos, Inner City Books. [4] Mehl, M. R., Vazire, S., Ramirez-Esparza, N., Slatcher, R. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2007). Are women really more talkative than men? Science, 317, 82. 1.1 Understanding Science LEARNING OBJECTIVES
  • 65. eudoscience and give some examples. Science & Human Services Human Services is not a science but a profession, and an evolving one at that. As such it is interdisciplinary, drawing not just on our profession’s research, but also that of our good colleagues in such diverse disciplines as social work, anthropology, sociology, education, criminal justice, education, and nursing to name just a few. Some of those disciplines are considered to be social sciences, and some like RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 7 Human Services, are considered to be professions. However, we are all engaged in research to find the best possible methods for helping improve the human condition on practical terms. That is not to say that Human Service professionals do not engage in the research process, because we do. Human Services practice should be based on empirically based information. That means practice should be research based whenever possible. Empirically Based Research Empirically based practice is considered best practice. Whenever possible, Human Service practitioners should strive to use only those techniques, methods, and approaches in the helping process that are empirically derived.
  • 66. Empirically based practice means using quality research from peer reviewed sources in your professional practice. Professional journals, online databases, and continuing education, are all ways that we can keep informed as to what is happening in our field. It also means assessing the results of your practice, and doing so in an ethical way. In summary, empirically based research is the application of empirically derived best practices into your everyday practice. That is, we have a moral imperative to use science. The Emergence of Science and the Scientific Method The Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses1" Since then, the method has expanded from the natural sciences into the social sciences to including such disciplines as anthropology, sociology, psychology, psychology and such professions as social work and Human Services. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered to be the first person to have conceptualized the scientific method, but he did so under the influence of other great minds such as his contemporary Galileo (1564- 1642), and those who came before him such as Copernicus (1473-1543). But the list goes back even
  • 67. further to the likes of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, and even further back as our ancestors struggled to make this world (which is such an unpredictable and dangerous place where disasters still seem like random happenstance) into a more tolerable and predictable place to dwell. This led to the ability to make fire, create shelter, and of course finding something to eat. The rise of technologies was, in their own time, no less miraculous to them then than time travel would be to us now. Otherwise we lived brutish and short lives. Knowledge was gained slowly but accumulated over the years, handed down person-to-person through an oral tradition. The invention of writing and then printing sped up the process as it became possible to transmit knowledge across time and space. The scientific method was just one innovation but we will focus on it now as it forms the foundation for all modern research. We have a legal, moral, and ethical, responsibility to our profession, ourselves, society, and certainly our clients to do just that. What are the implications? While not all Human Service practitioners are engaged in research, all Human Service practitioners are consumers of research in their personal and professional lives. Research is based on a scientific approach to knowledge. What are the modern features of science?
  • 68. Features of Science The modern scientific approach has three fundamental features (Stanovich, 2010): 1. Systematic Empiricism The first feature is systematic empiricism. Empiricism refers to learning based on observation. Scientists learn about the natural and social world systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and 1 "scientific method", Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English, 2017, retrieved 7 Nov 2017 RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 8 analyzing observations of it. A lot of what we learn and what we might know (that may or may not be true) is actually acquired haphazardly. As we will see, logical reasoning, and even creativity, play important roles in science, but scientists are unique in their insistence on checking ideas about the way the world seems to be, against more systematic observations. That is, using the practice of science rather than tradition, superstition, guessing, or any number of other ways we have of knowing. Notice, for example, that Mehl and his colleagues did not trust other people’s stereotypes or even their own informal observations. Instead, they systematically recorded, counted, and compared the number of words spoken by a large sample of women and men. Furthermore, when their systematic observations turned out to conflict with people’s stereotypes, they trusted their systematic observations.
