EU Funded CE RFID Workpackage

WP1 – Roadmap
Working Draft 1.3, Final Report
Dr. Leif Wiebking
Gerhard Metz
Siemens AG
Miia Korpela
Mikko Nikkanen
Dr. Katariina Penttilä
UPM Raflatac
February 18, 2007

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Document History
Version Date Author Chapter Remarks
V1.0 12.9.2007 G. Metz All Initial version
V1.1 4.12.2007 G. Metz All Revised version after considering
Comment Matrix CE RFID WP1
from coordinator/secretariat, step
2
V1.2 18.1.2008 VDI/VDE-IT All Layout. Proofreading
V1.3 18.2.2008 G. Metz All Review, Minor Changes, Comments
from UPM Raflatac included
Table 1 Document history

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Executive Summary
The coordination action CE RFID funded by the European Union is divided into
eight work packages. This is the final report of work package 1 entitled “RFID
Roadmap”.
Objectives of work package 1: RFID roadmap
The work package should give a clear overview of the actual state-of-the-art
of RFID technology and its future developments in order to gain a more objec-
tive discussion on RFID. Although the coordination action considers the impor-
tance of passive RFID technology for the use in mass market applications like
retail and logistics, RFID is seen as a broad area of technologies with different
physical properties and limits. Users, legislation bodies, citizens, and NGOs
are often not aware of the basic technology conditions of RFID which might
result in a misunderstanding of the benefits, costs, and risks of RFID. Fre-
quently, properties of different RFID technologies are combined incorrectly
(e.g. low cost 5-cent-tag and reading ranges up to 100 metres), leading to
wrong expectations of RFID performance.
Work Package 1 presents a basic overview of the RFID technologies currently
available on the market together with their specifications. It investigates ma-
jor international R&D activities that have been published so far with respect to
RFID and tries to identify pre-sent gaps and bottlenecks that still remain to be
solved in order to support broad implementation of RFID technologies.
Based on the findings, a timeline of future RFID developments and a possible
RFID roadmap will be outlined. The coordination action CE RFID also benefits
from the roadmap of the European technology platform “European Technology
Platform on Smart Systems Integration” (EPoSS) outlined in its Strategic Re-
search Agenda (SRA).
Objectives of this final report
Based on a decision of the project consortium this final report contains all in-
formation previously collected in draft versions of intermediate reports. There-
fore, the objectives of this document are identical to the work package objec-
tives (see above). The three main topics of work package 1 are:
RFID technologies — state-of-the-art
RFID technologies — international R&D activities
RFID technologies — bottlenecks and R&D approaches

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Results and recommendations to the stakeholders
Europe has a strong position within the RFID market. In the low frequency
(LF) and high frequency (HF) technology areas Europe currently takes the
leading position (2007). In the ultra-high frequency (UHF) sector many retail
companies make progress in the rollout of most recent RFID technology
(Class 1 Generation 2, short: Gen 2) for the supply chain management (full
rollout is expected in 2008). On a first step pallets and cases will be tagged.
“Gen 2” tags provide a “kill-command” feature that allows to permanently
disable the tag after usage (e.g. at the point of sale (POS)), addressing pri-
vacy issues of consumers carrying those tags. Other upcoming application
fields are: RFID and anti-theft systems, Food monitoring (cool chain), elec-
tronic goods, asset management, access control, tracking and tracing, ticket-
ing, and industrial applications (production, automation, manufacturing, proc-
ess control).
Although there are many systems and different RFID technologies available
on the market, there is still room for R&D in the industry as well as in acade-
mia in order to overcome remaining technological bottlenecks. There are
hardware related recommendations (e.g. improved on-metal-tags, ultra-low
power tags, packaging and mounting, printable electronics, sensor applica-
tions, multi-frequency/multi-standard readers, low-cost manufacturing, local-
isation, new materials/robustness, tags with displays, environmentally com-
patible tags, system on chip), application related recommendations (e.g. sen-
sor networks, reading rates near 100%, “last mile” support, new applications,
market studies), network/software/systems related recommendations (e.g.
plug and play infrastructure, Internet of Things, international ONS, data proc-
essing/networks, standard interfaces, smart systems), standards/regulations
related recommendations (e.g. UHF harmonisation, harmonised EU regula-
tions, vendor interoperability, peer-review encryption techniques, fallback
procedures), and data security/data protection/privacy related recommenda-
tions (e.g. privacy by design, increasing public acceptance, information, kill-
tag-feature, prevent unnoticed tag reading, network data security).

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Table of Contents
1 Approach .............................................................................. 18
1.1 Definition of work package topic ............................................... 18
1.2 Structure of work package topics.............................................. 19
1.2.1 RFID technologies — state-of-the-art ........................................ 19
1.2.2 RFID Technologies – international R&D activities......................... 20
1.2.3 RFID Technologies – bottlenecks and R&D approaches................. 20
1.3 Relevant stakeholders............................................................. 21
1.3.1 Stakeholder group “Research & Development”............................ 21
1.3.2 Stakeholder group “RFID technology suppliers”........................... 22
1.3.3 Stakeholder group “business associations” ................................. 24
1.3.4 Stakeholder group “government & governmental institutions”....... 25
1.3.5 Stakeholder group “standardisation organisations” ...................... 25
1.3.6 Stakeholder group “quasi-autonomous and non-governmental
organisations”........................................................................ 25
1.3.7 Stakeholder group “RFID end user companies” ........................... 26
1.3.8 Contribution .......................................................................... 26
2 Methodology.......................................................................... 28
2.1 Assessment criteria ................................................................ 28
2.2 Methods................................................................................ 29
3 State-of-the-art and Analysis ................................................... 32
4 Application View..................................................................... 33
4.1 RFID vs. barcode and OCR....................................................... 33
4.1.1 Mapping to the reference model ............................................... 35
4.2 RFID Reference Model............................................................. 37
4.3 Application examples .............................................................. 40
4.3.1 Logistics, supply chain management at Metro Group.................... 40
4.3.2 Identity management, security, access control ........................... 41
4.3.3 Contactless smart card “Mifare”................................................ 41

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4.3.4 Contactless smart card “FeliCa” ................................................43
4.3.5 µ-chip ...................................................................................44
4.3.6 Animal identification................................................................45
4.3.7 Automation, production management, manufacturing ..................45
4.3.8 Automotive ............................................................................46
4.3.9 Smart drug cabinet .................................................................46
4.3.10 Medical, pharmaceutical, health care .........................................46
4.3.11 VeriChip ................................................................................47
4.4 Niche applications ...................................................................47
4.4.1 Tree identification ...................................................................48
4.4.2 Identification of bees...............................................................48
4.4.3 Railroad car identification.........................................................48
4.5 Mapping to the reference model................................................49
5 Transponder Classes View ........................................................51
5.1 EPCglobal classes....................................................................51
5.1.1 Passive tags...........................................................................52
5.1.2 Semi-passive tags...................................................................53
5.1.3 Active tags.............................................................................53
5.1.4 Mapping to the reference model................................................54
6 ISO/OSI Network Model View ...................................................57
6.1 Tag/reader interface................................................................60
6.2 Reader/edge server interface....................................................64
6.3 Edge server/integration server interface.....................................65
6.4 Integration server/integration server interface ............................67
6.5 Mapping to the reference model................................................68
7 Technological View..................................................................71
7.1 Air interfaces..........................................................................71
7.1.1 Inductive coupling...................................................................71
7.1.2 Electromagnetic field coupling...................................................73
7.1.3 Mapping to the reference model................................................81

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7.2 Reader technology.................................................................. 85
7.3 Antenna arrangements............................................................ 92
7.4 Transponder technology .......................................................... 93
7.4.2 Performance .......................................................................... 96
7.4.3 Manufacturing...................................................................... 102
7.4.4 Antenna designs................................................................... 106
7.4.5 Low power designs ............................................................... 111
7.5 RFID middleware systems ..................................................... 114
7.5.1 Hardware ............................................................................ 114
7.5.2 Software ............................................................................. 116
7.6 Backend systems ................................................................. 119
7.6.1 Mapping to the reference model ............................................. 121
7.7 Advanced systems................................................................ 122
7.7.1 Sensors .............................................................................. 122
7.7.2 Localisation ......................................................................... 123
7.7.3 Ambient intelligence ............................................................. 125
7.7.4 Networks ............................................................................ 125
7.7.5 Robust systems.................................................................... 128
8 Standards and Regulations View............................................. 134
8.1 Radio regulations ................................................................. 134
8.2 Air interface standards .......................................................... 139
8.3 Application standards............................................................ 141
8.4 Standards for test methods.................................................... 143
8.5 Data management standards ................................................. 143
8.6 Data structure standards....................................................... 144
8.7 Sensor standards ................................................................. 145

