North America Continents Research Paper

North America Continents Research Paper
When you hear the word continent, what breezes in your mind? North America, South America?
Have you ever pondered over the thought that was these continents always the same? What made
these continents form? What did it look like years ago?
By digging into the history of continents, we might be able to answer these questions of what made
these continents shape up the way we see them now and how they looked like years ago.
Let us start with the simple definition of continent. By definition, a continent is a huge piece of land
separated from other land masses by oceans. But if we think about it, this definition is little
questionable because neither North America nor South America are separated by oceans. Similar is
the case with Asia, Europe, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The continents are not at rest. They are still moving and drifting apart every inch each year. The
constant movement of these continents causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and builds Behemoth
Mountains.
Though Geologists have a fair amount of evidence about Pangaea, there are still questions about
how Pangaea looked like and how it fragmented into various continents.
Far in the future, it has been predicted by some scientists that these present continents would crash
together again to form a supercontinent and this supercontinent will be again on a constant move
and later will break into different new continents. Geologists expect that this process will go on.
After extensive study and research, we can just imagine a particular scenario of how the continents
looked like millions of years ago. We are still not sure of its physical form at that time. It is still a
mystery, maybe in the future; we might be able to answer this perplexing question.
After billions of years, our next generation would be thinking about the same issue about the shape
and size of the continents millions of years ago. Maybe then the advanced technologies would solve
this riddle of what our Earth and its continents looked like millions of years ago. Well, it might
remain a mystery. Only time will answer this puzzling
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Proving Pangaea Existence Proven
Pangaea Existence Proven Have you ever heard of Pangaea? Do you think it is real? Do you need
someone to prove it for you? Well,I am here to prove Pangaea's existence to you. To begin with, you
need to know what Pangaea is. Pangaea was thought of in the year of 1912. This theory was called
Continental Drift and was proposed by Alfred Wegener.Pangaea was thought to be a Super
Continent. When Alfred Wegener proposed this theory no one really believed him because he did
not have much proof. This proof brings me into my topic "Pangaea Existence Proven". To start off
with fossils that were from, for example,Europe were found in, for example, North America. This is
a good reason because i do not think

Carl Zimmers
De–extinction, or resurrection biology, or species revivalism is the process of creating an organism,
which is either a member of, or resembles an extinct species, or breeding population of such
organisms. Carl Zimmer is a popular science writer and blogger who has specialized in the topics of
evolution and parasites. In Carl Zimmers' article he writes about "the history of life for a living" and
longs to go back in time. When writing this he gives the readers a suggested time frame dating back
to 520 million years ago. In his Ted Talk as well he elaborates on the different eras and explain what
each one entails. Traveling back in time would be amazing, there would be so many new life to
experience. About 100 million years ago Dinosaurs and Woolly Mammoths roamed the earth. ...
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This time shows a whole new routine of life never imagined before. In this time the world was not
as we know now, there was no technology or pollution. In this time there were animals who lived
freely and did as they pleased without a human race nagging over them. There would be much more
land for the animals to roam around and much more food. As a human race we have taken away
much of wildlife's homes and made our own that harms them. Our contribution to society has hurt
instead of helped animals of all kind. In Carl Zimmeras' video he describes the fact that 500 million
years ago not a lot of animals were on land but in the water. As his video progresses he describes
100 million years ago in which large animals were on land and feed. I would like to go the era where
dinosaurs were to understand better how they acted towards each other. Fossils can tell apart animals
but can't dignosis exactly what their purpose was. Literally looking at them in actual view and not
how they we preserved would be incredible. The continents would be completely
different,everything

The Triassic Era
The Mesozoic Era contains three geologic time periods including the Triassic Period ,from 252
million to 200 million years ago. The Triassic period was named in 1834 by the German geologist
Friedrich August Von Alberti (1795–1878). It was originally named the "Trias". It got its name
because this period of geologic time is represented by a three–part division of rock types in
Germany . It began 252 million years ago, at the close of the Permian Period, and ended 201 million
years ago. Jurassic Period, from about 200 million to 145 million years ago. During the Jurassic
Period, the supercontinent Pangaea split apart. The Jurassic was a golden age for the large
herbivorous dinosaurs known as the sauropods–Camarasaurus, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus,

How Did Wegener's Failure To Predict An Earthquake?
In 2009, six seismologists and a civil servant failed to predict an earthquake that killed 308 people in
Italy and were charged with manslaughter. They were sentenced to six years in prison. Only a
century ago though, a German meteorologist named Alfred Wegener, was ridiculed for his idea
about continental drift. To try to prove his idea, he cut out the continents from a map, stretched
them, and fit them together. He also used the evidence that animals and plants on opposite sides of
the world look very similar as well as the fact that layered geological formations on one side of an
ocean look as though they could go together. For years after he presented this idea, it was attacked
and not believed. In the mid–1960 the theory was finally accepted but Wegener did not live to see it.
I am surprised that seismologists were actually charged with manslaughter just for not predicting an
earthquake. It seems like it was probably just a mistake not on purpose, so I cannot believe they
actually went to jail. I thought the part about Wegener stretching the continents to make them fit
together was very interesting since I never thought about the fact that mountains were not always
there. It is also surprising that it took so long for people ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
She was able obtained a master's degree in geology during the 1940s despite the fact that only 4
percent of earth sciences doctorates were achieved by women. She started working at Columbia
University's Lamont Geological Laboratory but cold not go on the research vessels since she was a
woman. Instead, she stayed with Bruce Heezen and charted the data. Here is where she discovered a
huge valley in the middle of a gigantic ocean ridge but Heezen did not believe her since she was
female. After a year and more evidence, we finally believed her and took credit for her work. Today,
the Mid–Atlantic Ridge that Tharp mapped is evidence for continental

Pannotia Research Paper
The supercontinent Rodinia broke up about 750 million years ago into three different continents.
They later likely regrouped into the supercontinent of Pannotia. As this happened the rocks that are
now at Blackstone are essentially unaffected however they would have felt that last magnetic
reversal of the poles that happen around this time.
Pannotia was short lived for a supercontinent as the collisions that formed it were glancing and
hence not so binding as they were for Rodinia. It lasted a mere 60 million years.
The last supercontinent was Pangaea and it formed around 300 million years ago. Blackstone's
rocks, safely floating and rotating on Laurentia, as it headed towards a collision with what would
become Africa. Pangaea lasted 100 million

