Cost analysis of battery

1. EVS28
KINTEX, Korea, May 3-6, 2015
An Overview of Current U.S. DOE Hybrid Electric
Systems R&D Activities
David Howell1
1
Vehicle Technologies Program, EE-2G, U.S. Department of Energy
1000 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20585, USA
E-mail: David.Howell@ee.doe.gov
Abstract
Electric and hybrid vehicle technologies are critical to attaining the long-term U.S. objectives of energy
independence and its associated benefits. The U.S. has actively supported the development of cleaner, more
efficient automotive technologies over the long term. Further impetus for these efforts comes from several
legislative mandates – including parts of the 1975 Energy Policy and Conservation Act and its successive
Acts. Over time, the U.S. has adopted specific strategies and policy initiatives to meet the goals set by such
mandates. Accordingly, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), through its Vehicle Technologies Office
(VTO) has supported the development and deployment of advanced vehicle technologies with electric drive
systems –often in close partnership with industry. This paper provides an overview of the current market
adoption of HEV and EV vehicles in the U.S. and the associated VTO R&D and Deployment initiatives for
accelerating their commercialization. It also highlights the many significant research breakthroughs
resulting from R&D in the hybrid vehicle systems areas of research (with special emphasis on the advanced
automotive battery research activities) funded directly or via collaboration by VTO.
Keywords: EV, Energy Storage, HEV, R&D, Batteries
1 Introduction
This paper provides an overview of the Fiscal
Years (FYs) 2014–2015 Hybrid and Electric
Systems (HES) R&D activities – with special
emphasis on its advanced automotive battery
research – funded by the Vehicles Technologies
Office (VTO) of the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE). VTO spearheads the R&D needed for a
new generation of electric-drive vehicles, by
following a comprehensive research plan [1]
which covers battery R&D, electric drive
components, and vehicle & systems simulation &
testing. Status updates on the Hybrid Electric
Systems (HES) program R&D have been
regularly provided at prior EVS meetings [e.g., 2-
4]. VTO leverages significant resources to address
the technical barriers which are preventing
commercialization of electric drive vehicles
(EDVs). VTO works with automakers and other
industry stakeholders through partnerships such as
the U.S. DRIVE (United States Driving Research
and Innovation for Vehicle efficiency and Energy
sustainability) to fund high-reward/high-risk
research and enable improvements in critical
components to enable more fuel efficient and
cleaner vehicles. As shown in Table 1, there is
significant U.S. commitment to HES – and its FY
2015 budget of $142 million is nearly two and half
times in size compared to its FY 2004 budget.
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 1

2. Table 1: Recent HES R&D budgets.
Fiscal Year (FY) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
HES Budget ($, Million) $57.3 $57.1 $55.6 $72.3 $92.1 $122.7
Fiscal Year (FY) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
HES Budget ($, Million) $142.3 $145.8 $164.9 $156.4 $148.3 $142.0*
*Presidential request
2 Goals, Barriers, and Strategies
2.1 Goals and Technical Barriers
The commercialization of plug-in electric
vehicles (PEVs) by making them cost-
competitive with conventional internal
combustion engine vehicles is an important VTO
goal. This requires reducing the production cost
of market-ready, high-energy, high-power
batteries by 70% in near term and that of
associated market-ready electric drive technology
(EDT) systems at least 60% in the mid-term
(compared with the 2009 costs). Technical
targets for individual battery applications have
been developed in collaboration with the United
States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC).
Current targets for PEV batteries are included in
the VTO program plan [1]. Additional
performance targets (e.g., those for HEVs, EVs,
and ultracapacitors) are available at the USABC
website [5] and also in the VTO Energy Storage
R&D annual progress report [6]. For the EDT
and Vehicle Systems and Simulation Testing
(VSST) the technical targets for peak power,
costs, etc. can be found in the corresponding
sections of the VTO multi-year program plan [1].
2.2 Strategies
Technology development in collaboration with
industry partners can enable the rapid adoption of
new technologies into production vehicles. VTO
works with industry, universities, and national
laboratories to support research on the next-
generation energy storage and electric-drive
technologies. To meet its EV/PEV goals and to
speed up their commercialization, VTO utilizes a
multi-pronged approach involving both near-term
and long-term measures. An example of its near-
term measures includes its emphasis on clean
energy initiatives like the EV Everywhere Grand
Challenge [7] which focuses on the domestic
production of cost-competitive PEVs. Over the
longer term, the VTO R&D strategy involves
funding topical research at national laboratories
and technology development efforts by industry
via cost-shared battery development efforts. These
short- and long-term measures are described in
greater detail in the next sections.