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8.8 Mapping to the reference model.............................................. 145
9 Data Processing View ............................................................ 148
9.1 Data security, data protection, data privacy.............................. 149
9.1.1 Security threats.................................................................... 149
9.2 Addressing data protection and privacy concerns....................... 157
9.3 Safety-related issues............................................................. 158
9.3.1 Physical threats .................................................................... 159
9.4 Secure RFID systems ............................................................ 160
9.5 Mapping to the reference model.............................................. 166
10 Market View......................................................................... 169
10.1 Vendors of RFID equipment.................................................... 170
10.1.1 RFID vendors by countries and continents ................................ 170
10.1.2 RFID vendors by frequency .................................................... 171
10.1.3 RFID vendors by standards .................................................... 176
10.1.4 RFID systems by tag power supply.......................................... 176
10.1.5 RFID vendors by applications.................................................. 177
10.2 System specifications and properties ....................................... 178
11 Intellectual Property View ...................................................... 181
11.1 Patents, utility patents........................................................... 181
11.2 Patent pools......................................................................... 186
12 RFID Technologies – International R&D Activities....................... 189
12.1 Introduction......................................................................... 189
12.2 Sources of international R&D activities ..................................... 189
12.3 R&D Database ...................................................................... 190
12.4 Technology aspects............................................................... 191
12.4.1 Transponder technology......................................................... 191
12.4.2 Interrogator technology ......................................................... 204
12.4.3 System technology................................................................ 208
12.5 Application specific topics....................................................... 211
12.5.1 Fraunhofer Institutes (Germany)............................................. 211

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12.5.2 LogMotionLab ...................................................................... 212
12.5.3 openID-center ..................................................................... 212
12.5.4 Ko-RFID.............................................................................. 212
12.5.5 Flog – LogIDLab................................................................... 213
12.5.6 Sokymat Automotive ............................................................ 213
12.5.7 Identec Solutions ................................................................. 214
12.5.8 Philips/NXP.......................................................................... 214
12.5.9 Plefo Ab / Mannings.............................................................. 214
12.5.10 Philips Semiconductors / Graz University of Technology ............. 215
12.5.11 Traffic Supervision Systems A/S ............................................. 215
12.5.12 Immotec Systems / Homenet................................................. 215
12.5.13 Eczacibasi Bilisim ................................................................. 216
12.5.14 Internic Data Communications GmbH / Smart-ID...................... 216
12.5.15 EOSS Innovation Management ............................................... 216
12.5.16 Follow Me............................................................................ 216
12.6 Software, systems, and networks ........................................... 219
12.6.1 RFID middleware.................................................................. 219
12.6.2 Software, Systems and networks............................................ 222
12.7 Socio-economic aspects ........................................................ 236
12.7.1 Security, data protection, privacy ........................................... 237
12.7.2 Environmental and safety aspects........................................... 240
12.7.3 General aspects ................................................................... 241
13 RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Approaches ................... 245
13.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 245
13.2 Technology aspects .............................................................. 245
13.2.1 Transponder technology ........................................................ 245
13.2.2 Interrogator technology ........................................................ 265
13.2.3 System technology ............................................................... 269

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13.3 Application specific topics....................................................... 274
13.3.1 The real-time-enterprise ........................................................ 274
13.3.2 Standardisation of application layers........................................ 274
13.3.3 Traffic control and safety aspects ............................................ 275
13.3.4 Pairing objects...................................................................... 275
13.3.5 Improving of medication compliance........................................ 275
13.3.6 Supporting blind people ......................................................... 276
13.3.7 Anti-counterfeiting, RFID for DRM ........................................... 276
13.3.8 Support of pilot operations ..................................................... 276
13.3.9 E-tax-free with RFID ............................................................. 277
13.3.10 Market studies...................................................................... 277
13.3.11 Mapping to the reference model.............................................. 277
13.4 Software, systems, and networks............................................ 279
13.4.1 Internet of Things ................................................................. 279
13.5 Socio-economic aspects ......................................................... 279
13.5.1 Trust and acceptance ............................................................ 280
13.5.2 Security, data protection, privacy............................................ 280
13.5.3 Environmental and safety aspects ........................................... 281
13.5.4 Mapping to the reference model.............................................. 281
14 RFID technology roadmap ...................................................... 284
14.1 Introduction......................................................................... 284
14.2 EPCglobal roadmap ............................................................... 285
14.3 CE RFID roadmap ................................................................. 289
14.3.1 Packaging............................................................................ 289
14.3.2 Chip design.......................................................................... 290
14.3.3 Energy aspects..................................................................... 290
14.3.4 RF technology ...................................................................... 291
14.3.5 Manufacturing ...................................................................... 292
14.3.6 Systems .............................................................................. 293
14.3.7 Readers/interrogators............................................................ 294

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14.3.8 Non-silicon technologies ........................................................ 296
14.3.9 Bi-stable displays ................................................................. 297
14.3.10 Sensors .............................................................................. 297
14.3.11 Cryptography....................................................................... 298
14.3.12 ICT architectures.................................................................. 298
14.3.13 Socio-economic aspects ........................................................ 299
15 Conclusions ......................................................................... 301
15.1 Summary............................................................................ 301
15.2 Recommendations ................................................................ 311
16 References .......................................................................... 323
17 Appendices.......................................................................... 330
17.1 RFID vendor list ................................................................... 330
17.2 International RFID R&D activities............................................ 330
17.3 RFID research roadmap for all topics....................................... 330
17.4 RFID stakeholder model ........................................................ 334
17.5 RFID Reference Model........................................................... 335

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List of Figures
Figure 1 RFID applications ...............................................................35
Figure 2 Passive and robust RFID systems for identification of
railroad cars ......................................................................49
Figure 3 RFID system block diagram .................................................57
Figure 4 Communication reader to tag...............................................61
Figure 5 Communication tag to reader, reader talks first ......................62
Figure 6 Inductive coupling (physical principle for radio frequencies
below 40 MHz)...................................................................72
Figure 7 Example for communication tag to reader with Manchester
coded binary data ..............................................................73
Figure 8 Electromagnetic field coupling (physical principle for radio
frequencies above 40 MHz)..................................................74
Figure 9 Comparison of receiving level at a transponder between
magnetic field coupling and electromagnetic field coupling .......76
Figure 10 Different field distribution of magnetic field (left) and electro
magnetic field (right)..........................................................77
Figure 11 Tendencies of system capabilities .........................................78
Figure 12 Effects that affect communication quality...............................79
Figure 13 RFID networking ................................................................85
Figure 14 Function blocks that are integrated into most RFID readers ......87
Figure 15 Typical block diagram of a transponder. Not all blocks need
to be present.....................................................................94
Figure 16 Dependency of performance parameters of transponders on
their physical properties......................................................97
Figure 17 Assembly / chip attachment............................................... 104
Figure 18 Assembly / lamination ...................................................... 104
Figure 19 Top left: Mifare card with coil antenna and chip; bottom:
miscellaneous coil antennae; ISO 15 693: 13.56 MHz
vicinity; .......................................................................... 107
Figure 20 Top: dipole antenna; bottom: miscellaneous tag antennae
layouts; UHF; .................................................................. 108
Figure 21 Block diagram of circuit for energy harvesting ...................... 112

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Figure 22 Tendencies for supply voltage and power efficiency for
CMOS circuits.................................................................. 113
Figure 23 Central and de-central RFID middleware approach................ 115
Figure 24 In the case of localisation systems the concepts of sensor
fusion offer impressively enhanced results........................... 123
Figure 25 Localisation enabled services in future RFID applications ....... 124
Figure 26 RFID localisation with active tags: the reader is able not
only to read the tag’s ID and data, but can also locate the
tag and provide the tag’s coordinates. ................................ 124
Figure 27 Smart home enabled by RFID sensor networks .................... 125
Figure 28 Wireless sensor networks: what is important?...................... 126
Figure 29 Application area for RFID networks: the origin of a fire is
detected and the information is transmitted via the network.
also the position of the automated fire fighting system is
estimated by the network ................................................. 127
Figure 30 SAW identification system process ..................................... 129
Figure 31 Main international RFID standards...................................... 140
Figure 32 ISO standards hierarchy for logistic units ............................ 142
Figure 33 The architecture of the MIFARE tag .................................... 161
Figure 34 MIFARE tag and reader..................................................... 161
Figure 35 RFID plaintext communication cloning............................. 162
Figure 36 Symmetric authentication ................................................. 163
Figure 37 Asymmetric authentication................................................ 164
Figure 38 RFID vendors by countries ................................................ 170
Figure 39 RFID vendors by continent ................................................ 171
Figure 40 LF RFID suppliers by continent........................................... 172
Figure 41 HF RFID suppliers by continent .......................................... 172
Figure 42 UHF RFID suppliers by continent ........................................ 173
Figure 43 RFID vendors by frequency ............................................... 173
Figure 44 RFID vendors by frequency range ...................................... 175
Figure 45 RFID systems by standards ............................................... 176
Figure 46 RFID systems by tag power supply..................................... 176
Figure 47 RFID systems by applications ............................................ 177

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Figure 48 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID
packaging ....................................................................... 289
Figure 49 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for chip design ....... 290
Figure 50 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID energy
aspects........................................................................... 291
Figure 51 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID RF
technology ...................................................................... 292
manufacturing ................................................................. 293
Figure 53 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID systems.... 294
Figure 54 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID readers /
interrogators ................................................................... 295
Figure 55 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID non-
silicon technologies........................................................... 297
Figure 56 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID bi-stable
displays .......................................................................... 297
Figure 57 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID sensors .... 298
cryptography................................................................... 298
Figure 59 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID ICT
architectures ................................................................... 299
Figure 60 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID socio-
economic aspects............................................................. 300
Figure 61 Diagram of the CE RFID stakeholder model.......................... 334