Precambrian Era Essay
The Precambrian is the name given for the first super eon of Earth's history (Mary Bagley,
Accessed: 20th Aug 2016). This era itself has been recorded to be about seven–eighths of the entire
earth's history. This era stretches across from 4 Billion years ago up until only 543 Million years ago
(Mya) which shows how large and substantial this era was.
Precambrian itself refers to the time before the Cambrian period. It also refers to the entire period of
time before the formation of the oldest rocks with recognisable fossils. Lately, however, it has been
seen that some hard to distinguish fossils from in the Precambrian times have been found. The
Precambrian Era can be split into three eras: The Hadean, the Archean and also the Proterozoic. ...
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Life on earth began in the early Archean and fossilized organisms became far more abundant
through the entirety of the Precambrian time.
Three billion years ago there was no traces of oxygen in the atmosphere, this caused no life to be
able to live on earth. At around 2.4 billion years, oxygen was beginning to be released in the oceans
as photosynthesis began in cyanobacteria. This process caused the gas levels to slowly grow and
eventually made up 1% of the earth's atmosphere at around 2 Bya. By 800 Mya, oxygen levels
reached around 20% which let organisms to slowly breathe to life. This spike in oxygen also caused
the earth's surface to be shielded from solar radiation. This was the start of the first unicellular
organisms.
The first multicelled animals started appearing in the records of fossils around 600 million years
ago. Fossils found at this time were known as Ediacarans and showed a very important time of
evolution for earth. Ediacara fauna was specifically named after the Ediacara hills in South Australia
in which they were discovered in the early 1900's. These organisms even predate the explosion of
life forms at the beginning of the Cambrian

The Mesozoic Era
Jurassic is a period of time with Dinosaurs, rodents and birds. There were also island seas consisting
of sharks, sea monsters and blood–red planktons. The existing plants in that period were cycads,
ferns and conifers. The Mesozoic era was about 245 million years ago to 65 years ago, so it almost
lasted about 180 years in total. The Mesozoic era is divided into three periods of Triassic, Jurassic
and Cretaceous. Mesozoic era means middle animals and it is the era, which the word's fauna has
changed from what is in the Paleozoic era and the most famous organisms of this era are dinosaurs.
In the Mesozoic era, the extinction of more than 90 percent of species in the earth was observed and
the reason behind it was mostly volcanic eruptions and climate changes. On the other hand, this era
had massive changes that represented ecological niches and rise to new creatures such as rodent–
size mammals and first dinosaurs. In Triassic, which was the first period of Mesozoic, the mammals
and first dinosaurs existed. Later than that, the second period was Jurassic, which giant shaped
dinosaurs and other kinds of dinosaurs were developed. Besides that the first flowering plants and
primitive birds, with long teeth appeared in that era as well.
Atmosphere
In Mesozoic era, there were only two continents present in the world. Mesozoic era's climate
compares to the Paleozoic era is more uniform and there were no trace of glacial isotopes observed
in that period. That is because of the

Pangaea Research Papers
The Earth (or Terra, due to its terrestrial nature) is the third planet from the Sun and home to almost
14 million species unable to live on other planets. Out of the many impressive aspects of our world,
I have chosen to write about Pangaea, the supercontinent that once represented the only form of land
in a planet made of water.
The great terrain which, in the course of 300 million years, became 7 different continents broken
apart and spread across the globe existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mezozoic eras. In
contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the
southern hemisphere and surrounded by a super ocean, Panthalassa. The name is derived from
Ancient Greek: pan meant entire,

Scientific Theory Of Evolution Research Paper
Can Religious beliefs Coexist with the idea of Evolution? "Evolution is the process by which
different kinds of organisms gradually develop from a simple to a more complex form", (National
Geographic). The scientific theory of Evolution had been introduced by Charles Darwin in 1859.
Although Evolution was just a theory, Darwin had the speculation that there was more to the idea. I
believe that Evolution did occur, but not without the help of a higher being. Although I do believe in
Evolution I am convinced that Creationism ties into the concept of Evolution. Creationism is the
belief of organisms and the universe originating from an intelligent entity. Can faith and scientific
theories coexist? Yes, I believe that the scientific theory ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"The name Pangaea was coined by Alfred Wegener, Chief proponent of Continental Drift in 1915.",
(Science Daily). Wegener believed that Pangaea formed 300 million years ago, due to continental
drift, which was later discovered as tectonic plate movement. Pangaea, scientists believe, existed
during the Permian and Triassic geological time periods, which were times of great change. The
supercontinent was surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa which assembled in the first
part of the Permian era. Throughout the span of Earth's history there has been numerous Pangaea–
like supercontinents. Moreover, the alternative supercontinents were said to have been formed
during the Precambrian time some 1 billion years ago. For this reason I looked into the movement of
tectonic plates, in present time. Recently I have found that plate motions are bringing the continents
together once again. "Africa has begun to collide with southern Europe, and the Austrian Plate is
now colliding with Southeast Asia", (Encyclopedia, Pangaea). In addition to tectonic plate
movement, fossil evidence proves that Pangaea did in fact exist. Some fossil counts have shown
similar species on continents thousands of miles apart. Additional evidence concludes that Pangaea
has matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of
Africa. While I was researching Pangaea, the idea came acrossed my mind; what if Pangaea had
help from a higher being, like God, rather than tectonic plates. I acknowledge that Pangaea is the
concept of all the land masses on Earth, were at one time, connected, but I think that God had
something to do with it. Genesis 1:9 records, "And God said, 'Let the water under the sky be
gathered to one place, and let the dry ground appear.' And it was so." I have found, nonetheless, that
in the book of Genesis it mentions that the Earth was divided into days of