3 The EV Everywhere Grand
Challenge
DOE has in place a 10-Year Vision Plan entitled
“EV Everywhere Grand Challenge” for facilitating
the market feasibility of EDVs. EV Everywhere
would enable American innovators to rapidly
develop and commercialize the next generation of
technologies achieve levels of cost, range, and
charging infrastructure necessary for widespread
EDV deployment. VTO collaborates with outside
stakeholders and the DOE Office of Science,
Office of Electricity, and the Advanced Research
Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E). The EV
Everywhere Blueprint [7] describes the steps
needed to meet its overall goal and additional
technology-specific aggressive “stretch goals”
developed in consultation with stakeholders across
the industry. Figure 1 identifies the battery
advancements necessary for commercial feasibility
in EDV application.
4 Advanced Batteries R&D
DOE supports energy storage R&D at multiple
offices. These include the Office of Basic Energy
Sciences (BES) (which does fundamental research
to understand, predict, and control matter and
energy at electronic, atomic, and molecular levels),
ARPA-E (which conducts high-risk, translational
research with potential for significant near-term
commercial impact), the Office of Electricity
Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) (doing R&D
on modernizing the electric grid, enhancing energy
infrastructure, and mitigating impacts of supply
disruptions), and the Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy (EERE) (supporting work
on advanced clean, reliable, sustainable, and
affordable technologies which would reduce
energy consumption).
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 2

3. 2022 Battery Technology
$125/kWh, 250 Wh/kg, 400 Wh/l, 2,000 W/kg
Lithium-ion batteries in today’s electric
drive vehicles use a combinationof
positive active materials based on nickel,
manganese,or iron; matched with a
carbon or graphite negative electrode.
New concepts in lithium-ion technologies have the
potentialto more than double the performanceand
significantlyreduce the cost. Beyond lithium-ion
technologies (lithium metal,lithium sulfur, and
lithium air) may also meet the challenge.
2012 Battery Technology
$600/kWh, 100 Wh/kg, 200 Wh/l, 400 W/kg
4X Cost
Reduction
2X Size
Reduction
>2X Weight
Reduction
Figure 1: Battery advancements needed to enable a large market penetration of PEVs.
The R&D postures of various DOE offices are
consistent with the applicable technology
readiness levels (TRLs) of the supported
technologies. Technologies at a lower TRL
generally fall within the domain of BES and
ARPA-E, whereas those at higher TRLs would
generally be tackled by EERE. The EERE energy
storage R&D projects (Table 2) cover a range of
activities, from hardware development with
industry to mid-term R&D and focused
fundamental research – all organized to
complement each other. DOE maintains
partnerships with the automotive industry through
the USABC to support the development of such
technologies. The goal is to help develop a U.S.
domestic advanced battery industry making
products which meet USABC goals. More
information on individual energy storage R&D
projects is available in the VTO Energy Storage
R&D annual progress report [6].
4.1 Advanced Battery Development
A significant part of DOE energy storage R&D
includes advanced battery development which
includes systems and materials development
projects. Private battery developers receive cost-
shared funding for technology development.
Several technologies developed partially under
VTO-sponsored projects have moved into
commercial applications over time.
4.2 Battery Testing, Analysis, and
Design
Another significant part of DOE energy storage
R&D includes battery testing, analysis, and
design. Battery technologies are evaluated
according to the USABC Battery Test Procedures
Manual (for EV batteries) [8], the Partnership for
a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) Battery
Test Procedures Manual (for HEV batteries) [9],
or the PEV test procedure manual [10].
4.3 Applied Battery Research
The R&D program entitled Applied Battery
Research (ABR) assists industrial developers of
high-energy/high-power lithium-ion batteries
meet the US-DRIVE long-term battery-level PEV
energy density (~200 Wh/kg) goal, while
satisfying cost, life, abuse tolerance, and low-
temperature performance goals. ABR projects
cover materials development, calendar and cycle
life studies, and abuse tolerance studies, utilizing
the expertise of national laboratories, industry
partners, and several universities toward this end.
4.4 Focused Fundamental Research
The research activity called Focused Fundamental
Research – also called Batteries for Advanced
Transportation Technologies (BATT) – addresses
fundamental issues of chemistries and materials
associated with lithium batteries.