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List of Tables
Table 1 Document history ................................................................ 2
Table 2 Table of RFID views ........................................................... 32
Table 3 Overview application characteristics, used frequencies,
typical applications ............................................................ 33
Table 4 Benefits and disadvantages of barcode / OCR ........................ 34
Table 5 Benefits and disadvantages of RFID...................................... 34
Table 6 Mapping auto-id technologies to reference model ................... 36
Table 7 CE RFID Reference Model main categories............................. 38
Table 8 Subcategories covered by work package 1............................. 39
Table 9 Mapping application examples to reference model .................. 50
Table 10 EPCglobal RFID technology classes....................................... 51
Table 11 Mapping basic transponder classes to reference model ............ 55
Table 12 ISO/OSI layer model .......................................................... 58
Table 13 Mapping network model to reference model........................... 69
Table 14 RFID air interfaces ............................................................. 71
Table 15 Advantages and disadvantages of inductive coupling............... 73
Table 16 Advantages and disadvantages of electromagnetic field
coupling ........................................................................... 74
Table 17 Mapping air interfaces to reference model ............................. 82
Table 18 Exemplary list of some RFID manufacturers versus offered
system types .................................................................... 89
Table 19 Mapping reader functions to reference model......................... 90
Table 20 Mapping reader antenna arrangements and tag types to
reference model ................................................................ 95
Table 21 Tag memory sizes / possible data usage on tags .................... 98
Table 22 Distribution of characteristic properties onto passive, semi-
passive and active tags ...................................................... 99
Table 23 Mapping tag performance to reference model ...................... 100
Table 24 Mapping tag manufacturing and antenna to reference model.. 109
Table 25 Mapping advanced systems to reference model.................... 131

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Table 26 European harmonised radio regulations for RFID usage ......... 135
Table 27 RFID radio regulations worldwide........................................ 136
Table 28 Mapping radio regulation parameters to reference model ....... 138
Table 29 Mapping RFID standards to reference model ........................ 146
Table 30 Mapping data processing variants to reference model ............ 167
Table 31 Correlation of RFID system properties and frequency ranges .. 179
Table 32 ISO/IEC 18000 (2004) declared patents .............................. 182
Table 33 Mapping general tag topics to reference model ..................... 194
Table 34 Mapping passive tag topics to reference model ..................... 200
Table 35 Mapping semi-passive and active tag topics to reference
model............................................................................. 203
Table 36 Mapping interrogator technology to reference model ............. 207
Table 37 Mapping system technology to reference model.................... 210
Table 38 Mapping application specific topics to reference model........... 218
Table 39 Mapping RFID middleware to reference model ...................... 221
Table 40 Mapping systems and networks to reference model............... 236
Table 41 Mapping socio-economic aspects to reference model ............. 243
Table 42 Mapping general tag bottlenecks to reference model ............. 251
Table 43 Mapping passive tag bottlenecks to reference model ............. 256
Table 44 Mapping semi-passive tag bottlenecks to reference model...... 259
Table 45 Mapping active tag bottlenecks to reference model ............... 264
Table 46 Mapping interrogator bottlenecks to reference model............. 268
Table 47 Mapping system technology bottlenecks to reference model ... 273
Table 48 Mapping application specific bottlenecks to reference model ... 278
Table 49 Mapping software, systems, and networks, as well as socio-
economic bottlenecks to reference model............................. 282
Table 50 Roadmap of EPCglobal ...................................................... 288
Table 51 Several benefits using RFID ............................................... 304
Table 52 SWOT analysis: “RFID Technologies — State-of-the-art” —
strengths ........................................................................ 306
weaknesses and opportunities............................................ 307

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threats........................................................................... 308
Table 55 SWOT analysis: “RFID Technologies — International R&D
Activities” ....................................................................... 309
Table 56 SWOT analysis: “RFID Technology — Bottlenecks and R&D
Approaches” — strengths and weaknesses .......................... 310
Table 57 SWOT analysis: “RFID Technology — Bottlenecks and R&D
Approaches” — opportunities and threats ............................ 311
Table 58 RFID stakeholder categories.............................................. 312
Table 59 Mapping recommendations to reference model (1) ............... 319

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1 Approach
This section describes the objectives and activities of work package 1, the
persons/bodies that have contributed to this work package and the methods
used within.
1.1 Definition of work package topic
Work package 1 is entitled with “RFID Roadmap”. The main objective of the
work package is to give a clear overview of the actual state-of-the-art of RFID
technology and its future developments in order to gain a more objective dis-
cussion on RFID.
RFID comprises a large set of different technologies. There is a lack of infor-
mation about the properties and the performance of the various systems. In
order to assess RFID applications, their benefits as well as their risks (e.g. in
terms of security, data protection and privacy issues), objective information
about the technological and physical functionality and limits will help to estab-
lish a fair discussion on RFID between suppliers, implementers, users, and
persons that get in contact with RFID systems (e.g. customers, consumers).
The coordination action CE RFID has been proposed from the working group
RFID/Logistics of the European Technology Platform (ETP) “European Tech-
nology Platform on Smart Systems Integration” (EPoSS). CE RFID benefits
from the RFID research strategies outlined in the Strategic Research Agenda
(SRA) of EPoSS, although the CE RFID roadmap goes beyond the SRA. Work
package 1 tries to define an RFID roadmap with a broad agreement of many
stakeholders.
The three main topics of work package 1 are:
RFID technologies — state-of-the-art
RFID technologies — international R&D activities
RFID technologies — bottlenecks and R&D approaches
These topics also describe the focus of the three workshops that have been
conducted. Starting with a detailed description of the state-of-the-art of many
existing RFID systems, the second topic will supplement the findings with past
and current R&D activities in academia and industry worldwide. The third topic
assesses the results of the first two topics (state-of-the-art, international R&D
activities) with the goal to identify technology gaps and bottlenecks that still

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need to be solved in order to provide further development and improvement
of RFID systems. Together with the description of bottlenecks, foreseeable
R&D approaches for overcoming have been elaborated.
The results of all main topics have been evaluated in order to form a roadmap
containing a probable timeline of future RFID developments. In the conclusion
section results are summarised and a set of recommendations are clustered,
including considerations of what kind of stakeholders are mainly addressed by
the recommendations.
1.2 Structure of work package topics
The three main topics of the work packages have been structured orthogonal
to the RFID Reference Model, created by the CE RFID partners.
1.2.1 RFID technologies — state-of-the-art
Since RFID does not comprise a linear set of technologies, a group of different
views has been defined in order to present various aspects of numerous dif-
ferent RFID systems:
Application view (chapter 4):
This subsection lies orthogonal to the reference model introduced here.
A comparison of RFID with other auto-id technologies is presented. A
few sample applications together with a technical description and the
mapping of the reference model are presented.
Transponder classes view (chapter 5):
Introduction to the EPCglobal transponder class system.
ISO/OSI network model view (chapter 6):
Description of the components of classic RFID systems and the inter-
faces between each other.
Technology view (chapter 7):
Presentation of air interfaces, reader technology, antenna arrange-
ments, transponder technology, RFID middleware systems, backend
systems.
Standards and regulations view (chapter 8):
Discussion of radio regulations, air interface standards, application
standards, standards for test methods, data management standards,
and sensor standards.

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Data processing view (chapter 9):
Overview of data security, data protection, privacy issues, safety-
related issues, and secure RFID on smartcards
Market view (chapter 10):
This view shows some statistical evaluations of the vendor list that has
been created. The most important system specifications and properties
are summarised.
Intellectual property view (chapter 11):
Major intellectual property rights (IPR), blocking patents and a famous
patent pool is presented.
1.2.2 RFID Technologies – international R&D activities
The international R&D activities as the second topic have been structured into
the following categories:
Technology aspects:
Transponder (tag) technology, interrogator (reader) technology, sys-
tem technology
Application specific topics
Software, systems, networks:
RFID Middleware, software, systems and networks
1.2.3 RFID Technologies – bottlenecks and R&D ap-
proaches
The second and third topic uses the same classification structure in order to
easily create reference between R&D activities and bottlenecks:
Technology aspects:
Transponder (tag) technology, interrogator (reader) technology, sys-
tem technology
Application specific topics
Software, systems, networks:
RFID Middleware, software, systems and networks

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1.3 Relevant stakeholders
To support the CE RFID review process each work package defined a subset of
the common stakeholder list, which originally has been created according to
the RFID stakeholder model (cf. Appendix 17.4). (The characterisation “AC”
means that this stakeholder is an additional contributor, “P” means that this
stakeholder is a CE RFID project partner).
1.3.1 Stakeholder group “Research & Development”
Fundamental research
Auto ID Labs (Research)
Clausthal University of Technology
Institute for Electrical Information Technology (RFID technology, R&D
issues; AC)
DLR (RFID technology, R&D issues)
École Supérieure d'électricité (Research)
FH Technikum Klagenfurt (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
FH-Wels, Institut für Automatisierungstechnik, Sensorik und Mikrosys-
teme (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
IMEC (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Institute LETI (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Linz Competence Center Mechatronics (LCM) (RFID technology, R&D
issues; AC)
RSA Laboratories (RFID security, encryption technology)
TU Graz, IAIK (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Uni Linz, Institut für Nachrichtentechnik (RFID technology, R&D issues;
AC)
University of Barcelona (RFID technology, R&D issues)