Why Did Pangaea Break Apart?
Pangaea is real!
The seven continents, Africa, Asia, Europe, north and south America, and Antarctica. We all are
familiar with these continents and where they are placed, but do we really know where they come
from? Or perhaps where they were before? It's simple really, Pangaea, the great and almighty
supercontinent. However, if Pangaea was so great, then why did it break apart? Better yet, why did it
form in the first place? Well, let's find out, why the great Pangaea formed, and how it drifted apart.
In the early years, long before humans roamed the earth, there was a protocontinent it's name was
Gondwana. And of course Gondwana wasn't as big or as mass as Pangaea was, that's because
Gondwana wasn't alone. In fact, there was another protocontinent ... Show more content on
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Closer and closer, until BANG!
Gondwana and Laurasia crashed together, forming what remains now as the appalachians along
eastern North America. When the continents crashed into one another, without realizing it, formed
the supercontinent known presently as Pangaea.
After the collision of Gondwana and Laurasia and the formation of Pangaea, all was calm, for at
least 100 million years give or take. It was the colossal rents that began Pangea's breakup and the
start of our world we know today.
The colossal rents is the precursor of two oceans, the start of the oceans we have come to know as
the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Sidetracked back to the topic at hand here, the breakup of Pangaea
has started as has its slow but sure dance of inches–per–year. This dance will make the shape of the
world we all live on currently.
Far fetched you say? Well my fine friend you would be correct on that part. the idea does seem a
bit... obscure, however that does not mean that i have told you all lies in fact i believe you will start
to believe the idea of a supercontinent to actually be

Analysis: The Tectonic Plate Model
The tectonic plate model project was a fun, yet informative project that showed students how to
effectively move things from one place to another and also how Pangaea moved to how it is today.
By using two big foam boards, big blue sheet, artificial grass sheet, magnets, tape, copy paper, and
pencils, we were able to create an accurate representation of how Pangaea moved from over 4
billion years to now. How we created this project was by using magnets. Magnets are very versatile
and we attached them accordingly onto the continents and poster board to create a moving project of
Pangaea. By gluing magnets onto each continent and the blue sheet, we were able to create moving
continents that show Pangaea's movement. To do this, we followed a

Carboniferous Research Paper
The carboniferous period lasted from about 359.2 to 299 million years ago, during the Paleozoic era.
The name "carboniferous" came from the large amounts of carbon–bearing coal that was formed
during the period. Several major biological, geological, and climatic events occurred at this time.
The amniote egg allowed further exploitation for certain tetrapods. It enabled ancestors of birds,
mammals, and reptiles to lay their eggs on land without fear of being dehydrated. The carboniferous
period was divided into two major subdivisions, the Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian. The
Mississippian was the early half and the Pennsylvanian being the last half. Climatically there was a
trend towards mild temperatures The beginning of the carboniferous generall had more tropical and
humid climates than exists today. The plant fossils form the carboniferous period resemble that they
lived in tropical and mildly temperature areas today. This climate may have been a result of the large
expanse of ocean that covered the surface of the globe, except a localized section. The early part of
the period was warm but the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Life of the carboniferous period was sizable and luxuriant. It included ferns, fernlike trees, giant
horsetails, club mosses, or lycopods, seed ferns, and cardaites. Plants in the Mississippian were
creating lots of oxygen in earths atmosphere. Plants started to develop bark during this time. Land
animals included primitive amphibians, reptiles, spiders, millipedes, land snails, scorpions,
enormous dragon flies, and more than 800 different types of cockroaches. The inland waters
included fishes, clams, and many crustaceans. The Mississippian animals had tetrapods, many grow
in the high humidity and oxygen. Sea life animals included sharks and corals which were

Continental Drift
Continental Drift
Should the Fixists have accepted Alfred Wegeners' idea of continental drift more quickly? I
personally have more sympathy on Wegeners' part, having some very sound evidence to support an
exceedingly well claim. The idea that Pangea, a supercontinent consisting of all the landmasses on
earth, existed 300 million years ago, was all Wegeners'. In this essay, I will give evidence to support
Wegeners' claim such as plate boundaries, glacial scratches, mountain ranges, and fossil evidence.
Plate boundaries are pieces of earths' crust and upper mantle interacting with each other. There are
three ways these plates can interact with each other, transform, convergent, and divergent. When
plates transform to each other, they are when two plates slide past each other, currently there are
transforming plates in California right now. Convergent plates are two plates going towards each
other, one going other the other, and the other overlapping. The final type is divergent plates, two
plates going away from each other, one of these is found between North ... Show more content on
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After all the evidence is scanned and analysed, I do in fact, believe in Wegener, that there was once
a Pangea. Plate boundaries help us determine weather continents are getting farther apart from each
other, or closer together. Glacial scratches tell us that the continents must have been together, or else
there would be less scratches and marks. Mountain ranges tell us that the continents pushed together
and formed lots of mountains. And finally, fossils tell us that organisms such as dinosaurs lived and
thrived on Pangea, and spread their skeletons on the supercontinent. In conclusion, Wegener's idea
of the supercontinent Pangea changed geology forever, even though the Fixists were against it in the
beginning, if this evidence was known in 1920, the time of the Fixists, everyone would be in support
of Wegener's

Essay about Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift
Alfred Wegener was a meteorologist and astronomer. He was the first scientist to introduce the
theory of the continental drift. Wegener theorized that at one time the continents were one large
landmass or Pangaea that had drifted apart. His ideas were initially rejected by other scientists. It
was not until long after Wegener's death that proof was obtained and his theory verified.
The Life of Alfred Wegener Alfred was born in Germany in 1880 and led a very busy life. He
received a PhD in astronomy but quickly moved on to meteorology. He and his brother
experimented with kites and balloons. They set a record flying a balloon during his first expedition
to Greenland in 1906 (PBS, 1998, para. 2). Alfred taught meteorology and ... Show more content on
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Wegener's theory was met with much controversy by other scientists. The fact that he was primarily
a meteorologist and astronomer rather than a geologist further discounted his theory. Wegener
provided numerous explanations and documentation in support of his continental drift theory. He
provided two fossils as evidence. Glossopteris because it had been found on several continents that
were widely separated. Glossopteris, also known as a seed fern fossil, was too large to be
transported by the wind. The other was Mesosaurus which was a small aquatic freshwater reptile
(Lutgens & Tarbuck, 2014, p. 154). Other scientists believed this was possible because land bridges
had once existed or explained it away as drafting. Wegener most likely did not offer fossil sharks or
jellyfish as evidence due to the fact that these fish inhabit all major oceans on the planet.
He also used an Austrian geologist's theory that the continental crust, sial, was lighter than sima and
the sial layer could move across the ocean floor (Healey, 2006, para. 15). Wegener further stated that
the tides could cause the continents to move and later came to the conclusion that magma could also
be responsible for the movement. Wegener made two more journeys to Greenland to conduct
meteorological and geophysical studies. His final trek in 1930 included the examination of the
glacial sheets to provide further evidence regarding