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 3

4. Table 2: An overview of EERE energy storage R&D projects in FY 2014 (from [6]).
Project Area Project Topic Participants
Advanced
Battery
Development
USABC Battery Develoment Projects ENTEK, Envia Systems, JCI, Leyden Energy,
LG Chem MI, Maxwell Technologies, Saft, SKI,
Xerion
Advanced Lithium Battery Cell
Technology
3M, Amprius, Denso, OneD Material, PSU, Seeo,
XALT Energy
Low-cost Processing Research Applied Materials, JCI, Miltec UV International,
Navitas, Optodot Corporation, SBIR
Battery
Testing,
Analysis, and
Design
Cost Assessments and Requirements
Analysis
ANL (2 proj), NREL (3 proj)
Battery Testing Activities ANL, INL, NREL, SNL
Battery Analysis and Design Activities CD-Adapco, EC Power (2 proj), GM, NREL (5 proj),
ORNL, SNL
Applied Battery
Research for
Transportation
Core Support Facilities ANL (3 proj), SNL
Critical Barrier Focus: Voltage Fade in
Lithium-, Manganese-Rich Layered-
Layered Oxide Active Cathode Materials
ANL (5 proj), ORNL
High Capacity Cell R&D: Improvments
in Cell Chemistry, Composition, and
Processing
3M, ANL, Envia, Farasis, PSU, TIAX
Process Development and Manufacturing
R&D
ANL (2 proj), ORNL (3 proj), NREL
Focused
Fundamental
Research
Cathode Development ANL, BNL, LBNL (2 proj), ORNL (2 proj), ORNL,
PNNL, UC San Diego, U. Texas
Anode Development ANL, Binghamton U., Drexel U., GM, LBNL, NETL,
NREL, Penn State U., PNNL, Stanford U., Texas
A&M U., UC Berkeley, U. Pittsburgh, SLAC
Electrolyte Development ANL, Daikin, URI, Wildcat
Cell Analysis, Modeling, and Fabrication BYU, HydroQuebec, LBNL (3 proj), MIT (2 proj)
Diagnostics ANL, BNL, LBNL (2 proj), PNNL, U. Cambridge
Beyond Lithium-Ion Battery
Technologies
ANL (2 proj), ORNL, PNNL (3 proj), UC Berkeley,
U. Texas, BNL/Univ Boston, BNL, SLAC
It attempts to gain insight into system failures and
models to predict them, optimizes systems, and
researches new and promising materials. It
emphasizes the identification and mitigation of
failure modes, materials synthesis and evaluation,
advanced diagnostics, and improved models.
Battery chemistries are monitored continuously
with periodic substitution of more promising
components based on advice from within this
activity, from outside experts and based on
assessments of world-wide battery R&D. The
work is carried out by a team which includes the
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
and several other national labs, universities, and
commercial entities. More information on BATT
appears at its website [11]. BATT has recently
been reorganized and is transitioning into a new
activity named the advanced battery materials
research (BMR), more information on which will
appear in future reports.
4.5 Energy Storage Collaborative R&D
In addition to the R&D described above, many
VTO-funded small business innovation research
(SBIR) projects focused on new battery materials
and components provide valuable support to EV
and HEV battery development efforts. DOE also
conducts extensive ongoing coordination efforts
with other government agencies, e.g., the
Chemical Working Group of the Interagency
Advanced Power Group (IAPG) and technical
meetings sponsored by other government
agencies. DOE is a member of the Executive
Committee of the International Energy Agency
(IEA) Implementing Agreement on Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles and participates in various
Annexes of the Implementing Agreement. It
attends the IEA Executive Committee meetings
held in various countries and provides status
updates on other implementing agreements.
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 4

5. 5 Recovery Act Projects
5.1 ARRA Manufacturing Projects
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of
2009 (ARRA) (Public Law 111-5) was an
economic stimulus package enacted by the 111th
United States Congress in February 2009. As part
of its implementation, the U.S. provided $2.4
Billion in one-time manufacturing grants [12] to
accelerate the manufacture and deployment of the
next generation of U.S.-made batteries and EDVs.
The awards, distributed across the U.S., included
$1.5 billion in grants to U.S.-based manufacturers
to produce batteries and components and expand
battery recycling capacity. The manufacturing
areas for these ARRA projects included material
supply, cell components, cell fabrication, pack
assembly, and recycling. Table 3 lists some of the
facilities where these manufacturing projects are
located.
5.2 Current Status of ARRA Projects
Most ARRA manufacturing facility projects for
battery/materials have been completed and
production has begun at the associated facilities.
Figure 2 shows a geographical distribution of the
various U.S. advanced battery manufacturing-
associated domestic capabilities developed over
the last six years. It is observed that the number of
large-scale manufacturers for such batteries went
up from zero to eight. Similarly impressive gains
are observed in the number of battery materials
producers, start-up battery companies as well as
major battery R&D facilities.
