Counseling has evolved over the years and, in many ways, is still in its infancy as a profession when compared to other mental health professions like psychology and social work. This module will provide a historical overview of the what, when, why, and how of professional counseling. The important contributions of key figures will be discussed, along with the impact of federal government acts and professional counseling organizations on the identity, preparation, and scope of work of professional counselors. This module will also explore the future of counseling as a profession. It will also identify vulnerable populations and issues of concern. Finally, this module covers various topics related to professional identity. In the early 20th century, before the term “counseling” was coined, the concept of informally “helping others” was introduced. This module provides a chronological overview of how the idea of helping others at a critical point in the country’s history evolved into what we call today Clinical Mental Health Counseling (CMHC). Understanding the origins of the profession, and how past historical events shaped the profession, may help you evaluate future problems from a different frame of reference (Heppner et al., 1995). Knowing the past of a profession, according to Heppner et al. (1995), is also believed to help counselors-in-training plan better, with anticipation, for the future direction of counseling. It can also be argued that the more one learns about a profession, the more one can readily identify with that profession. One notable event in the history of counseling occurred in 2009 when the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) made the decision to create a unique specialty, clinical mental health counseling (CMHC). The decision was made after it was determined that students from community counseling and mental health counseling programs were competing for the same jobs. Essentially, this meant they were doing the same work. The decision to combine the two specialties is one example of the important role of CACREP.   The services provided by clinical mental health counselors, and the settings in which they work today, overlap with other therapeutic professionals. This module will highlight the training, philosophical beliefs, licensure requirements, and scope of practice differences and similarities among various therapeutic professionals. In this module, the professional organizations that help shape the identity of clinical mental health counselors are introduced and the various practice settings in which clinical mental health counselors work are explored. As you study the material in this module on the history of and professional identity in clinical mental health counseling, pay particular attention to the role of government and the role of professional organizations in the development of the profession. Consider how these entities have shaped what counselors do and the f.

1. Counseling has evolved over the years and, in many ways, is
still in its infancy as a profession when compared to other
mental health professions like psychology and social work. This
module will provide a historical overview of the what, when,
why, and how of professional counseling. The important
contributions of key figures will be discussed, along with the
impact of federal government acts and professional counseling
organizations on the identity, preparation, and scope of work of
professional counselors. This module will also explore the
future of counseling as a profession. It will also identify
vulnerable populations and issues of concern. Finally, this
module covers various topics related to professional identity.
In the early 20th century, before the term “counseling” was
coined, the concept of informally “helping others” was
introduced. This module provides a chronological overview of
how the idea of helping others at a critical point in the
country’s history evolved into what we call today Clinical
Mental Health Counseling (CMHC). Understanding the origins
of the profession, and how past historical events shaped the
profession, may help you evaluate future problems from a
different frame of reference (Heppner et al., 1995). Knowing
the past of a profession, according to Heppner et al. (1995), is
also believed to help counselors-in-training plan better, with
anticipation, for the future direction of counseling. It can also
be argued that the more one learns about a profession, the more
one can readily identify with that profession.
One notable event in the history of counseling occurred in 2009
when the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) made the decision to create a
unique specialty, clinical mental health counseling (CMHC).
The decision was made after it was determined that students
from community counseling and mental health counseling
programs were competing for the same jobs. Essentially, this
meant they were doing the same work. The decision to combine

2. the two specialties is one example of the important role of
CACREP.
The services provided by clinical mental health counselors, and
the settings in which they work today, overlap with other
therapeutic professionals. This module will highlight the
training, philosophical beliefs, licensure requirements, and
scope of practice differences and similarities among various
therapeutic professionals. In this module, the professional
organizations that help shape the identity of clinical mental
health counselors are introduced and the various practice
settings in which clinical mental health counselors work are
explored.
As you study the material in this module on the history of and
professional identity in clinical mental health counseling, pay
particular attention to the role of government and the role of
professional organizations in the development of the profession.
Consider how these entities have shaped what counselors do and
the focus and emphasis of CMHC today. Also, note how
government and professional organizations have influenced
training, funding, and standardized practices. Pay particular
attention to how your training as a clinical mental health
counselor may differ from that of other mental health
professionals. Also, note the similarities in training, scope of
practice, credentials, and work settings.
This may be a good time for you to explore what your training
will involve if you are not 100% sure. Ask your instructor or
faculty advisor if you have questions. At the end of this module,
your understanding should encompass what Argosy’s CMHC
program requires, what your state requires, and what the
counseling profession has deemed important as it relates to your
knowledge, skills, and abilities. This module is just the
beginning of conceptualizing the identity of clinical mental
health counselors. Future modules will introduce information
that will add to your current knowledge and to what you glean
about CMHC after you read this module.
Reference:

3. Heppner, P. P., Kivlighan, D. M., Wright, G. M., Pledge, D. S.,
Brossart, D. F.,Bellatin, A. M., . . . Krull, L. A. (1995).
Teaching the history of counseling:Training the next
generation. Journal of Counseling and Development,73(3), 337–
341.
Origins of the Profession
A review of the counseling literature unanimously lauds
vocational guidance and planning as the catalyst and precursor
to CMHC in the 21st century. Before the term “counseling” was
ever used, people sought to help each other out of need and as a
good humanitarian gesture during the Industrial Revolution. The
Industrial Revolution marked a period of transition in the
United States that brought people together from a variety of
backgrounds. Learning to live and work side by side required
help. Additionally, the Industrial Revolution brought with it a
new focus on employability and the vocational needs of youth
and young adults. In hindsight, while career counseling is a
specialty in counseling today, the influence of vocational
planning on mental health counseling is sometimes hard to
conceptualize.
If we consider some of the early theorists associated with
vocational guidance and planning, we learn that they often
emphasized individual choiceand the use of a holistic approach.
Consequently, its influence on mental health counseling is more
readily observable. Autonomy, or freedom of choice, is one of
Kitchener’s five principles of morality that counselors are
encouraged to take into consideration when working with a
client (Kitchener, 1984). Early vocational theorists understood
people’s ability and right to choose what was best for them,
specifically as it related to choosing a vocation. Clinical mental
health counselors wholeheartedly embrace this concept today
along a continuum of client issues.
As you begin to explore what counseling is, you will learn in
later modules that counseling is considered dynamic and

4. multifaceted. Instead of focusing on one dimension, counselors
consider all aspects associated with the whole person, including
biological, psychological, physical, social, and spiritual aspects.
Again, we are able to see here the early influence of vocational
guidance on counseling in the 21st century.
As you read about the origins and the historical roots of
counseling, see if you are able to connect the past with the
present, with what you understand about counseling in the
present day.
Reference:
Kitchener, K. S. (1984). Intuition, critical evaluation, and
ethical principles:The foundation for ethical decisions in
counseling psychology.Counseling Psychologist, 12, 43–
55.Pioneers
Numerous individuals are credited with contributing to the
development of the counseling profession. Pioneers in the area
of theory, measurement, and career counseling, in particular,
are well cited throughout counseling literature. It is important
to note that some of the contributions made by these pioneers
had a direct impact on counseling, while others had a less-than-
direct, yet notable, impact on the development of the
profession. Regardless of the extent of the impact, it can be
argued that these forerunners were instrumental in
conceptualizing and defining the work of clinical mental health
counselors in the 21st century. The philosophy of counseling
and its emphasis on prevention, growth, normal development,
wellness, empowerment, and treating the whole person can be
traced back to early pioneers who focused primarily on helping
children and young adults identify vocational interests
(Newsome & Gladding, 2014; Wright & Heppner, 1990).
The contributions of Frank Parsons, one of the earliest pioneers
in the development of counseling, date back to the late 19th
century, around the late 1890s. Leonard Miller, Donald Super,
Robert Hoppock, and David Tiedeman (Wright & Heppner,
1990) are other pioneers mentioned in the era of career planning
and vocational guidance. Jesse B. Davis is another forerunner

5. who is hailed for his contribution to counseling’s emphasis on
prevention. Davis, a former superintendent, introduced the
concept of school guidance to help children prevent problems
by focusing on character education (Newsome & Gladding,
2014). School guidance activities are still implemented in
schools around the country today, particularly in elementary and
middle schools, in accordance with the delivery of the American
School Counseling Association’s national model.
Edward Strong, Frederic Kuder, and John Holland are noted for
their significant contributions to the field in the area of
measurement. You will have an opportunity to learn more about
their contributions to counseling in your career counseling
class. Similar to Davis, their contributions are as present today
as they were decades ago. Theorists such as Carl Rogers and
Albert Ellis, to name a few, are also revered as having a
significant impact on the field of counseling.
As you read about the pioneers in counseling in this module,
keep in mind that there are too many to mention them all.
Consequently, only a select few are highlighted. You may learn
more about the individuals who played a part in shaping the
counseling profession by reading the following chapter from the
book listed in the Reference section:
· Our Beginnings in Career Counseling: Understanding Our
Professional Roots and Goals
Reference:
Wright, D. M., & Heppner, P. P. (1990). Our beginnings in
career counseling:Understanding our professional roots and
goals. In P. P. Heppner (ed.).Pioneers in counseling &
development: Personal and professional perspectives (pp. 1–3).
Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and
Development.Evolution over the Years
A small glimpse into how counseling evolved over more than a
century illuminates how counseling progressed from informal
helping in the late 19th century; to vocational guidance and
character education in schools at the turn of the century; to
working outside of school settings; to a focus on military