Ancient Africa Research Paper
Africa is the world's oldest inhabited continent, filled with the richest recourses and perhaps the
richest history. However, in order to truly understand Africa's amazing culture and society, we must
first start at the very beginning. We must first look at how Africa came about, why it looks the way
it does and why it's location makes it such a unique place.
Before the continent of Africa existed, the earth was comprised of just one single supercontinent
called Pangaea. To understand how Pangaea was formed we first look at how the earth was formed.
Billions of years ago our solar system was made up of nothing more than dust particles. The
explosion of a nearby star caused these dust particles to form a solar nebula (a huge spinning disk).

Cretaceous Mass Extinction
The Cretaceous mass extinction is the most well–known case of meteorite impact on the earth, but it
certainly is not the only one. It is merely the most well–known. Due to the impact, debris entered
earth's atmosphere and caused the plant life of the time to die off due to the lack of sunlight to
survive. This made food much more scarce for the species that were dominant at the time. The
competition was simply too much for them, and as the plant life died out, so did the herbivores and
then the carnivores died out as well. Not only the land was impacted, however, the sea life was
affected heavily by this impact as well. The lack of sunlight caused the oceans to become colder,
causing the habitats of many marine animals to be drastically altered

Pangea Research Paper
The world once was one big landmass called Pangea. Alfred Wegener, the man who discovered that
Pangea happened, tried to explain to people how he knew Pangea was real. He found lots of
evidence including animal and plant fossils, which showed that some of the fossils of the animals
could only survive in fresh water so they could not swim all the way across a salt water ocean, or
how are they are about 50 of the same types of trees right on the border of South America and
Africa. Next, there are rock sequences, they are the exact same rock layers underground of South
America and Africa. Also, there is glacier evidence that shows that there are glacier marks on rocks
in Africa and South America and those places are way too hot for a glacier.

The Continental Drift Theory: How Pangaea Was Pushed Apart...
The continental drift theory is the theory of how pangaea was pushed apart and made the world we
know today. The theory was that before all humans the continents that made the world was once
combined to make pangea. and over millions of years they slowly separated to make the world we
know today. When I started researching the continental drift I was in the library reading a book
about fossils When I noticed something unfamiliar. It was that that the same species of animals were
dug up at different continents around the world the cynognathus was found in south america and
western africa and the thecodont was found in europe and eastern north america. So I kept reading in
the book at all the animals found in those places. Then I found the

Pangaea Research Paper
Pangaea
We believe that earth was one and all the continents were all together together then something
happened that split them up.About 300 million years ago, Earth didn't have seven continents, but
instead one huge supercontinent called Pangaea, which was surrounded by a single ocean called
Panthalassa. Beyond that, the details get fuzzy. While the heat formed in the mantle likely comes
from the when a radioactive substance breaks down of unstable elements, such as uranium, scientists
don't agree on whether there are mini–pockets of heat flow within the mantle, or if the whole shell is
one big heat conveyor belt.
The supercontinent began to break apart about 200 million years ago.
The explanation for Pangaea's (creation and construction/ group of objects) brought in the modern
explanation of plate (the study of Earth's surface plate movement), which suggests says that the
Earth's outer shell is broken up into (more than two, but not a lot of) plates that slide over Earth's
rocky shell, the mantle. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The current setup of continents is unlikely to be the last. Supercontinents have formed more than
two, but not a lot of times in Earth's history, only to be split off into new continents. Rightnow for
instance, Australia is slowly moving toward Asia, and the eastern part of/amount of Africa is slowly
peeling off from the rest of the continent. Land and rock experts have seen have heard have become
aware of that there is an almost–regular cycle in which supercontinents form and break up every 300
to 400 million years, but exactly why is a mystery, Murphy said. But most scientists believe that the
supercontinent cycle is mostly driven by circulation patterns of relationships, movement, or sound in
the mantle, according to a 2010 article in the Journal of

Plate Tectonics and Landscape
Chapter One The theory of plate tectonics explains how forces within the planet create landforms.
This theory views Earth's crust as divided into more than a dozen, rigid, slow–moving plates. Some
plates are as large as a quarter of the planet, but others are only a few hundred miles across. The
plates slowly move across the upper mantle, usually less than an inch per year. Scientists use the
theory of plate tectonics to explain the long history of Earth's surface. They believe that about a few
million years ago, all the continents that we have now today were part of one super continental
called Pangaea. Pangaea then broke into two smaller supercontinents called Gandwana and
Laurasia. These two then broke into the modern continents we ... Show more content on
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Two Oceanic Plates – When two oceanic plates collide, one may be pushed under the other and
magma from the mantle rises, forming volcanoes in the vicinity. Two Continental Plates – When two
continental plates collide, mountain ranges are created as the colliding crust is compressed and
pushed upwards. Lateral Slipping Plate Movement: When two plates move sideways against each
other (at a transform plate boundary), there is a tremendous amount of friction which makes the
movement jerky. The plates slips, then stick as the friction and pressure build up to incredible levels.
When the pressure is released suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk apart, this is an earthquake.
LANDSCAPE A landscape is part of the Earth's surface that can be viewed at one time from one
place. It consists of the geographic features that mark, or are characteristic of, a particular area. A
natural landscape is made up of a collection of landforms, such as mountains, hills, plains, and
plateaus. Lakes, streams, soils (such as sand or clay), and natural vegetation are other features of
natural landscapes. A desert landscape, for instance, usually indicates sandy soil and few deciduous
trees. Even desert landscapes can vary: The hilly sand dunes of the Sahara Desert landscape are very
different from the cactus–dotted