Table 3: Current Production Status for Some Battery Facilities Funded by ARRA Grants.
Type Company Facility Location (Status)
Cell &
Pack
Production
A123Systems Cathode, cell, pack assembly, Livonia & Romulus, MI (in production)
Dow Kokam Cell & pack assembly, Midland, MI (Production in pre-buy-off run)
East Penn Advanced Lead Acid battery in PA (in production)
EnerDel Cell production & pack assembly at Fishers & Mt Comfort, IN
(Commercial pack assembly – cells sourced from Korean affiliate)
Exide Advanced lead acid battery, Columbus, GA (in production)
General Motors Battery pack assembly at Brownstown, MI (Successful start of regular
production for the Chevrolet Volt EREV battery pack)
JCI Cell production & pack assembly, Holland, MI (in production)
LG Chem, MI Cell & pack capability, Holland, MI (Phase I facility in production)
SAFT Cell production, Jacksonville, FL (in production)
Cathode TODA Battle Creek, Michigan (in production)
BASF Elyria, OH (in production)
Anode EnerG2 Albany, OR (in production)
FutureFuel Batesville, AR (in production)
Pyrotek Sanborn, NY (in production)
Separator Celgard Charlotte, NC & Concord, NC (in production)
Entek Lebanon, OR (engineering scoping completed)
Electrolyte Honeywell Buffalo, NY & Metropolis, IL (Li-salt pilot plant operational)
Novolyte
(BASF)
Zachary, LA (equipment installation)
Lithium Rockwood
Lithium
Silver Peak, NV & Kings Mountain, NC (lithium hydroxide in
production)
Cell
Hardware
H&T
Waterbury
Waterbury, CT (in production)
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 5

6. Figure 2: Progress in U.S. domestic advanced battery manufacturing capabilities (from 2008 – 2013).
6 Recent Highlights
The following is a brief summary of the key
battery R&D-related technical accomplishments
resulting from funding by HES – which are
described in greater detail in the corresponding
section of the VTO Energy Storage R&D annual
progress report [6].
6.1 Electric Drive Vehicle Market
6.1.1 U.S. Electric Drive Vehicle Sales
The U.S. represents the world’s leading market
for electric vehicles and is producing some of the
most advanced PEVs available today. Consumer
excitement and interest in PEVs is growing, with
sales continuing to increase, despite the recent
drop in gasoline prices. In 2012, PEV sales in the
U.S. tripled, with more than 50,000 cars sold. In
2013, PEV sales increased by 85% with over
97,000 vehicles sold. In 2014, PEV sales
increased by 23% with annual sales of 118,773
PEVs recorded.
6.1.2 PEV Recognition Awards
PEVs also have won critical acclaim with awards
such as 2011 World Car of the Year (Nissan
Leaf), 2013 Motor Trend Car of the Year (Tesla
Model S), the 2012 Green Car Vision Award
Winner (Ford C-MAX Energi), and a plug-in
electric vehicle (Chevrolet Volt) beat all other
vehicle models in Consumer Reports’ owner
satisfaction survey for two consecutive years.
6.1.3 Commercialization Linkages
A 2013 analysis by RTI International in Research
Triangle Park, NC determined that DOE’s $971
million R&D investment in advanced battery
technology for electric drive of vehicles (EDVs)
from 1991-2012 directly led to the
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 6

7. commercialization of the 2.4 million EDVs sold
between 1999-2012 that incorporate nickel metal
hydride and Li- ion batteries, which are projected
to reduce U.S. fuel consumption by $16.7 billion
through 2020. The study also found that VTO-
funded research contributed to knowledge base in
energy storage that resulted in 112 patent families
in energy storage over the timeframe 1976 to
2012 and is ranked first in patent citations among
the top-ten companies.
6.2 Advanced Batteries
6.2.1 Commercial Applications
Several technologies, developed partially under
VTO-sponsored projects, have moved into
commercial applications. Hybrid electric vehicles
on the market from BMW and Mercedes are using
Li-ion technology developed under projects with
Johnson Controls Inc. (JCI). JCI will also supply
Li-ion batteries to Land Rover for hybrid drive
sport utility vehicles. Li-ion battery technology
developed partially with DOE funding of a
USABC project at LG Chem is being used in
GM’s Chevrolet Volt extended-range electric
vehicle (EREV), the Cadillac ELR EREV, and
also in the Ford Focus EV battery. LG Chem will
also supply Li-ion batteries to Eaton for hybrid
drive heavy vehicles.
6.2.2 PEV Battery Cost Reduction
The 2014 DOE PHEV Battery Cost Reduction
Milestone of $300/kWh has been accomplished.