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University of Dortmund (Contribution: Analysis and recommendations
of standards, VDI standards)
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg — Institute for Technical Electronics
(RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
University of Freiburg (information on guidelines)
University of Freiburg (department of microsystems engineering (IM-
TEK) — Laboratory for Electrical Instrumentation) (RFID technology,
R&D issues; AC)
University of Glamorgan — Centre for Electronic Product Engeneering
— Faculty of Advances Technology
University of Kaiserslautern (R&D issues)
University of St. Gallen (R&D issues)
Applied research
Fraunhofer Institute ATL (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Fraunhofer Institute IFF (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Fraunhofer Institute IMS (RFID technology, R&D issues)
Fraunhofer Institute ISST (RFID technology, R&D issues)
Fraunhofer Institute IZM – Berlin (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Legal and social science
IZT, Institut for Future Studies and Technology Assessment (Science)
System integrator
IBM Deutschland GmbH (RFID systems)
SAP (RFID systems)
1.3.2 Stakeholder group “RFID technology suppliers”
Manufacturers:
ARDACO, a.s. (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)

23
Atmel Corporation (RFID technology, R&D issues, chip technology; AC)
AVERY DENNISON (RFID technology, label technology)
Balluf GmbH (RFID technology, closed systems, sensor systems)
Bretschneider GmbH (RFID integration into packages, labels; AC)
CAEN RFID Srl (RFID technology, reader technology)
Deister Electronic GmbH (RFID technology, reader technology)
EPCOS AG, Surface Acoustic Wave Components Division (RFID tech-
nology, R&D issues, Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW): AC)
FEIG Electronic (RFID technology, reader technology; P)
Giesecke & Devrient (RFID technology, ePass, security smart cards;
AC)
Herma GmbH (RFID technology, smart labels; AC)
IDENTEC SOLUTIONS AG (RFID technology, active RFID; AC)
Infineon Technologies Austria (RFID technology, R&D issues, Chip
technology; AC)
InkTec Europe Ltd (LFP Division) (RFID technology, electronic Inks)
INSIDE Contactless (RFID technology, chip and reader technology)
Magellan Technology Ltd. (RFID technology, reader technology, chip
and label technology)
NXP (RFID technology, R&D issues, Chip technology; P)
PolyIC GmbH & Co. KG (RFID technology, Polymer electronics; AC)
Sato Deutschland GmbH (RFID technology, Label technology, RFID
printing technology)
Siemens AG, CT IC 3 (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)
SMARTRAC Technology GmbH (information on guidelines)
Texas Instruments (RFID technology, chip technology; AC)

24
TRICON Consulting GmbH & Co.KG. (RFID technology; AC)
Ubisense Limited (RFID technology, precise real-time location)
UPM Raflatac (RFID Technology, label technology; P)
Solution providers
AIDA Centre (information on guidelines; P)
CISC (contribution: analysis and recommendations on ISO and EPC
standards)
COMEX (RFID systems division) (information on guidelines)
Emsys N.V. (information on guidelines)
Hitachi (RFID systems)
Pepperl+Fuchs (contribution: analysis and recommendations on re-
quirements of automation systems)
RF-iT solutions (RFID middleware; P)
Siemens IT solutions and services (information on guidelines)
Tyco Electronics idento GmbH (information on guidelines)
1.3.3 Stakeholder group “business associations”
General
ACEA — European Automobile Manufacturers Association
Business Europe
SME
AIM (Association of Automatic Identification and Mobility)
RFID and IT Specific
LICON Logistics e.V. (RFID Industry Consortium)
Pleon (Consultant; P)
VDI/VDE IT (Consultant; P)

25
1.3.4 Stakeholder group “government & governmental
institutions”
European
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (Science)
National
BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and Research)
BMVIT (Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie)
BMWA (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftund Arbeit)
BMWi (Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology)
BSI (German Federal Office for Information Security)
Österr. Forschungsförderungsgesellschaft FFG
1.3.5 Stakeholder group “standardisation organisa-
tions”
International organisations
ISO (Standards) ([78])
Business driven organisation
EPCglobal (Standards) ([81])
1.3.6 Stakeholder group “quasi-autonomous and non-
governmental organisations”
Data protection agencies
European data protection institutions (Art.29 working party)
Trade union
ver.di (information on guidelines)

26
1.3.7 Stakeholder group “RFID end user companies”
Logistical tracking & tracing
Deutsche Post World Net (RFID user; P)
Metro Group Information Technology GmbH (RFID user; P)
Production, monitoring and maintenance
EADS (RFID user; P)
Lufthansa Technik Logistik GmbH (RFID user)
MB-technology GmbH (RFID user)
Access control and tracking & tracing of individuals
ADT Sensomatik (Hedtke) (RFID Systems)
eHealth Care
Siemens AG – medical (information on guidelines)
1.3.8 Contribution
The following work package partners contributed to this report.
UPM Raflatac (RFID technology, label technology; P)
Transponder (tag) technology, chapter 7.4
Conclusions, chapter 15
Siemens AG, CT PS 7 (RFID technology; P, WP1 lead)
All chapters
The following additional contributors contributed to this report:
TU Graz, IAIK (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Security, data protection, privacy, chapter 12.7.1
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg — Institute for technical electron-
ics (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Transponder (tag) technology, chapter 7.4

27
Siemens AG, CT IC 3 (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)
Secure RFID on smartcards, chapter 9.4

28
2 Methodology
2.1 Assessment criteria
At an early phase of the project the partners of work package 1 considered
that the broad range of RFID technologies would need more than one view-
point. CE RFID focussed on RFID scenarios that represent high potential of
importance and market growth in the near future (i.e. logistics, ambient intel-
ligence, and public security / identity management). To investigate the cur-
rent state-of-the-art of RFID technologies (first work package topic) a set of
different views has been defined in order to highlight the various aspects of
RFID technologies: ISO/OSI network model view, technology view, trans-
ponder classes view, standards and regulations view, data processing view,
application view, market view, and intellectual property view. To support the
market view and analytical steps a list of international vendors of RFID sys-
tems has been collected. The total list is available in spread sheet format (see
appendix 17.1).
For the second topic of the work package – Relevant R&D activities regarding
RFID technologies – a classification system (structure) has been developed.
This system helps to assess what groups of topics are well covered and where
there are gaps to be filled. The structure starts with technological aspects
(transponder (tag), interrogator (reader), system), followed by application
specific topics, then “software, systems, networks” (RFID middleware, soft-
ware, systems and networks). It ends with socio-economic aspects, such as
security, data protection, privacy, environmental and safety aspects, and
general aspects. A large list of international R&D activities from academia,
industry, user and business organisations has been created. Some represen-
tative activities have been taken from this list into the system described
above. Furthermore, they have been investigated and presented in more de-
tail. The total list is available in spread sheet format (cf. appendix 17.2).
For the investigation of the third topic of the work package – bottlenecks and
foreseeable R&D approaches to overcome these bottlenecks – the same clas-
sification system like the second topic (international R&D activities) has been
used. R&D gaps could easily be detected with this approach. The bottlenecks
identified can be compared with previous R&D activities.
In the section “conclusions” (see chapter 15), a SWOT analysis has been per-
formed separately for each of the three work package 1 topics. A clustered list
of recommendations has been extracted out of these findings with respect to
the three topics.

29
2.2 Methods
The consortium members of work package 1 of the coordination action CE
RFID (UPM Raflatac and Siemens (lead)) developed a list of additional con-
tributors to support the activities of the work package. Experts of the CE RFID
consortium partners as well as associated organisations have been asked to
make suggestions for who should be asked to contribute to work package 1
(WP1). Under the lead of work package 1 the project partners created a small
electronic leaflet that outlined the benefits and opportunities of a contribution
to CE RFID and invited potential candidates to work for the project. In order
to get maximum input from project partners and additional contributors the
leader of work package 1 suggested the following methodology:
a) Additional contributors are asked for any form and degree of contribu-
tion. The range starts from reviewing the reports up to full attendance
and active contribution to the three workshops of work package 1.
b) Candidates for additional contributors are addressed via telephone or
e-mail using the prepared invitation leaflet. Independent of the candi-
dates’ commitment they are asked for suggestions for other contribu-
tors that might want to work for CE RFID, in particular for WP1 and
WP2. Any suggested contributor will be contacted. Nobody will be ex-
cluded. New additional contributors may join the project during the
whole project duration.
c) Due to the significant task overlap between work packages 1 and 2 the
leaders of WP1 and WP2 suggested to combine two of the three work-
shops of each work package (i.e. WP1 WS2 combined with WP2 WS1,
and WP1 WS3 combined with WP2 WS2). All potential contributors are
invited to contribute to all work packages if they belong to CE RFID.
The combination of workshops mentioned above reduces efforts and
costs for the contributors to WP1 and WP2 as well as it simplifies the
schedule for the workshops.
The objective is to collect a set of contributors that represent relevant stake-
holders for the WP1 topics (i.e. RFID technology and research & development
(R&D)) coming from RFID vendors and users as well as from academia. Work
package 1 could identify 20 additional contributors. Most of them agreed to
attend the workshops or to provide information to topics of the work package,
few prepared content to be presented at the workshops, and few proposed to
review the reports of WP1 only. Three workshops focusing on the main topics
of WP1 had been conducted:

30
1st
workshop
Topic: “RFID technologies – state-of-the-art”
Date: 20 October 2006
Venue: Siemens AG, Munich, Germany
Participants: 6 partners, 3 additional contributors
2nd
workshop (together with WP2 WS1)
Topic: “RFID technologies – International R&D activities”
Date: 7 December 2006
Venue: Gratkorn, Austria
Participants: 6 partners, 6 additional contributors
3rd
workshop (together with WP2 WS2)
Topic: “RFID technologies – technology bottlenecks & R&D approaches”
Date: 2 March 2007 in Essen/German
Venue: Tyco/ADT, Essen, Germany
Participants: partners, 1 additional contributor
All partners of CE RFID and the additional contributors of WP1 and WP2 have
been asked to send their input regarding the workshop topics to the work
package leaders, especially if they could not attend the workshops. In order
to give additional opportunities to contribute to the work package the CE RFID
consortium decided to establish an expanded review process based on a
stakeholder model (cf. appendix 17.4). It consists of seven stakeholder
groups. Each work package added stakeholders to a common stakeholder list.
From this list the partners of each work package defined a subset of stake-
holders relevant to their work package topics. Each stakeholder group should
be covered by each work package.
A new review process for the final reports of all work packages has been in-
troduced. It consists of six review steps. The first working draft of the final
report is firstly reviewed by the project coordinator and secretariat. After ad-
dressing comments and recommendations the additional contributors of the
work package have been asked to review the draft report. After an editorial
step of the secretariat all CE RFID project partners have been asked for their
comments. The updated version has been sent to the remaining stakeholders
that have not been addressed yet as additional contributors or partners. After
processing all further comments and recommendations there will be a clear-
ance step for the final report by the project officer. After the acceptance by
EU reviewers the final report will be ready for publishing.
The CE RFID project partners think this new review process will enable a
broad coequal review process performed by a large group of stakeholders.

31
The resulting final report will represent a common overview of the work pack-
age topics reflecting the contribution of representative groups of stakeholders.

32
3 State-of-the-art and Analysis
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is titled with “RFID Road-
map”. One basic task in developing such a roadmap is to look at the present
state-of-the-art of RFID technologies. RFID stands for “Radio Frequency Iden-
tification”. It is used as an umbrella term for a large range of different wire-
less technologies using magnetic or electromagnetic fields for identification
purposes.
At a very early stage, the project participants together with the additional
contributors realised that RFID can be viewed from many different stand-
points. RFID systems comprise many different technologies providing different
properties and specifications. They can be used for a broad range of applica-
tions, follow diverse standards and regulations, and serve different data proc-
essing systems.
In an attempt to present the whole range of technologies currently available
on the market, that claim to be RFID systems or use RFID technologies, the
following views have been used to categorise and describe the present state-
of-the-art of RFID.
Chapter Point of view Comments
4 Application RFID applications following the CE RFID
Reference Model
5 Transponder classes Classes of RFID systems have been intro-
duced
6 ISO/OSI network model Network communication models can be
used to describe parts of RFID systems
7 Technology RFID systems use a range of different tech-
nologies
8 Standards and regulations International standards and national regula-
tions have been established
9 Data processing Structure, protection, security and privacy
of data
10 Market Database of manufacturers, solution pro-
viders, backend system providers
11 Intellectual property Patents, utility patents, patent pools
Table 2 Table of RFID views
The RFID technology — State-of-the-art views are discussed in the following
chapters 4 to 11.

33
4 Application View
The most important view on RFID technology from a user’s perspective is
“applications”. The following table shows an overview, which connects system
characteristics, used frequency bands and typical application fields.
Frequency band Typical characteristics Applications
100-134 kHz
low frequency (LF)
Short to medium reading
range; Inexpensive; Low
reading rate
Access control (e.g. keyless entry,
keyless go for automobiles); Car
immobilizers;
Animal identification; Inventory
control; EAS (electronic article
surveillance);
Reference model application fields:
A, B, D
13.56 MHz
high frequency (HF)
Short to medium reading
range; Inexpensive; Me-
dium reading rate
Access control; Smart cards;
Supply Chain applications;
Warehouse management;
EAS;
B, C, D, E, F
840-960 MHz
ultra-high frequency
(UHF)
Long reading range; High
reading rate; Inexpen-
sive
Supply chain applications, Ware-
house management;
EAS;
B, C, D, E, F
2.4GHz
ultra-high frequency
(UHF)
5.8 GHz
super high fre-
quency (SHF)
Long reading range; High
reading speed; Expensive
Supply chain applications, Ware-
house management;
Inventory;
Automotive applications;
EAS;
A, B, C, G, H
Table 3 Overview application characteristics, used frequencies, typical appli-
cations
4.1 RFID vs. barcode and OCR
The simplest application of RFID is the identification of objects via an ID num-
ber over short distances. This can also be done by other well-established
technologies like barcode or OCR (optical character recognition).

34
The following listing shows the benefits and disadvantages between RFID and
widely used barcode and OCR systems.
Barcode / OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Benefits Disadvantages
Very cheap Data capacity << 1kByte
Usually article type identification only
Requires large and flat surface to attach
Line of sight needed to acquire data
Data can’t be changed
Reading range limited
No security features
Table 4 Benefits and disadvantages of barcode / OCR
RFID
Benefits Disadvantages
High data capacity and data rates Not as cheap as barcodes yet
Full object identification (privacy concerns)
Insensitive against dust and dirt
Security features
Reading range of passive tags up to 10 m
and active tags up to 300m
Simultaneous reading of many tags
Table 5 Benefits and disadvantages of RFID
RFID provides more data storage capacity even when compared to modern
two-dimensional barcode systems. The data stored on the tag can be changed
according to the needs of the application (e.g. protocol of test procedures).
RFID tags do not need direct line of sight while reading and do not need to be
presented to the reader on a flat and clean surface. Some RFID tags provide a
much higher reading range (up to 300m with active tags) than optical sys-
tems. Only basic security functions (e.g. electronic signatures) can be imple-
mented in optical systems (barcode, OCR). Modern security methods like au-
thentication that e.g. prevent label cloning cannot be implemented on a bar-
code label due to the missing interaction. Tags can provide additional func-
tions (e.g. temperature sensor and -logger). Barcode systems have the ad-
vantage of very low costs. In many cases they are printed together with print-
ing the package or other decoration on the item, so very low additional costs
are caused by the barcode label printing. Barcode labels therefore are often
used when simple identification of very cheap items is needed. The limited
data storage capacities of barcode labels do not allow to label items individu-

35
ally, generally just the type of item is marked. Because of their higher data
storage capacity, RFID tags allow single item identification.
Figure 1 RFID applications
Figure 1 tries to show how system cost, tag quantities, and security features
correlate with current RFID applications. E.g. access control systems do need
security (data protection, anti-cloning) but usually use low tag quantities. On
item level where identification is the main task of RFID security plays a low
role providing low system costs.
4.1.1 Mapping to the reference model
Table 6 shows the mapping of auto-id technologies to the subcategories of the
reference model (see chapter 4.2). “Y” means: “Yes”, this auto-id technology
applies to the corresponding subcategory.

36
Current use Possible useRFID application
field
Subcategories
RFID
Barcode
OCR
RFID
Barcode
OCR
AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Airplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y YE: Loyalty, mem-
bership and pay-
ment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y YF: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y YG: Sports, leisure
and household GD: Smart home Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y YH: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y
Table 6 Mapping auto-id technologies to reference model
OCR (optical character recognition) and barcode systems are well established
auto-id systems. They provide advantages (e.g. very cheap, human readable)
and disadvantages (e.g. line of sight required, soiling problems, low data ca-

37
pacity, read-only, and no authentication). RFID can replace or supplement
other auto-id technologies while offering the additional advantages of RFID:
no line of sight required, reading in dirty environments, writable user data,
high data capacity, high data rates, security functions, robustness, etc. There
are many subcategories that function with RFID only or where RFID repre-
sents a major improvement: dangerous goods logistics (e.g. temperature
sensor, localisation), asset management (e.g. localisation, itinerary), facility
management (e.g. security features, access control), vehicles (e.g. pressure
sensors), airplanes (e.g. anti-counterfeiting), automation/process control
(e.g. user data), fresh/perishable foods (e.g. temperature sensors), pharma-
ceutical (anti-counterfeiting, sensors), customer information systems (e.g.
usability), access control systems (e.g. authentication, anti-cloning), animal
tracking (e.g. easy handling, dirty environment, anti-cloning), person tracking
(e.g. authentication, anti-cloning), smart home (e.g. sensor functionality).
4.2 RFID Reference Model
In order to provide a common baseline for all work packages in the CE RFID
project as well as for other RFID related projects, the consortium developed a
RFID Reference Model containing all application fields where RFID technology
is presently used. The CE RFID Reference Model is described in separate
documents (see Appendix 17.5). Table 7 shows the basic systematic of the
model. The complexity of the systems is increasing from top to bottom of the
table (A. to H.).

