Credit seminar on Livestock transportation and its effect on Physiological Parameters.

2.  The increasing demand in proteins to feed the ever-growing world population has necessitated the
industrialization and transportation of livestock using different means of transportation across
several ecological zones with different climatic conditions.
 The stress factors acting on animals during road transportation are numerous and the responses of the
animal to them are complex, non-specific and often detrimental to their health and productivity.
 This Seminar provides an insight on the physiological responses of animals to transport stress and
possible areas of intervention and adoption of improved and innovative management strategies
toward improving the welfare of the transported animals.

3. Modes of transportation
BY FOOT/HOOF BY ROAD BY RAIL
BY SHIP BY AIR

4. Fear
Stress
(Knowles and Warriss, 2000)

5.  Handling
 Loading
 Unloading
 Vehicle type and design
 Type of road and driving methods
 Vehicle noise and vibration
 Stocking rate/density
 Journey duration
 Climatic conditions

6. Stress Stressor Effect
Behavioural Novelty, restrain, noise Fear
Mixing , overcrowding Aggressive interaction
Nutritional Fasting Dehydration and hunger
Physical Mixing, over crowding , road
condition, driving technique,horn
Bruises and injury
Weather extremes Hyper / hypothermia
Infectious Dust Respiratory disease
Exposer Respiratory disease

7.  Transportation of food animals is of great concern due to several reasons
 Firstly-Severe stress in animals, if due welfare conditions are not provided.
 Secondly-affect adversely meat quality (or) Milk Production.
 Thirdly-Risk of spread of infectious diseases over large distances.
 Fourthly-Animal health can be impaired, Cause increased morbidity and mor-tality rate and consequently
substantial economic losses due to loss of liveweight and poor meat quality .
( Knowles et al., 1999a)

8.  Vehicle design –
 Transporting food animals by using vehicles not specifically designed for that purpose leads to injuries,
stress and suffering in food animals
(Javis and Cockram, 1994)
 In order to reduce the effects of stress imposed by the nature of vehicle when transporting sheep,.The
use of a 3.5 ton standard cattle lorry with ventilation louvers. The sheep were confined within a 1.8 x 2.3
m pen (that is 0.23 m2 animal-1), with the floor covered with wood shavings.
(Broom et al., 1996)

9.  During transportation of hens,The rough handling, when hens were being removed from battery
cages to vehicles, had much greater effect than gentle handling or a short period of transport.
( Freeman et al., 1984)
 During road transportation of goats, The greatest stress was induced by handling at the start of
the journey, which activated in the first place the sympathetic nervous system, including the
adrenal gland.
(Kannan et al.,2002)

10.  Haematocrit-
 Packed cell volume can be increased by dehydration or splenic contraction induced by sympathetic
nerve activity or circulating catecholamines. It was observed that PCV value increased during
handling and loading of animals
(Tadich et al., 2005)
 The decrease could indicate a progressive habituation of cattle to being handled .Hence, it seems that
stressors can produce an actual, rather than apparent, decrease in haematocrit values.
(Tadich et al., 2005)
 In horses however, during transportation the PCV was found to increase after the journey.
(Ferlazzo et al., 1993)

11.  Non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) is a good indicator of body fat utilization and its value increases in the
blood when animals were deprived of food .
(Kannan et al., 2002)
 A large increase in the concentration of NEFA by two to three times the level in control group after 8 h of
transporting pigs was observed .
( Brown et al. 1999)

12.  The stress factors occurring during transportation, especially during the hot days cause physical and
psychic exertions which disrupted the homeostasis and conesquently, metabolism in animals.
( Lopez et al., 2006)
 The activities of AST, ALT and CPK increased in the blood after tissue damage, poor muscular tissue
reperfusion, decreased heat dissipation, hypoxia and fatigue, apparently, were a result of increase in the
permeability of muscle membrane induced by capture, loading and transportation stress.
( Montane et al., 2002)
 The increase occurred especially when the animals were roughly driven and mishandled before and after
transport.
( Averos et al., 2008)