DOE-funded research has helped reduce the
current cost estimates from three DOE-funded
battery developers for a PHEV 40 battery average
$289 per kilowatt-hour of useable energy. This
cost projection is derived using material costs and
cell and pack designs, provided by the developers,
input into ANL’s Battery Production and Cost
model (BatPaC); the cost is based on a production
volume of at least 100,000 batteries per year. The
battery cost is for batteries that meet the
DOE/USABC system performance targets. The
battery development projects focus on high
voltage and high capacity cathodes, advanced
alloy anodes, and processing improvements.
Proprietary details of the material and cell inputs
and cost models are available in spreadsheet form
and in quarterly reports. DOE’s goals are to
continue to drive down battery cost to $125/kWh
by 2022.
6.2.3 Si Nanowaire Breakthrough
Amprius Inc’s Li-ion battery cells containing
silicon nanowire anodes (and following the
strategy shown in Figure 3) provided 260Wh/kg
(~50% more specific energy than SOA cells) and
demonstrated good cycle life (less than 5-7% fade
after 290 cycles).
Figure 3: Amprius’ nanowires address swelling issue
by allowing Si to swell.
6.2.4 Battery design Software
GM/Ansys/ESim/NREL developed and released a
battery design software suite to reduce battery
development time and cost. The software package
permits thermal response, cycle life modeling,
abuse response modeling of battery cells and
packs (Figure 4). Customers are currently using
this tool for battery design.
ANSYS BATTERY DESIGN TOOL (ABDT)
Field Simulation
(Fluent)
System Simulation
(Simplorer)
Reduced-Order
Models (ROM)
Workbench Framework and UI
templates templates
hAS files
Simplorer UI
(other
tools)
Figure 4: Conceptual view – ANSYS battery design
tool.
6.2.5 Cathode Slurry Processing
Johnson Controls Inc. demonstrated certain novel
cathode slurry processing techniques (Figure 5)
that reduced N-Methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solvent
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 7

8. use by 32% and increased coated electrode
density by 31%.
Figure 5: JCI’s cathode slurry processing technique: a)
Inline mixer b) Calendared electrode (inline mixed).
6.2.6 Novel Binders
Miltec International Inc. developed stable, first-
of-its-kind, UV curable binders for Li-ion
cathodes and demonstrated novel cathode slurry
processing techniques. The process reduced NMP
solvent use by 100%, achieved cathode containing
87% NMC, and achieved cathode thickness and
porosity similar to those of conventional
electrodes (~60 mm and ~25%). Prototype cells
retained 50% of their capacity after 2,000 1C/1C
cycles.
6.2.7 R&D Funding Awards
In January 2014, DOE released a Funding
Opportunity Announcement (FOA) that solicited
proposals in the areas of energy storage, electric
drive systems, lightweight materials, and auxiliary
load reductions in support of the EV Everywhere
Grand Challenge. In August 2014, DOE
announced the selection of 19 new projects. The
nineteen projects are aimed at reducing the cost
and improving the performance of key PEV
components. These include improving “beyond
Li-ion technologies” that use higher energy
storage materials, and developing wide bandgap
(WBG) semiconductors that offer significant
advances in performance while reducing the price
of vehicle power electronics. Other projects focus
on advancing lightweight materials research to
help EVs increase their range and reduce battery
needs, and developing advanced climate control
technologies that reduce energy used for
passenger comfort and increase the drive range of
plug-in electric vehicles. Specifically, in the area
of advanced batteries, 9 projects totaling $11.3
million, were awarded for beyond-lithium-ion
battery technologies, including polycrystalline
membranes, nanomaterials, high-capacity
cathodes, Li-air batteries, Li-sulfur batteries, and
electrolyte chemistries. All these projects were
initiated in September 2014.
In August 2014, DOE awarded 14 projects under
its “Incubator Program” with small businesses and
universities. Specifically, in the area of energy
storage, DOE awarded 6 projects totaling $7.4
million related to battery design and
manufacturing advancements.
7 Future R&D Directions
Battery development projects on transformational
technologies have the potential to significantly
reduce the cost of HEV and micro-hybrid vehicle
batteries and are therefore expected to continue.