38
Reference RFID application fields Description
A. Logistical tracking &
tracing
Solely identification and location of goods
and returnable assets (e.g. pallets or con-
tainers)
B. Production, monitoring
and maintenance
Smart systems in combination with RFID
technology to support production, monitor-
ing, and maintenance of goods and proc-
esses
Mainlyobjecttagging
C. Product safety, quality
and information
Applications to insure quality (e.g. sensors
to monitor temperature) and product safety
(e.g. fight against counterfeiting)
D. Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
Single function tags for identification and
authorisation applications for entries and
ticketing
E. Loyalty, membership
and payment
Smart Card based identification and
authorisation systems for multifunctional
applications (e.g. loyalty, payment, and
banking systems)
F. eHealth care Systems for hospital administration and
smart systems to support and monitor
health status
G. Sport, leisure and
household
Sports applications, rental systems (e.g.
cars or books), smart home
Taggingwithreferenceorpotentialref-
erencetopeople
H. Public services Systems mandated by law or to fulfil public
duties (e.g. ID-cards, health insurance
cards, road tolling systems)
Table 7 CE RFID Reference Model main categories
In the following table the subcategories covered by work package 1 are
marked by “X” (column WP1).

39
RFID application field Subcategories WP1
AA. — Inhouse logistics X
AB. — Closed loop logistics X
AC. — Open logistics X
AD. — Postal applications X
AE. – Dangerous goods logistics X
A. Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF. — Manufacturing logistics X
BA. — Archive systems X
BB. — Asset management (incl. Environ- X
BC. — Facility management X
BD. – Vehicles X
BE. – Airplanes X
BF. — Automation/process control X
B. Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG. — Food and consumer goods X
CA. — Fast moving consumer goods X
CB. — Electronic goods X
CC. — Textile goods X
CD. — Fresh/perishable foods X
CE. — Pharmaceutical X
Mainlyobjecttagging
C. Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF. — Customer information systems X
DA. — Access control systems X
DB. — Animal tracking X
D. Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC. — Personal tracking X
EA. — Loyalty cards X
EB. — Membership cards X
EC. — Contactless banking cards
E. Loyalty, member-
ship and payment
ED. — Payment and advertising via mobile
FA. — Assistance for the disabled
FB. — Hospital management X
FC. – Implants X
FD. — Medical monitoring
F. eHealth care
FE. — Smart implants
GA. — Sports applications
GB. — Rental systems X
GC. — Smart games
G. Sports, leisure
and household
GD. — Smart home X
HA. — Public service maintenance
HB. — Road tolling systems X
HC. – Banknotes X
HD. — ID cards and passports
Taggingwithreferenceorpotentialreferencetoindividuals
H. Public services
HE. — Health insurance cards
Table 8 Subcategories covered by work package 1

40
Systems where RFID is only a small part and that are dominated by other
technologies are not investigated and described in work package 1. E.g. many
systems in field E, F, G, and H use additional sophisticated microcontrollers
that provide complex functions (e.g. encryption, money transfer, data proc-
essing). Work package 1 concentrates on the RFID applications logistics, am-
bient intelligence and public security/identity management.
4.3 Application examples
The following pages present some application examples with real systems
available on the market or applications that can be implemented with existing
RFID technologies. This chapter shows how the combination of the different
RFID views lead to RFID systems that are used in many applications.
4.3.1 Logistics, supply chain management at Metro
Group
The most important mass market application is logistics and the supply chain
(see Reference Model field A [8]). Due to cost reasons only passive RFID label
tags with HF or UHF technology are used here. Some enterprises plan to use
HF RFID on item level and UHF RFID on case and pallet level (e.g. pharma-
ceutical industry). There is also a trend to shift item level to UHF as well.
The METRO Group, the world's fourth largest retailer, will soon require that all
pallets shipped to 180 locations in Germany be equipped with RFID tags using
EPCglobal’s second-generation Electronic Product Code standard (Gen 2 tags
[81]). The company's RFID plans were communicated to about 650 suppliers.
In 2007 all Metro Cash & Carry stores as well as about 100 “real” hypermar-
kets in Germany will be equipped with RFID portals in the goods entrance
section. Each RFID tag carries information on it such as a serial number,
model number, colour or place of assembly.
The use of RFID throughout the supply chain allows the tracking of the loca-
tion of a shipment and therefore renders a faster and more reliable flow of
goods possible. In 2006 the METRO group introduced EPC Class 1/Gen. 2
RFID chips. In August 2006 suppliers started labelling individual shipping
boxes with smart chips.

41
4.3.2 Identity management, security, access control
Access control systems (reference model fields D, E, F) need at least basic
security features like secure authentication. Otherwise an intruder might
eavesdrop the reader-to-tag communication and clone the tag. Authentication
methods are described in chapter 9.4. In order to provide additional security
RFID technology with low range capability like HF (13.56 MHz) is used. An
eavesdropper has to be very close to the system and the possibility of a mix-
up of tags is being reduced.
An example is the TSI PRISM (http://www.tsiprism.com/) system, which
tracks and records the location and movement of inmates and officers, result-
ing in enhanced facility safety and security. The proprietary RFID tracking
technology provides real-time inmate and officer identification. The tags can-
not be cloned and must be trackable otherwise an alarm will occur. Access
control is combined with real-time tracking and tracing.
4.3.3 Contactless smart card “Mifare”
Mifare is the most widely installed contactless smart card technology in the
world, with more than 500 million smart card ICs and 5 million reader compo-
nents sold. As an example for contactless smart card technology, the different
Mifare types are described in the following text. Mifare offers solutions for
applications like loyalty and vending cards, road tolling, city cards, access
control and gaming. (reference model fields D, E).
Mifare is compliant with ISO 14443 A. It has 80% market share in the auto-
matic fare collection market (source: Frost & Sullivan 2001). The product
portfolio covers reader components as well as contactless and dual interface
smart card ICs. Multiple sourcing exists on all levels of the value-chain (ICs,
readers, cards, etc.).
Tickets based on NXP Mifare Ultralight ICs can act as single trip tickets in pub-
lic transportation networks, loyalty cards or even day passes at big events.
They are a replacement for conventional ticketing solutions such as paper
tickets, magnetic-stripe tickets or coins.
Mifare Standard 1k is primarily used in closed loop systems, where value is
extracted in a secure and authorized way from the card by the service pro-
vider, or for fixed value tickets (e.g. weekly or monthly travel passes). An-
other important application is physical access control. Here Mifare Standard
1k cards are widely used for ID cards, employee cards and company or build-
ing access. Today Mifare Standard 1k ICs are in use around the globe in dif-

42
ferent applications like public transport, road-tolling and parking meters, ac-
cessing car parks and paying at fuel pumps.
Mifare Mini is a further optimized version of the Mifare Standard 1k to meet
the requirements of the access control and loyalty cards market. It provides
significantly decreased memory size (320 Byte) making it the perfect solution
for access control or loyalty applications.
Mifare Standard 4k opens up new service opportunities by enabling public
transport authorities to implement multi-modal systems. It allows combina-
tion with contactless e-commerce and e-business applications on one single
Mifare smart card. The Mifare 4k Standard IC provides increased memory size
for multi-application cards.
Mifare DESFire is based on open global standards for both air interface and
cryptographic methods. It is compliant to all 4 levels of ISO / IEC 14443A
([78], [79]) and uses optional ISO / IEC 7816-4 commands. Contactless tick-
eting and related applications such as payment at vending machines, access
control or event ticketing are possible. Mifare DESFire is intended for service
providers wanting to use multi-application smart cards in transport schemes,
e-government or identity applications. It complies with the requirements for
fast and highly secure data transmission, flexible memory organization and
interoperability with existing infrastructure.
Mifare PROX is a high-security, high performance dual interface IC solution at
the high-end of the portfolio. Mifare PROX meets the requirements of financial
applications and delivers the flexibility and security to support multiple appli-
cations and service providers on a single card IC ranging from banking, e-
commerce, e-government, e-business, ID card and biometric applications to
electronic ticketing and other contactless services.
The cards support dynamic download of Java™ applications. This means that
additional applications, such as payment for public transport, access to a pub-
lic library or a loyalty scheme can be added or removed even after the card
has been issued.
SmartMX enables the easy implementation of state-of-the-art operating sys-
tems and open platform solutions including Java Card Global Platform and
MULTOS. MULTOS (which stands for "Multiple Operating System") is an oper-
ating system that allows multiple application programs to be installed and to
reside separately and securely on a smart card with the highest levels of se-
curity.

43
The SmartMX platform is positioned to service high volume, mono- and multi-
application markets such as e-government, banking/finance, mobile commu-
nications, public transportation, pay-TV, conditional access, and network ac-
cess.
An anti-collision method (acc. ISO/IEC 14443-3) enables multiple cards to be
handled simultaneously.
4.3.4 Contactless smart card “FeliCa”
Sony Corp. offers a system very similar in function to the Mifare system,
called FeliCa. In Nov 2006 NXP and Sony have signed a memorandum of un-
derstanding to create a joint venture that will develop, manufacture and mar-
ket an integrated circuit (IC) combining NXP's Mifare technology and Sony's
FeliCa platform on a single chip (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2842/ [9]). Contactless-
payment applications using FeliCa technology are widespread in parts of Asia,
while contactless payment applications using the Mifare platform are common
in Europe. (reference model fields D, E)
In Hong Kong the Octopus Card was initially a payment system for public
transport (bus, metro, ferry boat and light rail). The services have expanded
to pay for purchases at a convenience stores, fast food stores, and vending
machines. The card also serves as employee ID, student ID and other ID
cards, and has grown into a major choice for office entry/exit control, parking
area entry/exit control.
The "ez-link Card" an automatic public transport payment system for bus,
metro and railroad was introduced in April 2002 in Singapore using the FeliCa
technology. About 8 million cards are already issued in Singapore, daily proc-
essing adding up to roughly 4 million transactions per day.
The metro system of Shenzhen (China) uses FeliCa technology for passenger
tickets. The passenger tickets are available in various forms and types de-
pending on their purpose of use. These include regular commuter passes
called the Trans Card, as well as student discount tickets and tokens as pay-
ment for a one-way metro ride.
The metro in Delhi, the capital of India, started application of FeliCa technol-
ogy in December 2002 for the passenger ticketing system. The Travel Card, a
card-shaped ticket, is reusable by charging values to the card.