13.  Transportation stress is known to cause an increase in plasma urea, which indicates an increase in protein
and nucleic acids breakdown in the muscles, due to increase in cortisol concentration and prolong food
deprivation during stressful transportation conditions.
(Guardia et al., 2009)
 During road transportation of cattle, reported an increase in urea from pretransportation values of 1.5 to
3.6mmol/l post-transportation during short journey; while during 36 h journey, The increase attained a
maximum value of 4.3 mmol/l and the pre-transportation values were restored only after 72 h post-
transportation.
(Knowles et al.,1999)
 During 4 h of road transportation of donkeys, Observed no significant change in urea concentration,
which implied that the 4 h transportation did not cause any significant breakdown of protein.
( Fordhead et al. 1995)

14.  Ultimate pH of muscle and muscle glycogen are useful indicators of fatigue or stress in an animal. A
high pH and depletion of muscle glycogen can result from chronic stress.
 Differences in values of pH and muscle glycogen measured in pigs transported over different periods
have been observed. Longer journeys led to a higher pH in the longissimus dorsi, semimembranosus
muscles and adductor muscles and the pH remained high in the longissimus dorsi and adductor of the
animals kept in lairage for 6 h.
(Brown et al., 1999)
 These high pH values are potentially associated with a greater incidence of DFD meat.
 In transported birds, the longer period of deprivation reduced liver weight and glycogen content and also
elevated the PH value in the biceps muscle and by implication, reduced its glycogen content. With longer
journey times, liveweight and glycogen content decreased
(Warriss et al., 1993)

15.  These parameters were observed to increase when animals suffer from dehydration as a result of long
hour journeys.
(Parker et al., 2003a)
 During rest in the lairage, the concentration of plasma total protein, albumin and haemoglobin returned
to normal.
(Parker et al., 2007)
 The increase was independent of the journey time. In journeys of 21, 26 and 31 h, increases of up to 80
to 82 g/l were recorded and in the 14 h group, the values decreased from 80 to 78.5 g/l
(Knowles et al., 1999)
 Albumin is considered to be a major circulating antioxidant, which protects cells by scavenging
system. Its increase during transportation may also suggest the degree of stress animals encountered
during the journey and the response of the animal to such stressors .
(Krizanovic et al., 2008)

16.  Plasma glucose is one of the commonly used physiological indicators of stress during transportation .
(Averos et al., 2008)
 Transportation stress has been reported to cause an elevation in plasma glucose concentrations due to
breakdown of glycogen from the liver or due to depletion of glycogen reserves from the skeletal
muscles.
(Tadich et al., 2005)
 Increase in plasma glucose concentration is mainly due to glycogenolysis associated with the increase
in catecholamines and glucocorticoids which were released during the stress of transportation.
(Tadich et al., 2005)

17.  The increase in concentration of cortisol in the blood is often an indicator of psychological stress.
Such stress includes exposure of animals to a new environment, handling, loading and the start of
vehicle motion.
(Werner and Gallo., 2008)
 Greatest stimulation of cortisol release was induced by transferring sheep from their individual
holding pens to vehicles and that the commencement of vehicle motion produced an additional cortisol
peak of 350% above the initial value.
(Ndlovu et al., 2008)

18.  Changes in mineral metabolism triggered off by an adjustment in the original hormonal status as a result of
environmental stress factors brought about during animal transportation involves mainly calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride .
(Paerker et al., 2003b)
 Increases in muscles activities of stressed animal results from a rise in calcium ion concentration in the
extracellular tissue fluid. However, in the analysis of acid-base balance in B. indicus steers subjected to
transport for a long time.
(Parker et al.,2003)
 Magnesium (Mg) acts as a co-factor or an activator of many critical enzymes for the reactions involving
ATP that energize all major metabolism pathways. Also, magnesium acts as a sedative that reduces the stress
induced catecholamine secretion.
(Steinhardt and Hans-Herma, 1998)