These include development of robust prototype
cells containing new materials and electrodes
offering a significant reduction in battery cost
over existing technologies. R&D will also
continue to expedite the development of more
efficient electrode and cell designs and fabrication
processes to reduce the cost of production of large
format lithium-ion batteries. Pack-level
innovations will continue to be sought to reduce
the weight and cost of thermal management
systems, structural and safety components, and
system electronics (currently, “non-active”
components of a battery can increase the volume
and account for up to 70% of the battery weight),
and to reduce the cost of the finished product. To
further accelerate the market entry of advanced
batteries, DOE will continue to support the scale-
up, pilot production, and commercial validation of
new battery materials and processes. (New
materials for advanced cathodes, anodes, and
electrolytes developed by universities, national
laboratories, and industry are often limited in
scope because of inability to commercially scale-
up such materials.) Studies of recycling and reuse
of lithium batteries will also continue.
A larger portion of battery research will focus on
beyond-lithium-ion battery technologies with the
potential of having very high energy and low cost.
Examples include solid-state (lithium metal with
solid electrolytes), lithium sulfur and lithium air
batteries. These promise two to five times higher
theoretical energy densities than traditional Li-
ion. Research is also needed to advance certain
next generation non-lithium couples technologies
(e.g., magnesium, zinc) from university/
laboratory arena to industrial development by
developing/testing full cells. Table 4 contains a
list of the many technologies being investigated or
likely to be investigated as part of future R&D on
advanced batteries. The two research areas listed
in that table are described in greater detail below.
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 8

9. Table 4: List of future research topics for R&D related to advanced batteries.
Research Area Research Topics
Next generation Li-
ion batteries
• New high voltage/high capacity cathodes
• High energy alloy anodes
• New and improved alloy anodes
• Advanced and novel electrolytes
• Separators
• Manufacturing innovations
• Enhanced abuse tolerance
• Improved thermal management
• Computer aided battery designs
Beyond Li-ion
batteries
• Fundamental issues associated with cycling Li metal anodes and potential
solutions to those issues (coatings, novel oxide- and sulfide-based glassy
electrolytes, and in situ diagnostics approaches)
• Additional issues for cathodes (stabilizing, polysulfides, smaller hysteresis,
better rate, and better reversibility), anodes (Li metal interface, combatting
formation of mossy lithium), and electrolytes (flammability, stability, solid
electrolyte, etc.).
• Other beyond-lithium-ion research areas
7.1 Next Generation Li-ion Battery
R&D
This area’s goal is to advance the performance of
materials, designs, and processes that significantly
improve the performance and reduce the cost of
Li-ion batteries using a non-metallic anode.
Specific areas of investigation include high-
energy anodes (e.g., containing Si or Sn), high
voltage cathodes, high voltage and non-flammable
electrolytes, novel processing technologies, high
energy and low cost electrode designs, and others.
7.1.1 High Voltage Cathodes
The work on advanced cathodes primarily focuses
on the Li-Mn rich oxide materials of general
formula xLi2MnO3•(1-x)LiMO2 (M = Ni, Mn,
Co), the 5V spinel materials (LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4),
traditional NMC operated at higher voltages, and,
to a lesser extent, on the higher voltage silicates
and phosphates. Figure 6 shows the theoretical
specific energies of some of the main cathode
materials under investigation.
7.1.2 Advanced and Novel Electrolytes
Current electrolytes typically include a blend of
cyclic and linear carbonate solvents and LiPF6
salt, and provide good performance and stability.
However, the solvents are highly flammable with
typically a high vapor pressure, causing them to
out gas at elevated temperatures, building up
pressure within cells over time. Also, the LiPF6
salt is known to react almost instantly with water,
producing HF, which in turn attacks nearly all
elements of the cell. This reaction contributes to
the challenges in Li-ion cells’ high temperature
capability. Work on new electrolytes and
additives is focused on one or more of the
following possible improvement areas: high
voltage stability; high temperature stability, low
temperature operation; abuse tolerance; lower
cost; and possibly longer life through SEI
stabilization.
Figure 6: Theoretical Cathode Energy Densities (LFP =
Li iron phosphate, NMC = nickel, manganese, cobalt
oxide, LNMO = 5V Ni Mn spinel, LCP = lithium
cobalt phosphate, Li-Mn rich oxides).
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 9

10. The exploratory materials program is supporting
seven electrolyte projects which are developing
plastic-like glassy electrolytes; flame retardant
liquid electrolytes; single ion conductor
electrolytes (which would enable the use of much
thicker electrodes); new salts providing better
high temperature stability; and electrolytes that
enable much lower temperature operation (see
Figure 7) as well as theoretical investigation into
high voltage stability and electrolyte blends that
may lead to more stable SEIs on graphite.
Work will continue on new flame retardant
electrolyte additives, new inflammable solvents,
and new salts that offer improved high
temperature stability. Specific additives will be
sought to help stabilize the SEI on alloy anodes,
and to stabilize the surface of high voltage
cathodes like LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4.