Using Paleomagnetic Data For The World 's Landmasses Of...
A supercontinent, known as Pangea, was formed by the aggregation of all the world's landmasses in
the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic. This concept of a supercontinent was originally proposed by Alfred
Wegener (Wegener, 1915). He suggested that all continents assembled into a single supercontinent,
approximately 300 million years ago, and then according to the theory of plate tectonics, began to
break apart 175 million years ago (Rogers et al., 2004) Immense geologic and geophysical evidence
have been presented, by Wegener and others, to support this theory for the Late Triassic–Early
Jurassic. However when analyzing the paleomagnetic data for the Late Paleozoic time,
inconsistencies are present which suggest a very different Pangea construction. These
inconsistencies are seen in Late Paleozoic paleomagnetic data apparent polar wander paths
(APWPs) for Laurussia and Gondwana. To fit Wegner's Pangea reconstruction, the APWPs suggest
a substantial crustal overlap and shearing (Domeier et al., 2012). This paper looks to review
proposed alternative reconstructions for Pangea, using paleomagnetic data as the quantifiable
method for determining the supercontinent's location.
Paleomagnetic data as evidence for Plate Tectonics
Paleomagnetism is the study of earth's magnetic field as preserved in the magnetic orientation of
certain minerals. For example, when igneous rocks are formed, during cooling, certain minerals
align themselves with the earth's magnetic field and

Why Did Pangea Really Exist?
Using geological evidence, scientists have determined that there was, in fact, once a supercontinent.
This supercontinent, Pangea, was made up of the seven continents and was a large landmass
surrounded by water. The theory of a supercontinent originated from Alfred Wegener's theory of
continental drift. This theory suggests that continents are slowly drifting around earth. Wegener
wasn't the only one who proposed this theory. The idea has been around since the 16th century, the
first time being by Abraham Ortelius. Wegener used geologic, fossil, and glacial evidence from
opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean to support his theory. During the 1960s, discoveries of sea–
floor spreading and magnetic reversal proved that Wegener's theory was real. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The first piece of evidence that Wegener discovered himself was that the continents look like they fit
together. For example, South America looks like it could fit into Africa. Fossils have played a large
factor in this theory as well. They found similar fossils on Australia and southern Asia, which could
have been next to each other in Pangea. In addition, Wegener discovered that fossils of animals and
plants from the same geological period were found in rocks on different sides of the ocean. Not only
did he find this, but he also saw fossils of animals that once lived in tropical climates now in cold
climates. How could this have happened, you ask. Well, if Pangea did exist, then these animals did
not move to different climates by themselves, but by the continental drift. Finally, the geological
evidence shows that there are similar rock types on the western coast of Africa and eastern coast of
South America. Pangea has a long history, which scientists have seems to uncovered. Our continents
have been drifting apart over billions of years. Pangea existed when dinosaurs were roaming. The
most recent time that Pangea included all seven continents was roughly 300 million years

Why Did Pangaea Exist
1. Continental Drift:
The theory of continental drift was first put forward by Alfred Wegener, a meteorologist and
geologist in Germany. The theory stated that the land on Earth's crust slowly drifted apart. Alfred
Wegener formulated the hypothesis that the modern day continents were once combined about 200
million years ago. He called this supercontinent Pangaea meaning " all–land". Then, he claimed that
Pangaea began to break up into the continents Gondwanaland and Laurasia due to the parts of
Pangaea slowly drifting apart. Millions of years later, the modern day 7 continents were formed.
There are 4 main pieces of evidence to support Pangaea's existence. One piece of evidence would be
that the modern continents have a puzzle–like fit. If the continents can fit together, it ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also, fossil distribution supports that Pangaea existed because the same fossils are found in more
than one continent. Some ancient animals are believed to not be able to survive traveling across an
ocean. This proves that the continents were connected and when the landmass/continent moved, the
remainings of that animal moved with it. For example, the fossil of Mesosaurus was found in both
South America and Africa. Since Mesosaurus lived in only freshwater habitats, there is no
possibility that they traveled back and forth through the salty Atlantic Ocean. Additionally, glacial
marks on rocks support the existence of Pangaea because a continent with mild climate could not
have possibly had a glacier on it due to the fact that the glacier would melt. Therefore, this continent
was located more farther away from the equator at a certain period of time. This means the continent
did move. Finally, mountain ranges give evidence that Pangaea existed and the continents drifted
apart because mountain ranges on 2 continents can match up. For instance, the mountain range in
South Africa line up with a mountain range in Argentina. From this we can conclude that South
America and

Permian Time Frame
The Permian Time frame was the last time of the Paleozoic Time. Enduring from 299 million to 251
million years back, it took after the Carboniferous Time frame and went before the Triassic Time
frame. By the early Permian, the two–extraordinary mainland's of the Paleozoic, Gondwana and
Euramerica, had crashed to frame the supercontinent Pangaea. Pangaea was formed like a thickened
letter "C." The best bend of the "C" comprised of landmasses that would later wind up present–day
Europe and Asia.
North and South America framed the bended back of the "C" with Africa inside the bend. India,
Australia and Antarctica made up the low bend. Inside the "C" was the Tethys Sea, and the greater
part of whatever is left of Earth was the Panthalassic Sea. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The Permian (alongside the Paleozoic) finished with the Permian– Triassic annihilation occasion,
the biggest mass eradication in Earth's history, in which almost 90% of marine species and 70% of
earthbound species kicked the bucket out. It would bring great into the Triassic for life to recoup
from this catastrophe. Recuperation from the Permian– Triassic termination occasion was extended;
ashore, biological communities took 30 million years to recover.
The Permian saw the broadening of the early amniotes into the genealogical gatherings of the warm
blooded creatures, turtles, lepidosaurs, and archosaurs. The world at the time was overwhelmed by
two mainlands known as Pangaea and Siberia, encompassed by a worldwide sea called Panthalassa.
The Carboniferous rainforest crumple left behind huge districts of leave inside the mainland