44
The first metro system in Thailand started operations in Bangkok in July 2004
and employs FeliCa technology.
“Suica”, implementing FeliCa technology, was comprehensively introduced in
the Tokyo metropolitan area and the peripheral access by East Japan Railway
Company.
After touching the reader with “Suica”, the automatic ticket gate reads and
charges the IC card. This way, the passage through the wicket is very con-
venient for the passengers. Since it was first introduced, Suica has rapidly
spread in use with 10 million cards in circulation in about 3 years, with the
statistics rapidly over 14 million today (source: Sony Corp.).
The "Tokyo-Mitsubishi VISA“-Super IC Card is a multi-functional IC card. The
dual interface IC card system employed by the bank uses Sony's contactless
FeliCa IC card technology.
Iyo Railway Group kicked off the "IC e-Card" services, applying FeliCa tech-
nology, for their public transport system in Matsuyama City, Ehime.
4.3.5 µ-chip
The µ-chip (Hitachi Ltd.) is a passive IC (tag chip) containing 128-bit read
only memory to store a unique ID. The ID is written by the manufacturer and
cannot be altered afterwards. It has no anti-collision control. In other words a
reader cannot read more than one chip at a time. Chip size is 0.4 mm x
0.4mm. The passive chip does not contain a battery. A corresponding reader
generates a microwave signal at 2.45 GHz. The tag chip converts the micro-
wave into electric power and transmits its µ-chip ID back to the reader. The
maximum reading range is about 25 cm. The chip needs an external antenna
to form a complete tag. The antenna offered by Hitachi has the size of 56 mm
x 4.75 mm, which is smaller than the typical coil antenna used for 13.56 MHz
smart cards. A typical reader has 300 mW output power and a 4 patch an-
tenna with circular polarisation. The response time of the chip is 20 msec. The
µ-chip was used at the Expo 2005 in Nagoya, Aichi in Japan for admission
tickets. (reference model fields A. Logistical tracking & tracing, D. Access con-
trol and tracking & tracing of individuals, H. Public services).
The µ-chip has been developed by Hitachi Ltd. for banknote identification
(reference model subcategory Banknotes).

45
4.3.6 Animal identification
Destron®
Technologies offers tamperproof full duplex (FDX-B) electronic
transponders for the cattle industry. These tags are suited for harsh environ-
ments. They carry a 15 digit numeric ID, by which the animal can be identi-
fied (reference model field D. Access control and tracking & tracing of indi-
viduals).
There are products for animal identification (compliant with ISO 11784 and
ISO 11785 defining data structure and air interface), e.g. ear tags that can be
also read visually or glass embedded tags (about 23 mm x 4 mm), which is
implanted. A bolus (about 65 mm x 21 mm) may be placed in the rumen of
an animal. Another possibility would be to put a collar containing an RFID tag
on the animal. This is primarily used on pets, like cats or dogs, but may also
be used on cows. These tags are passive and work at 134.2 kHz. Security
functions are not always needed unless access control is required. In order to
identify an animal or object unambiguously low range systems like HF RFID
(13.56 MHz) and LF RFID (134.2 kHz) suit well.
4.3.7 Automation, production management, manufac-
turing
A big industrial application field is the area of automation, production and
manufacturing (reference model field B). In most cases so-called “closed loop”
systems without security functions are used. Tag and reader usually stay in-
side the same production hall. Proprietary systems with special system pa-
rameters (e.g. high robustness, high reliability) that do not need to follow
standards like ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]) or EPCglobal ([81]) can be used
here. The choice of frequency bands and system properties (memory capac-
ity, temperature range, robustness, etc.) directly follows system requirements
of the application.
At the Munich plant of BMW, Moby identification systems (RFID Systems SI-
MATIC RF by Siemens AG) are used for transmission and storage of quality
and safety relevant data.
Integrated data management is done by suitable tags. E.g. Moby E is used in
the front and rear axle assembly. The different work piece carriers are marked
with tags to bring them to the correct workstations. RFID is likewise used in
the cable harness assembly, the power train elements assembly, car body and
final assembly and for locating vehicles on the factory premises. The data
stored on the tags during production ensure that vehicle-specific parts are
being assembled correctly and the relevant quality data are recorded.

46
4.3.8 Automotive
In the automotive sector there are various RFID applications (reference model
fields D. Access control and tracking & tracing of individuals, E. Loyalty,
membership and payment, H. Public services). Data security, data protection
and privacy are most important system properties. Card type tags with built-
in security functions (authentication, secure data access, encryption) are
needed to fight tag-cloning, data tampering and deception. Dependant on the
reading range the application requires HF or UHF systems with security func-
tions that are suited for these applications.
A high security intelligent license tag system may be used to detect and pre-
vent vehicle misuse. Parked cars can be checked without owner/driver atten-
dance. The vehicle data can instantly be verified by authorities. The tag may
contain public data (e.g. license number) and/or protected data (owner,
taxes, etc.).These data could be used to enforce payments for registration,
tax and/or insurance. Protected storage levels can be licensed to private com-
panies e.g. for access control.
4.3.9 Smart drug cabinet
A smart drug cabinet is a future scenario providing automatic information
about access and inventory (reference model fields C. Product safety, quality
and information, F. eHealth care). Security functions are required (authentica-
tion, secure data access, encryption) to fight tag-cloning, data tampering,
deception. The RFID reader at the drug cabinet reads the tag of the accessing
person and decides if access is granted. The same reader may register drugs
that are taken out from the cabinet or placed into it. This information can also
be used to monitor the supply chain. If a patient tag is read, drug assignment
and therapy control are possible (see also next example).
4.3.10 Medical, pharmaceutical, health care
In eHealth care applications (reference model field F) special high security
functions are required since patient data may be stored on the tag and trans-
ferred to/from the tag (authentication, secure data access, secure data stor-
age, encryption). Such high security functions are currently available on HF
RFID (13.56 MHz) only. Wrist bands with RFID tags can be used to identify
the patient, confirm the medicine and dose administered and even the time
this has to be done. In contrast to barcode systems, RFID tags can be read
through and around the human body. The data on the tag can be changed if

47
needed, to always keep patient data up-to-date. The U.S. navy tracks
wounded in Iraq, using RFID technology.
4.3.11 VeriChip
The U.S. based vendor VeriChip Corp. provides state-of-the-art security solu-
tions that identify, locate, and protect people, their assets, and their environ-
ments. It offers infant protection, wander prevention, asset tracking, and pa-
tient identification applications, especially for the healthcare industry (refer-
ence model field F).
Within their systems, VeriChip offers three main categories of tags for these
purposes. The first is a passive, human-implantable RFID microchip, measur-
ing the size of a grain of rice. It is inserted just under the skin of the patient's
upper right arm. This chip is approved by FDA (US- Food and Drug Admini-
stration). The chip can be read through a fixed or handheld reader. The read-
ing distance typically is a few centimetres. The unique 16-digit identifier,
which is the only information stored on the chip, can be connected to an on-
line patient information data base. The patient record can contain vital infor-
mation related to the patient, e.g. lab test data and pharmacy records. The
implanted chip cannot easily be lost or stolen. Due to the missing security
functions the tag can be cloned. Patient data cannot be eavesdropped without
access to the corresponding database system. Today, according to VeriChip
Corp., VeriChip systems are installed in over 4,000 locations worldwide in
healthcare, security, industrial, and government markets. Currently, 110
medical facilities have committed to adopt the VeriMed Patient Identification
System in their emergency rooms while over 2,500 people have gotten a
VeriChip microchip worldwide.
Another kind of tag VeriChip offers are active RFID tags worn by individuals
(usually on the wrist or leg). These tags are used to help prevent infant ab-
ductions and accidental mother/baby switching and prevent residents from
wandering out of designated areas.
VeriChip also offers a selection of active and passive RFID tags which can be
affixed to items. Items to be tagged include equipment, parts and consum-
ables, facilitating inventory management.
4.4 Niche applications
RFID can also be used for some non-mass or niche applications.

48
4.4.1 Tree identification
Tags can provide serial numbers for trees. The College of Forest Resources at
the University of Washington uses a system where tags are placed inside
trees. The tags can be read with a hand-held reader outside the tree. Security
functions are not needed here. Due to the small tag cases HF is mainly used
here with small coils as antennae. The system is used by the University of
Washington for a self-guided tree tour, where the participants carry a PDA
with an integrated reader.
4.4.2 Identification of bees
RFID tags attached to bees make it possible to track the activities of single
insects. The bio centre at the University of Würzburg, Germany uses very
small tags for identifying bees. The whole tag must fit on the head of a bee.
The chip weighs 2.4 mg. Due to the small tag antenna the reading range is
rather low. The reader antenna has to be placed near the entrance of the
beehive.
4.4.3 Railroad car identification
Figure 2 shows an application where railroad cars are to be identified. Major
requirements are: passive tag, high speed reading, high reading range, high
robustness and high temperature range. Classical RFID systems do not pro-
vide all these properties in combination. Here an RFID system on 2.45 GHz
based on surface acoustic waves (SAW) is used (RFID system by Siemens
AG). In the centre the tag’s RF response signal is shown.