Figure 7: Discharge Capacity for a Baseline Electrolyte (left) and an Improved Methyl Proprionate Electrolyte (right)
for Cells Cycled from C/10 to 5C.
7.1.3 Separators
Current work is focusing on developing separators
that provide enhanced abuse tolerance, better high
voltage stability, and improved low temperature
operation. Some of the technologies being
developed include a ceramic impregnated
separator that shows much improved low
temperature performance and greatly increased
high temperature melt integrityand a separator and
process to permit direct deposition onto anode
and/or cathode sheets.
7.1.4 Manufacturing Innovations
Manufacturing costs can be a significant fraction
of cell and system costs. DOE and U.S. DRIVE
are investigating manufacturing techniques that
have potential to increase cell performance while
reducing cost, including: new UV and EV curable
binders to permit faster and less expensive slurry
drying; use of aqueous or dry binding
technologies; and fast formation techniques. In
the laboratory programs, researchers are
investigating technologies to produce very thick
(1 mm vs. 100 µm) electrodes with aligned pores;
spray pyrolysis techniques for active material
production; and new diagnostic technologies to
investigate manufacturing techniques in situ.
7.1.5 Enhanced Abuse Tolerance
The design of abuse tolerant energy storage
systems begins with the specification of relevant
abuse conditions and the desired responses to
those conditions. The advanced material and cell
programs fund projects to improve the intrinsic
stability of Li-ion battery chemistries through
development of new materials, and
characterization of advanced commercial
materials. Some of those research topics include
coated cathodes and anodes, non-flammable
electrolytes, solid polymer and glassy electrolytes,
ceramic coated or impregnated separators, and
overcharge shuttles and polymer overcharge
protection materials. Researchers are also
evaluating polymer materials that conduct
electricity above a certain potential, thus
providing an overcharge protection mechanism.
An overcharge shuttle appropriate for Li iron
phosphate batteries has been developed and
licensed by Argonne. Coatings and concentration
gradient cathode materials are also being
developed with the goal of enabling higher
voltage operation and enhancing abuse tolerance
of Li-ion batteries. Also, phosphazene based
electrolytes are being developed at INL and tested
at SNL and are showing promise in reducing the
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 10

11. heat released during thermal runaway. Developers
have developed a heat resistant layer to enhance
the cells’ ability to avoid internal shorts; coated
and ceramic impregnated separators to guard
against internal short circuits; and novel thermal
management technologies to closely control the
temperatures that cells are exposed to. There are
certain additional activities also, e.g.: preparing a
“Permanent SEI”. The use of novel thermal
management approaches could both manage the
battery’s temperature and potentially reduce
overall cost.
7.1.6 Computer Aided Battery Design
(CAEBAT)
DOE has supported the development of Computer
Aided Battery Design software with the goal of
developing an integrated suite of battery design
software tools. Electrochemical performance
simulations and thermal design software are being
improved and integrated to form a full battery
design suite.
7.2 Beyond Li-Ion Battery R&D
“Beyond Li-ion” technologies, such as Li/sulfur,
and Li/air, offer a further increase in energy and
potentially greater reductions in $/Wh compared
to next-gen lithium ion batteries. However, these
systems require many more breakthroughs, some
on a fundamental material level, before they can
be considered for real-world use. DOE is
investigating the fundamental issues associated
with cycling Li metal anodes as well as potential
solutions to those issues. The main research
topics for these investigation include: coatings,
novel oxide and sulfide-based glassy electrolytes,
and in-situ diagnostics approaches to characterize
and understand Li metal behaviour during
electrochemical cycling.
Researchers are developing two separate
electrolytes for Li/air systems; investigating the
role of catalysts on Li/air cathode reversibility and
hysteresis; novel carbons for Li/air cathode
applications; novel sulfur cathode architectures
based on mesoporous carbons; and polysulfide
solvents to manage polysulfide concentrations in
the electrolyte. Researchers in the advanced cell
R&D program are also developing and testing a
series of organosilicon electrolytes in Li air cells.
Work by developers is focused on
commercializing a block copolymer electrolyte
that impedes Li dendrite formation (this
technology has shown thousands of cycles with
little capacity degradation, and has also shown
good abuse tolerance through testing by
independent third parties). Other work is
progressing on a nanocomposite sulfur cathode
(with accompanying electrolyte) (see Figure 8);
and on a silane based electrolyte for use in Li/S
cells.
Figure 8: Performance of a Li/S Cell with a New
Electrolyte Developed by the Team of Penn State
University, EC Power, Johnson Controls Inc., and
Argonne National Laboratory.