Modern Pangea Research Paper
If a modern Pangea were to happen, the world would be different and it would affect many
interactions. Objects in the world would be displaced. Other factors that might change may be the
government, economies, societies and immigration. The relations between countries and continents
would change as well. If all the continents were to collide into one supercontinent, things would
have to change. These changes would be both positive and negative. Modern Pangea would be a
very different place than it is today due to animals, transportation, and daily life. First of all, animals
would be able to roam freely. This would be mainly negative for multiple reasons. Invasive species
would definitely endanger other species or even cause them to go extinct. There would have to be
extreme restrictions to prevent the risk of the endangerment or extinction of a species. Animals
could also go extinct because of the climate. If animals might only do well in a warmer climate, then
they most likely would not survive in a colder climate. Since the continent would stay in that
position for several million years, then unless the species is moved to a suitable location, the species
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The usage of planes would probably be terminated, because there would be no need to travel across
any oceans. Instead, high–speed electric trains would be a common method of transportation. This is
phenomenal, because it would no longer harm the environment. Although it means that the need for
traveling overseas will be eliminated, that would cause most of the modern Pangea to be landlocked.
This is unacceptable, because most of the countries would have not direct access to water. Since the
countries would be so close to each other, illegal immigrants would also pose a major problem.
What once was a difficult boat ride across the ocean would now be a climb over a wall. This would
not only affect the U.S and Mexico, but it would affect other countries

Shenandoah National Park And Florida Geologic Setting
Shenandoah National Park and Florida Geologic Setting Introduction Florida and Shenandoah
National Park have many commonalities as well as differences that makes each of these geologic
setting unique. Though North America looks like Florida and Shenandoah National Park never
seemed to collide with one another, Shenandoah has a rock record of being about 1 billion years old
that constructed the North American continent and a building block that formed the Appalachians
through orogenies. Florida falls about 300 million years old with the North American plate, however
findings that were part of Gondwana provides evidence of the origin of Florida. With a vast time
difference of these rock records, what can be furthered analyzed of what the ... Show more content
Rodinia started to rift around 750 to 600 million years ago and the Iapetus Ocean opening up as seen
in Figure 1, the Swift Run Formation with Grenville, volcanic debris and ash material produced the
Catoctin Formation that contains flood basalts supporting Shenandoah. With modern day East Africa
rift and Red Sea curst stretched, this allowed flood basalts and rhyolite seep through the ocean floor
and eventually made its way to the surface. Florida didn't really start until Rodinia started to break
apart through rifting and seafloor spreading. This rifting and seafloor spreading ripped apart the
eastern part of North America and made shorelines that are smaller than coves and high lands near
the surface of the ocean (M.C. Smith, written communication, 2017). This created a conjugate
margin that made North America wait for Gondwana where orogenic belts can be created. Just like
Shenandoah the Iapetus ocean started to open separating land masses Laurentia and Gondwana as
Florida's basement rock comes from the Gondwana region. Within the Neoproterozoic there is
granitoids and igneous rocks that are found in central and northeastern part of Florida as evidence of
Florida being part of Gondwana(M.C. Smith, written communication, 2017). In Figure 2, Findings
of minerals such as schists and quartz

Pangaea Research Paper
Pangaea, the colossal supercontinent, was the first land mass on the Earth. It is a panoramic,
conglomerate of all the continents, which existed during the Triassic and period. The word Triassic
originates from a discovery made by the German paleontologist, Friedrich August von Alberti. In his
discovery he identified and dismantled, three different layers in the rock strata which are now called
the Bunter, Muschelkalk and Keuper. The original names for the rocks where the Trias, which later
became the Triassic. The entire Triassic period occurred between 251 million and 199 million years
ago, which is about 51 million year. It took 6 legacies of mass extinctions to get to the Triassic
period. These extinctions led to the lives of many new organisms on our planet.
Seeing that we are in the 8th grade, we know that dinosaurs existed, but how did these ostentatious
creatures thrive and survive. Most prestigious scientist accede that the first dinosaurs lived around
500 million years ago. Christians and scientist always have irksome clashes on this subject because
of different beliefs. The bible says that the world has only been here for about 6000 years, but it also
says in 2 Peter 3:8, "One day is like a thousand years in God's eyes." For this reason I believe that
the earth might actually be billions of years old. Proof of this theory can be found ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
What's interesting is how long it took for the rock to shift on its side. After months of hard work
paleontologist were able to carbon date the prints back millions of years. It is estimated at about 30
million years around the Jurassic period. After doing further research I found out it happened
because of the continents shifting into the places where they are now. The theory originally was
supposed to have 6 continents instead of 7 but they separated Europe and Asia from each

Alfred Wegener Research Paper
Alfred Wegener was a scientist who proposed the continental drift theory. The hypothesis Wegener
had been the continents were once all together, then over time they drifted apart from each other.
The example Wegener used were jigsaw puzzle. If you put all the continents together, they will
match exactly up such as a puzzle. Plenty of scientist did not agree with Wegener because of his
evidences. Wegener gained more evidences such as similar fossils were on the edge of South
America and Africa, were Wegener believed were once together.
This relates to the origin of man from a geographical perspective because as the Pangaea separate,
the humans where on certain parts and slowly moved with the continent. It happened so slow man
cannot feel the