49
Figure 2 Passive and robust RFID systems for identification of railroad cars
4.5 Mapping to the reference model
Table 9 shows the mapping of application examples to the subcategories of
the reference model (see chapter 4.2). “Y” means: “Yes”, this application ex-
ample applies to the corresponding subcategory.

50
Current useRFID-
application
field
Subcategories
Logistics,supplychainman-
agementatMetroGroup
Identitymanagement,security,
accesscontrol
ContactlesssmartcardMifare
ContactlesssmartcardFeliCa
µ-chip
Animalidentification
Automation,productionman-
agement,manufacturing
Automotive
Smartdrugcabinet
Medical,pharmaceutical,health
care
VeriChip
Treeidentification
Identificationofbees
Railroadcaridentification
AA: Inhouse logistics Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y
AC: Open logistics Y
AD: Postal applications
AE: Dangerous goods logistics
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems
BB: Asset management Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Airplanes
BF: Autom./process control Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. Goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. Goods Y
CB: Electronic goods Y
CC: Textile goods Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track.
& tracing of
individuals DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cardsE: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment EB: Membership cards Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y YF: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y
GB: Rental systemsG: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home
HB: Road tolling systems YH: Public ser-
vices HC: Banknotes Y
Table 9 Mapping application examples to reference model

51
5 Transponder Classes View
Another view on RFID systems derives from the approach to classify RFID
systems by the capabilities of their tags. A meanwhile widely used classifica-
tion system has been established by the MIT Auto-ID Center and is now con-
tinued by EPCglobal Inc [81].
5.1 EPCglobal classes
EPCglobal is a subscriber-driven organisation comprised of industry leaders
and organisations, focused on creating global standards for the EPCglobal
Network [81]. EPCglobal was formed as the successor organization to the MIT
Auto-ID Center, which started the EPC technology. The Electronic Product
Code (EPC) should provide unique ID numbers for objects and support the use
of radio frequency identification (RFID) in trading networks. The goal is in-
creased efficiency throughout the supply chain and higher information flow
between companies and their trading partners.
EPC tag
class
Tag type Tag class capabilities
Class 0 Read only, (i.e., EPC number (64 bits) hard coded by
manufacturer)
Class 1 Read, write once (i.e., EPC number (96…256 bits) can be
encoded onto the tag later in the field)
Class 2
passive
Read / write (larger memory, user data)
Class 3 semi-
passive
Class 2 capabilities plus a power source to provide in-
creased range and/or advanced functionality (e.g. sen-
sors)
Class 4 Class 3 capabilities plus active communication and inter-
tag communication
Class 5
active
Class 4 capabilities plus communication with passive tags
as well
Table 10 EPCglobal RFID technology classes
Table 10: EPCglobal RFID technology classes shows a system introduced by
the RFID user organisation EPCglobal [81]. It is one possible view of tag
classes, which classifies tags according to their data handling capabilities, en-
ergy source and communication skills.
EPCglobal class 0 up to class 2 build the group of passive tags. Class-3-tags
are semi-passive and class 4 and 5 form the active tag group. From class 0 up
to class 5 the RFID system performance and capabilities increase. Current

52
systems on the market do not cover all classes. Only class 0 and class 1 are
accompanied by corresponding international standards (here EPCglobal stan-
dards [81]). Although, in principle, this classification system is not limited to
tags defined by EPCglobal standards [81], it is used mainly by the EPCglobal
community. In March 2007, the most advanced passive tag technology is the
so-called “Class 1 Generation 2” (short “Gen2”) technology, according to the
EPCglobal UHF standard [81]. The air interface is also compatible with the
new ISO/IEC 18000-6c (2006) ([78], [79]).
5.1.1 Passive tags
Passive tags have no energy source. They take their power supply out of the
reader’s magnetic or electromagnetic field. Because they need no batteries,
they can be built very cheap and very small in size.
Class 0
Class 0 are the simplest passive tags, according to the EPCglobal system [81].
They are read-only tags with a simple ID number. The ID number is built-in
when the tag (chip) is manufactured and can not be altered. The ID is typi-
cally a 64 or 96 bit number, which can be the EPC (Electronic Product Code).
For EAS (Electronic Article Surveillance) systems, the tag may contain only
one bit of information, carrying just the information that “something” is in
reading range of the reader. The companies Symbol and Impinj manufacture
a programmable tag, which they call Class 0+. It is not broadly available.
"Class 0+" is not an official standard, and Symbol and Impinj tags are not
interchangeable.
Class 1
Class 1 are read/write passive tags that can only be written once. They can
store a larger ID number and some additional data. The ID and data can be
written by the manufacturer or the customer. Once written, they can not be
altered. Many companies offer tags that comply with the EPCglobal UHF Gen2
specification [81]. E.g. Impinj Inc. (USA) offers tags named Monaco™ and
Monza™ for item level tagging which are certified by EPCglobal [81].
Class 2
Class 2 are read/write passive tags that can be written many times. They can
store a larger amount of additional data and may have additional functionality
like data logging and/or cryptography.

53
5.1.2 Semi-passive tags
Semi-passive tags use an auxiliary energy source (usually a battery). They
use the energy out of the source for supplying the tag and producing the re-
sponse modulation. The response signal itself is generated passively as with
passive tags.
Class 3
Class 3 tags use their power source (battery) to provide additional functional-
ity like sensor(s) and/or increased reading range. A typical example is a semi-
passive tag offered by the Italian company CAEN S.p.A.
(http://www.caen.it/rfid/index.php). This tag samples the temperature in 6-
second-intervals and transfers its data to the reader when interrogated. The
lithium battery has a life time of 3 years. Its typical application fields are the
transportation and the supply chain of medical products, foods etc., since it
allows continuous monitoring of the goods’ condition.
5.1.3 Active tags
Active tags use an auxiliary energy source (usually a battery). The energy
from the source is used for all functions of the tag. The tag is generating an
RF signal by itself without the support of the reader. The energy source may
also be used for the supply of additional components like sensors, actuators,
crypto engines, data processing units, etc.
Class 4
Class 4 provides the same functionality as class 3 and in addition to that the
tags generate their own RF signal and can communicate with other active
tags. Active tags may send their data independently from interrogation sig-
nals of a reader (beacon tag). E.g. the US-based company Savi Technology
(http://www.savi.com) offers sensor tags that consist of a high performance
active RFID tag for real-time container tracking during transit, including sen-
sors that detect any unauthorized opening of the container. The sensor moni-
tors the environmental conditions inside the container. Any change in tem-
perature, humidity and shock is detected.
Class 5
Class 5 provides the same functionality as class 4 and in addition to that the
tags can communicate with other active, semi-passive and passive tags. Class
5 tags essentially have reader capabilities. An application field for these tags
may be sensor networks and ambient intelligence systems.

54
5.1.4 Mapping to the reference model
Table 11 shows the mapping of basic transponder classes to the subcategories
of the reference model (see chapter 4.2). “Y” means: “Yes”, this transponder
class can be used in the corresponding subcategory.

55
Current use Possible useRFID-
application
field
Subcategories
Passivetags
Semi-passivetags
Activetags
Passivetags
Semi-passivetags
Activetags
AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Airplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track. &
tracing of indi-
viduals DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y YE: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y YF: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y YG: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y YH: Public ser-
vices HC: Banknotes Y Y
Table 11 Mapping basic transponder classes to reference model

56
5.1.4.1 Passive tags
Passive tags get all their operational power from the reader’s field. They are
used in all subcategories, except fresh/perishable foods (due to the tempera-
ture sensors) and road tolling systems (high reading ranges (>7 metres)). In
the future, passive temperature sensor tags might be developed that can be
used here. But existing technology uses active RFID with sensors. High read-
ing range and high reliability in road tolling systems are achieved with semi-
passive or active tags.
5.1.4.2 Semi-passive and active tags
Semi-passive and active tags use an additional energy source (e.g. battery)
to power their circuitry. Semi-passive tags use the same air interface as pas-
sive tags while active tags actively generate a radio frequency signal. Semi-
passive tags reach higher reading ranges than passive tags, since the main
circuitry is powered from the energy source rather than from the RF field. Ac-
tive tags reach the highest reading ranges since they generate their own RF
signal out of the energy source (e.g. battery). Due to the additional energy
source, both tag classes are rather expensive in comparison to passive tags.
Cost effective usage is therefore limited to subcategories that need additional
functionality (e.g. sensors, data processing, networking) or very high reading
ranges and reliability, as in dangerous goods logistics (e.g. temperature sen-
sors), vehicles (sensors), automation/process control (e.g. sensors),
fresh/perishable foods (temperature sensors), pharmaceuticals (temperature
sensors), implants (temperature sensors), smart home (sensors) and road
tolling systems (high reading range, high reliability).

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