6. personnel and testing; to government's recognition of
counseling as a distinct profession; to the role of professional
organizations in bringing awareness to and streamlining what
counselors do and what they are required to know. Along the
way, a number of important events like the Great Depression,
World War II, and the establishment of the Council for
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP) impacted how counseling was conducted over the
years. Additionally, the major influences of key characters such
as E.G. Williamson, Frank Parsons, and Carl Rogers, are
credited with further developing the counseling profession of
the 21st century.
As you study, keep a mental note of the historical events that
took place and take a moment to revisit your program of study
for the CMHC program. As you review your program of study,
namely, the course work that is required for completion of the
master’s degree in CMHC, pay particular attention to how
history has shaped what you are responsible for knowing in the
21st century. With this in mind, also think about the events of
the 21st century that have shaped your program of study. The
terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001; the war in Afghanistan;
Hurricane Katrina; and even the Sandy Hook Elementary School
shooting have influenced the counseling profession in countless
ways. What else do you feel may impact the future practice,
training, or philosophy of CMHC? As mentioned earlier in the
lecture, it is believed that the more you know about the past, the
better prepared you are to anticipate the future of counseling
(Heppner et al., 1995).
Reference:
Heppner, P. P., Kivlighan, D. M., Wright, G. M., Pledge, D. S.,
Brossart,D. F., Bellatin, A. M., . . . Krull, L. A. (1995).
Teaching the history of counseling: Training the next
generation. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73(3),
337–341.Clinical Mental Health Counselors
People sometimes ask, “What is the difference between a

7. counselor and a psychologist or a social worker?” Students
often enter a CMHC program with the same question, and some
leave never knowing the real answer. The reality is that clinical
mental health counselors and other therapeutic professionals
provide similar services across various practice settings today.
Mental health professionals learn the same theories and same
counseling techniques and interventions and provide individual,
group, and family and couples counseling. They are also trained
to conduct assessments and provide diagnosis. So what is so
different? You may see more similarities than differences
between helping professions, but for the development of your
professional identity, it is important for you to have some
understanding of what sets counselors apart from other
therapeutic professionals.
Much like counseling, there are a number of specialties within
the field of psychology. Psychology is mentioned often because
questions are mostly raised about the difference between
counseling and psychology rather than about the difference
between counseling and other mental health professions.
Counseling psychology is one specialty area in psychology
where clinical mental health counselors see the most
similarities. The similarities are related to philosophical beliefs
about people, their problems, and the best way to help, as well
as similarities in the scope of practice, meaning the services
that each provides (assessment, diagnosis, counseling, and
consultation).
Historically, counseling has focused on prevention, wellness,
empowerment, and helping ordinary people with ordinary
developmental concerns to help themselves through education.
As an expert in consultation, Caplan (Mendoza, 1993) said it
best when he said you teach people how to fish while you give
them a fish. The thought behind Caplan’s idea is that you help
people with an immediate need and you also give them the tools
to later be able to help themselves. Caplan’s analogy of fishing
is what counselors describe as psychoeducation. Counselors
often help and teach clients at the same time.

8. Psychologists, historically, focused on studying and
understanding dysfunctional behavior (pathology) and/or
disease in people. Psychology developed out of a biomedical
model while counseling came from a developmental model.
Psychologists were trained to work with those clients who
presented with “less-than-ordinary” concerns and who
demonstrated more deep-seated psychological issues. Social
workers, historically, took a systems approach to understanding
people and their problems. As such, their approach to helping
involved connecting people with needed community resources
and working to change the environments that adversely affected
clients’ well-being.
Today, clinical mental health counselors are trained to work
with clients who present issues along a continuum, from
situational to developmental and then to pathological. Clinical
mental health counselors today also focus on the whole person,
which involves systems thinking. It is no wonder that some
people are not quite sure who they should choose when looking
for a professional helper.
As you review this module, make a mental note of the ways in
which you perceive the philosophical beliefs, education and
training, credentialing and licensure, and scope of practice
differ between a clinical mental health counselor and a
therapeutic professional.
Reference:
Mendoza, D. W. (1993). A review of Caplan’s theory and
practice of mental health consultation. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 71(6),629–635.
1. What is the difference between a price floor and price
ceiling?
According to the laws of demand and supply and how market

9. equilibrium, efficiency, and equity are reached, do attempts to
repeal those laws and market results with price floors and price
ceilings justify legislative bodies to implement price controls?
2. What is the difference between market failure and
government failure?
Is it difficult for markets to allocate scarce resources efficiently
on its own?
What are some of the problems the political system faces in
overseeing markets?
3. How does the number of substitutes affect the price elasticity
of demand for a product or resource?
What does a higher number of substitutes mean for the slope of
the demand curve?

10. What does a smaller number of substitutes mean for the slope of
the demand curve?
4. What is the difference between an explicit cost and implicit
cost?
What is the difference between normal profit and economic
profit?
How does this all relate to the entrepreneur's "opportunity
costs?"