19. Biochemical and physiological indicators of transport stress
Stressor Biochemical variables
Measured in blood
Food deprivation
Dehydration ↑ Osmolarity, ↑ Total protein,
↑ Albumin, ↑ PCV
Physical exertion ↑CK, ↑ Lactate
Fear / arousal ↑Cortisol, ↑PCV
Motion sickness(passive) ↑ Vasopressin
Physiological variables
Fear/arousal and physical
exertion
↑ Heart rate, ↑ Respiration rate
Hyporthermia / hyperthermia Body temperature, skin temperature
(Knowles and Warriss, 2000)

20. STRESSOR MEASURES IN
BLOOD

21. Effect on biochemical parameters of livestocks by road
Variable Bull Sheep Goat Pig Horse
Cortisol (ng/ml)
Pre-transport 38.5±27.5 35.7 18.0 11.7 40 ± 12
Post-transport 43.5±28.6 38.9 27.5 24.6 68 ± 19
Albumin (g/L)
Pre-transport 33.6 ± 1.74 - - 36 .77±1 .2 3 -
Post-transport 33.9± 1.78 - - 37.54 ± 1.73 -
Blood Glucose (mmol/L)
Pre-transport 4.26±0.331 2.59 1.997 5.599 78 ±6
Post-transport 4.79±0.452 2.56 3.801 5.577 89 ± 12
(Kannan et al., 2000; Stull and Rodiek, 2000;Earley and O’Riordan,2006; Fisher et al., 2010;
Bryer et al., 2011)

22. Variable Bull Sheep Goat Pig Horse
Creatinine Kinase (μmol/L)
Pre-transport 142 - 200
(IU/L)
1374
(IU/L)
204 ± 102
(IU/L)
Post-transport 161 - 145
(IU/L)
1486
(IU/L)
250 ± 130
(IU/L)
Total Protien (g/l)
Pre-transport 66.30±4.20 71.7 - 67.62 ±
1.29
7.2 ± .3
Post-transport 79.00± 4.60 67.6 - 71.31 ±
1.93
7.5 ± .4
Urea (mg/dL)
Pre-transport - 7.61 24.5 4.67 ± 0.25 17.64
Post-transport - 7.65 24.5 6.79 ± 0.39 21.03
Effect on biochemical parameters of livestocks by road
(Kannan et al., 2000; Stull and Rodiek, 2000;Earley and O’Riordan,2006; Fisher et al., 2010;
Bryer et al., 2011)

23. Variable Cow Sheep Goat Pig Horse
Temperature °C
Pre-transport 38.75 39.3 38.6±0.03 38.36±0.0
2
37.4 ± .3
Post-transport 39.73 39.7 39.5±0.1 39.12±0.0
7
37.6 ± .8
Respiration (rate/min.)
Pre-transport 28 30 - - -
Post-transport 42 38 - - -
Heart Rate (beat/min.)
Pre-transport 89 115 67.8 ± 3.01 - 37±1
Post-transport 119 121 76.1 ±
17.76
- 60±13
Effect on physiological parameters by road transportation
(Stull and Rodiek 2000; Fisher et al., 2010 ; Aktas et al., 2011; Zhong et al., 2011)

24. EFFECT OF ROAD TRANSPORT ON
BEHAVIOURAL ACTIVITIES.
 The behaviour of animals during transportation is a major concern to animal welfarists and those in the
business of animal marketing. The biggest stress occurs in response to handling and loading.
(Ayo et al., 2006)
 The behavioural stress in animals, expressed as indicators of discomfort during transportation are freeze,
back-off, escape attempt, vocalization, kicking or struggling .
 During transportation of poultry species including ostriches, beak opening, wing fluffing, restlessness,
pecking and frequent elimination were observed to be indicators of behavioural stress, most especially if the
transportation is conducted during the hot-dry season of the year.
(Minka and Ayo, 2006)