The challenges facing beyond lithium-ion battery
systems are numerous, with issues remaining on
the cathode, the anode, and the electrolyte. Some
of the research that will be pursued in coming
years includes:
• Efforts to stabilize the lithium metal interface
during cycling. (Options to be evaluated
include coatings, dopants, solid glassy
electrolytes, electrolyte dopants, and others.)
• Expand and evaluate options for stabilizing
the sulfur cathode. Recent attempts in the
literature include core/shell like approaches
and egg/yolk structures to isolate the
polysulfides from direct contact with the
electrolyte, the use of mesoporous carbon to
slow the dissolution of polysulfides, and
search for solvents to remove lithium sulfides
from the anode interface.
• Fundamental investigation of reaction
mechanisms and dynamics on the air cathode
(likely in collaboration with the recently
awarded Energy Storage Hub team).
• Impact of carbon structure and pore
distribution on air cathode performance.
• Low cost catalysts for air cathodes.
• New electrolytes for air and sulfur batteries
• Use of highly volatile liquid electrolytes.
• In addition to the specific technical topics
listed above, multi-valent materials, like Mg,
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 11

12. may be investigated along with other non-Li
systems like Na, Zn, or Al.
8 Conclusions
DOE Vehicle Technologies R&D activities for
hybrid electric systems include advanced batteries
(which this paper focuses on), electric drive
components, and simulation and testing for
transportation applications and currently
emphasize PEVs. The past successful
commercialization of DOE-funded batteries is a
testimony to the success already achieved by its
cooperative programs. Future advances in HES
technologies will be leveraged with progress in
other enabling technologies (e.g., heat engines,
lightweight materials, and fuels) to accomplish
challenging VTO goals. The Program will
continue to reassess longer-term candidate
technologies for propulsion systems promising
performance, life, and cost benefits.
References
[1] Office of Vehicle Technologies, Vehicle
Technologies Multi-Year Program Plan, 2011-
2015 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfu
els/pdfs/program/vt_mypp_2011-2015.pdf,
accessed on 2015-01-20.
[2] Howell, D., Current Fiscal Year (2012 – 2013)
Status of the Hybrid and Electric Systems R&D at
the U.S. – DOE, the 27th International Battery,
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Symposium (EVS27), Barcelona, Spain,
November 17-20, 2013.
[3] Howell, D., Hybrid and Electric Systems R&D at
DOE: Fiscal Year 2011-2012 Status, the 26th
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell
Electric Vehicle Symposium (EVS26), Los
Angeles, California, May 6-9, 2012.
[4] Howell, D., FY 2009 Status Overview of D.O.E.
Hybrid and Electric Systems R&D, the 25th
World Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicle Symposium & Exhibition, Shenzhen,
China, Nov. 2010.
[5] United States Advanced Battery Consortium
(USABC)/
USCAR, http://www.uscar.org/guest/teams/12/U-
S-Advanced-Battery-Consortium-LLC, accessed
on 2015-01-20.
[6] Vehicle Technologies Office, Energy Storage
R&D, Fiscal Year 2013 Annual Progress Report,
United States Department of Energy,
Washington, DC, January 2014.
[7] The EV Everywhere Grand Challenge
Blueprint, http://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/downlo
ads/ev-everywhere-grand-challenge-blueprint,
accessed on 2015-01-20.
[8] United States Advanced Batteries Consortium,
USABC Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedure
Manual, Rev. 2, U.S. D.O.E., DOE/ID 10479,
January 1996.
[9] U.S. Department of Energy, PNGV Battery Test
Procedures Manual, Rev. 2, August 1999,
DOE/ID-10597.
[10] U.S. Council for Automotive Research, RFP and
Goals: Advanced Battery Development for
PEVs, http://www.uscar. org/, accessed on 2015-
01-20.
[11] Berkeley Electrochemical Research Council,
Batteries for Advanced Transportation
Technologies, Lawrence Berkeley National
Lab, http://batt.lbl.gov/home/, accessed on 2015-
01-20.
[12] The White House Press Release, Grants to
Accelerate the Manufacturing and Deployment of
the Next Generation of U.S. Batteries and
Electric Vehicles, August 5,
2009. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/24-billion-grants-accelerate-
manufacturing-and-deployment-next-generation-
us-batter, accessed on 2015-01-20.
Author
David Howell
Program Manager
Hybrid Electric Systems
Vehicle Technologies Office
U.S. Department of Energy
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20585 (USA)
Tel: 202-586-3148
Fax: 202-586-2476
Email: David.Howell@ee.doe.gov
EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 12