Alfred Wegener Research Paper
Alfred Wegener
Alfred Wegener was born on November 1st, 1880 in Germany's capital city, Berlin. In university
Wegener took a variety of science classes. He specialized in meteorology, physics, and astronomy.
In 1902 Wegener began a PhD degree in astronomy. He spent a year at Berlin's famous Urania
Observatory, whose purpose was to bring astronomy to a wider public. Although he was qualified to
become a professional astronomer, Wegener worried that he may not discover anything new or
interesting in the world of astronomy. Wegener believed he could make a greater impact and
contribution in meteorology, and he did. Wegener achieved several great accomplishments
throughout his life but, the one we're focusing on is the theory of continental drift.
Continental Drift?
Continental Drift was a groundbreaking scientific theory developed in the years 1910–1912 by
Alfred Wegener , a German ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With the work of other scientists who had theorized about horizontal movement of the continents
over the earth's surface during different periods of geologic time, and based on his own observations
from different fields of science, Wegener deduced that about 200 million years ago the
supercontinent that he called "Pangaea," (means "all lands" in Greek) began to break up.
Evidence
Many people were skeptical and didn't believe in Wegener's radical theory. Other scientist need
more proof that theses huge lands of mass were moving. So Wegener provided five pieces of
evidence. If you were to look on a map what do you notice? The continents slightly look like a
jigsaw puzzle. Wegener noticed that South America and Africa look like they were once connected.
This piece of evidence is what prompted Wegener to investigate in the

Christopher Columbus Rationale
1. Rationale: The class has recently learned about Christopher Columbus. We discussed about
Christopher Columbus sailing around the world and that he supposedly found land. During that
lesson plan the students learned a new vocabulary word which is "continents" and that continents is
another word for land. I will be taking their knowledge about continents already and broaden their
information by demonstrating how continents were once joined land called "Pangaea".
2. Concept:
Pangaea name came from all 7 continents when they were joined together
The Pangaea was once called a "supercontinent"
Continents have drifted away from each other
3. NYS Common Core Standards: Domain 5: Geography 3, History: 4, Science: Earth and Space 4,
Physical

Explain What Was Alfred Wegener's Hypothesis For...
1. What is continental drift?
Continental drift is the gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface through
geological time.
The theory of plate tectonics, which use to be called continental drift, is described as the movement
of the continents and sea floor across the surface of the Earth. The theory explains many odd facts
about Earth's geology, such as the present arrangement of landmasses which have stated that the
Earth's crust slowly drifts atop a liquid core.
2. What was Alfred Wegener's hypothesis for continental drift, and why was his idea not accepted?
Wegener hypothesized that there was a gigantic supercontinent 200 million years ago, which he
named Pangaea, meaning "All–earth". Pangaea started to break up into ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the evidence is Divergent which is almost all of Earth's new crust forms at divergent
boundaries, but most aren't known because they lie deep under the oceans. The next one is
Convergent which is when two plates collide. The last one is Transform which is when two plates
slide by one another in opposite directions The San Andreas Fault is the most known translational
interface.
5. Provide a brief summary of how the scientific method is applied to develop the theory.
The Scientific method is the process of providing evidence to support a theory. You can break it up
into six steps as follows 1. Make an Observation. 2. Develop some questions based on the
observations. 3. Create a Hypothesis on the observations. 4. Test your hypothesis. 5. Analyze the
data collected. 6. Reproduce the experiment and develop controls to replicate with little error.
6. Explain 1 example of invention or innovation that was used or is currently used to collect more
information on the continental drift theory and plate

Continents Adrift: Article Analysis
After reading the article, "Continents Adrift", we learn that our planet is constantly changing, and
that this change has to do with continental drift. As noted on page 196, "About 250 million years
ago, most of the land on Earth was clumped together. Instead of the seven continents, there was a
single large landmass called Pangaea. Over time, Pangaea split apart." The idea that the continents
are drifting or moving apart has been studied by scientists since the late 1700s. For instance,
scientists such as Georges–Louis Leclerc Buffon and Alfred Wegener theorized that continents were
drifting apart. Although these scientists had the right idea, people did not believe them because their
proof wasn't strong enough. As more scientists

How Did Wegener Support The Theory Of Continental Drift
Continental drift is the theory that Earth's continents have moved around the Earth's surface
throughout geologic time to get to where they are at today. The theory of continental drift has been a
controversy, but findings have made the theory more supportive. This theory at the time changed the
way on how we viewed the origin of the continents. It was a big discovery but many were reluctant
to accept the theory. The man that came up with the theory of Continental Drift was Alfred Wegener.
Alfred Wegener was a German geographer and meteorologist who also relied upon other
researcher's hypothesis such as A. Snider and Eduard Suess that helped develop Wegener's theory of
continental drift (Levin, p. 178). Alfred Wegener proposed the idea ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Fit of continents about 200 million years ago (Levin, p.179).
With this in mind, if you did try putting them together, you probably might have put Africa and
South America something close to the figure. It definitely looks like South America and Africa
continents does seem to be a puzzle piece together. For the most part, this was Wegener's simplest
clue but his evidence gets more complex.
Another piece of evidence for his continental drift theory was fossil evidence. In this case, the
fossils that have helped with this theory are the Glossopteris, Mosasaurs, Cynognatus, and
Lystrosaurus fossils. The Glossopteris flora, which is a type of plant that been discovered on all the
continents that were once Gondwana. These continents were Africa, South America, India,
Australian, and Antarctica (Wincander, p. 42). Furthermore, the Glossopteris had to be from the
same origin because the continents now all have different climates, and the seeds pertaining to the
Glossopteris could not have flown far enough due to their heavy weight (Levin, p. 181). As you can
see in figure 3 below, the most reasonable explanation for this. (see figure 3,

Volcanism In Memphis
Ted Mader
Doctor Mostofa Sarwar
EES 1000
19 November 2014
Memphis was at the Coast of the Gulf of Mexico When picturing the state of Tennessee, one would
imagine snow–covered mountains and thick, coniferous forests. Located in the Southeastern United
States, Tennessee sits about 270 m above sea level with its highest point being about 2025 m at
Clingmans Dome. Memphis is the state's most densely inhabited city, with a thriving population of
about 653,450 according to "Population Estimates" in the United States Census Bureau. The
metropolitan center lies about 1094.35 kilometers north of the Gulf of Mexico. However, at a time
about 85 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period, the land of present–day Memphis was
at the coast of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that attempts to explain the movements of the Earth's
lithosphere that have formed the landscape features we see across the globe today" (Briney).
Geology defines "plate" as a large slab of solid rock, and "tectonics" is part of the Greek root word
for "to build." Together the words define how the Earth's surface is built up of moving plates. The
theory of plate tectonics dictates that individual plates, broken down into large and small sections of
rock, form Earth's lithosphere. These fragmented bodies of rock move along each other atop the
Earth's liquid lower mantle to create the plate boundaries that have shaped Earth's landscape. Plate
tectonics originated from meteorologist Alfred Wegener's theory, developed in the early 20th
century. In 1912, he realized that the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa
appeared to piece together like a jigsaw puzzle. He further examined the globe and deduced that all
of Earth's continents could somehow be assembled together and proposed the idea that the
continents had once been linked in a single supercontinent called Pangaea. To explain today's
position of the continents, Wegener theorized that they began to drift apart approximately 300
million years ago. This theory