  • 69. 2. The Scientific Approach Following logically from the first feature is the second feature which is the scientific approach. It is concerned with empirical questions. These are questions about the way the world actually is rather than what we think it might be, and are answered by systematic observation. The question of whether women talk more than men was a simple question that could be empirically answered but just counting. Either women really do talk more than men or they do not, and this can be determined by systematically observing how much women and men actually talk. There are many interesting and extremely important questions that are not empirically testable and that science cannot answer. Among them are questions about values—whether things are good or bad, just or unjust, or beautiful or ugly, and how the world ought to be. Although the question of whether a stereotype is accurate or inaccurate is an empirically testable one that science can answer, the question of whether it is wrong for people to hold to inaccurate stereotypes is not. Similarly, the question of whether criminal behavior has a genetic component is an empirical question, but the question of what should be done with people who commit crimes is not. Questions about permitting the death penalty, abortion, or the legalization of marijuana are ultimately moral rather than scientific issues. It is especially important for researchers in Human Services to be mindful of this distinction. 3. Public Knowledge The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge. After asking their empirical questions, making their systematic observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientists publish their work. This
  • 70. usually means writing an article for publication in a professional journal, in which they put their research question in the context of previous research, describe in detail the methods they used to answer their question, and clearly present their results and conclusions. These are the kind of articles you use for your RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 9 research papers, and the kinds of articles that should be informing your practice with clients. Earlier we discussed how we progressed from an oral tradition, to the written word, and then to printing. We noted that the venerable art of printing allowed for knowledge to be transferable through time and space. It was more reliable, durable, and transportable. Knowledge was spread far and wide. We have now come to the digital age, maybe even past it, which has exponentially increased the growth of knowledge as well as the speed it is created and disseminated. While this is generally considered progress, we will soon discuss new problems which have arisen because of new communication technologies such as social media, and massive online databases. One thing that has not changed is that knowledge dies if it is not passed on, and now that is through publication in whatever form be it, print or digital. Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons: 1. Science is a social process—a large scale collaboration among many researchers distributed across
  • 71. both time and space. Our current scientific knowledge of most topics is based on many different studies conducted by many different researchers who have shared their work with each other over the years. 2. Publication allows science to be self-correcting. Individual scientists understand that despite their best efforts, their methods can be flawed and their conclusions incorrect. Publication allows others in the scientific community to detect and correct these errors so that, over time, scientific knowledge increasingly reflects the way the world actually is. If the findings of a research study cannot be reproduced elsewhere, then there is a problem with the original study. The ability of scientist to replicate what others do is how scientific findings are ultimately verified. Science Versus Pseudoscience Pseudoscience refers to activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents—and may appear to be scientific at first glance—but are not. Consider the theory of biorhythms (not to be confused with sleep cycles or other biological cycles that do have a scientific basis). The idea is that people’s physical, intellectual, and emotional abilities run in cycles that begin when they are born and continue until they die. The physical cycle has a period of 23 days, the intellectual cycle a period of 33 days, and the emotional cycle a period of 28 days. So, for example, if you had the option of when to schedule an exam, you would want to schedule it for a time when your intellectual cycle will be at a high point. The theory of biorhythms has been around for more than 100 years, and you can find numerous popular books and websites about biorhythms, often containing
  • 72. impressive and scientific-sounding terms like sinusoidal wave and bioelectricity. The problem with biorhythms, however, is that there is no good reason to think they exist (Hines, 1998). A set of beliefs or activities can be said to be pseudoscientific if adherents claim or imply that it is scientific but it lacks one or more of the three features of science. It might lack systematic empiricism. Either there is no relevant scientific research or, as in the case of biorhythms, there is relevant scientific research but it is ignored. It might also lack public knowledge. People who promote the beliefs or activities might claim to have conducted scientific research but never publish that research in a way that allows others to evaluate it. WOOD CUT OF AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS. 1 IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN: HTTPS://COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:PRINTER _IN_1568- CE.PNG RESEARCH FOR HUMAN SERVICES pg. 10 Karl Popper A set of beliefs and activities might also be pseudoscientific because it does not address empirical questions. The philosopher Karl Popper was especially concerned with this idea (Popper, 2002). He argued more specifically