Overview of Earth´s History and Periods Essay
Precambrian Era The Precambrian era laster 4600–541 million years ago. During this time, there
were no plant life on the planet. Most of the things that were on the planet were rocks. The most
common type of rock was Isua greenstone. Most rocks have been eroded away, subducted, or
metamorphosed. During this time, the atmospheres and oceans were formed, plate tectonics began to
build up continental masses. The air during this time was mostly made up of water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen. Later on, oxygen was formed from early animals taking in carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen. Scientists know this because oxygen was formed with iron, forming iron oxides
(rust); after there were was no more iron to mix with oxygen, so it would ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The anthropodes also evolved in this period, and more than 600 types evolved worldwide.
Ordovician Period The Ordovician Period lasted almost 45 million years. During this period, most
of the area was almost entirely ocean, and most of the world's land was collected into the southern
supercontinent Gondwana. Throughout the Ordovician, Gondwana was submerged underwater. This
period is best known for its animals, including graptolites, trilobites, brachiopods, and the
conodonts. Plants invaded the land during this period. The most recent types of like animal was
tetrahedral spores that are similar to land plants have been found, suggesting that plants invaded the
land at this time. Later during the period, the Earth experienced a milder climate; the weather was
warm and the atmosphere contained a lot of moisture. Although, when Gondwana finally settled on
the South Pole, massive glaciers formed, and caused shallow seas, and sea levels to drop. This most
likely caused extinctions at the end of the Ordovician in which 60% of all marine invertebrate
genera and 25% of all families went extinct. The ecosystems was still dominized by algae and
sponges, and in some cases by bryozoans. However, there apparently were also periods of complete
reef collapse because to global disturbances. The major global patterns of life went through changes
during the Ordovician period. Many species of graptolites went extinct by the close of the period,
but the first planktonic

petro hw #3 Essay
1. What is the first priority of a petroleum engineer? (5 points)
The first priority of a petroleum engineer is safety.
2. What are the 5 elements of a petroleum system labeled on the illustration above? Green indicates
hydrocarbon fill and E refers to the anticlinal structure. (10 points)
A. Top Seal Rock (impermeable shale)
B. Reservoir Rock (Porous sandstone)
C. Source Rock (Organic–Rich shale)
D. Potential migration route (Non–sealing fault)
E. Anticlinal Trap
3. Name the four major disciplines of Petroleum Engineering. (4 points)
Reservoir Engineering, Production Engineering, Petrophysics (Formation Evaluation), and Drilling.
4. What are the three main purposes of drilling fluid (mud)? (6 points) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(10 points)
There are clastics, nonclastics, and evaporites. Clastics include sandstone, which is a reservoir, and
shale, which is a source, trap, and also a reservoir. An example of a nonclastic is carbonate, which is
a reservoir. An example of an evaporite is salt, which is a trap.
10. The seismic reflection coefficient R for the interface between two layers of rock is given
(approximately) by the following equation for normal incidence (sound raypaths hit the interface
between two rock layers at a right angle), where ρ1 is the density of layer 1 (top), ρ2 is the density
of layer 2 (bottom), v1 is the velocity of sound in layer 1 (top) and v2 is the velocity of sound in
layer 2 (bottom):
Calculate the reflection coefficient R if ρ1 = 2.1 gm/cm3, ρ2 = 2.2 gm/cm3, v1 = 1500 m/s, and v2 =
2000 m/s. (5 points)
The reflection coefficient is 0.17
11. Why do Petroleum Engineers care about Plate Tectonics? (4 points)

It tells them about the creation of structures and basins. It also helps them identify places where
there are potential reservoirs or source rocks.
12. Flow from a pressured "zone" (interval of porous rock) encountered while drilling is controlled
when the mud weight in the wellbore provides a pressure that equals or exceeds the pressure of the
zone. There is a pressured zone at 8000psi penetrated while drilling at 15,000ft

Pangae The Evolution Of The Earth
One of the more difficult ideas for people of all ages to comprehend is the immensity of time over
which the Earth has formed and evolved. While most people have some sense that Biology has an
evolving history, the physical Earth has one, too, and they are inextricably linked together.
Scientists think they have a good understanding of how the plates have moved since Pangaea broke
up, but the motion is less clear in the time before Pangaea. Oceanic crust has an average age of only
55 million years (in geological terms, quite young). It is totally recycled into the Earth's interior
every 150 million years or so. On the other hand, the age of continental crust averages about 2.3
BILLION years, with the oldest known rocks dating back 3.96 billion

Pangea Real Research Paper
Was pangea real or is it all a mystery,nobody knows if pangea is real because it still remains a
mystery I think,let's find out.long long ago the earth wasn't seven continents it was just one big
landmass surrounded by a ocean called panthalassa. Alfred winger was the person that found out
about Pangea. He figured out that Africa and South America fit together. And also from my own
experience I was watching The History Channel then there were two of the same dinosaurs in Africa
and South America at the same tip of each continent that's why they know that Pangea is real
because dinosaurs cannot swim across a whole ocean . The mechanism breakup proves that Pangea
is real because each year The continents move 2.5 centimeters. that means over those three million
years ago did moved how far they are today. That is a perfect explanation for how Far apart the
continents are today. That's why I believe in the Pangea theory. And Pangea is also a good. Because
Africa and South america can connect and it would be like one big landmass. ... Show more content
Another thing that interests me is that people figured that out a long time ago when it was really
hard to navigate.I don't get how by looking at a map and seeing that southamerica could probably fit
together with Africa could change everything that people

North America Continents Research Paper

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