25.  Measurements of injuries, bruises, mortality, morbidity and carcass quality are often used as
indicators of welfare during handling and transportation .
( Guardia et al., 2009)
 Warriss and Brown reported that 0.072% of 2.9 million pigs in 1991 and 1992 died, In transit (0.061%)
or in lairage (0.011%); Less or no mortality was reported in B. indicus breed of cattle and goats reared
under extensive management system and transported during the hot-dry season .
 Wound, contusion and lacerations were reported to be the most frequent injuries sustained by cattle and
that the thoracic and abdominal walls were the most common areas of the body affected with injuries .
(Minka and Ayo, 2007)
2,088
0ut of
29,00,000

26. RB (n=30)0
10
20
30
13.3
6.7
26.7
30
10
3.3 3.3
10
5.7
22.9
25.7
8.6
1.4 1.4
6
4
12
16
4
2 2
RB (n=30) WF (n=70)
• Red Bororo (RB), White Fulani (WF) and Sokoto Gudale (SG)
• IMH — Internal muscular hemorrhage.
Distribution of injuries in cattle during transportation
according to affected body parts
(Minka and ayo, 2007)

27.  Transportation exposes food animals to stress, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality.
Deprivation of food and water for quite a long time during transportation further depresses the condition
of the already stressed animal.
 The transported food animals are subjected to concomitant action of transporttation and heat stress
factors. These deleterious stress factors significantly weaken the body resistance to diseases by
depressing the cellular and humoral immunity .
 Consequently, the virulence of opportunistic microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Pasteurella sp. and
Salmonella sp. increases. The morbidity of respiratory and digestive diseases in such animals may also
increase.
(Minka and Ayo et al., 2007)

28. Pathogenetic chain of road transportation stress in livestock :
Road transportation stress Ameliorating stage and agents
Central Nervous System (CNS) excitation (i) CNS depressants (ii) Tranquilizers
(iii) Inhibitors of GABA and analogues
Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system and Adrenergic blockers
release of catecholamines
Administration of:
(i)Free-radical induced lipid
perioxidation of cytomembranes (i) Membrane protectors and
(ii) Ca2+ influx into cells (ii) Natural and synthetic antioxidants
(iii) Decrease glycogen and glycolysis (iii) Lipoperoxidation inhibitors
(iv) Ca2+ blockers
Clinical manifestation of road transport stress
Decrease in body resistance to diseases, (i) Good and conducive accomadation
loss in liveweight, vaccination failure, (ii) Adequate food and water
traumatic injuries, changes in blood and hormones, (iii) Adequate rest .
stressful behaviours, exhaustion, fatigue, and death of cells. (iv) Possible medication
Death of the animal

29. Vitamin C use in stress
 Under specific environmental and physiological condition
require
more amount of antioxidant than form in body.
(Pardue etal.,1985)
 Vitamin c are chain breaking antioxidant prevent free radical
chain formation.
(Power & Jakson
,2008)
 Animal will reduce live weight due to inhibitory role of cortisol.
(Balz,2003;Power &
Jackson,2008)

30. Use of electrolyte in stress
 Oral rehydration therapy improve acid-base balance by
provide electrolyte and water (wattiaux,2005)
Electrolyte composition
Ingredient g/ltr
Glucose <35
Na <3.3
Glycin <10.9
Sod. Bicarbonate 4.2-
6.7
Sod.citrate 14.7-23.5
Sod.acetate 6.8-10.9
K 0.8-1.2
Cl 1.8-3.5
(Garthwaite et al.,1994)
 The use of oral electrolyte decrease weight loss.
(Schaefer et al., 1997)

31. Group 1
Goat 25
Group 2
Goat 25
Group 3
Goat 25
Vitamin C
180mg/kgbw/day
/animal/orally
Vitamin C
180mg/kgbw/day
/animal/orally
+
Electrolyte
7gm/animal/day
orally
Jaggery
200gm/day/animal
/orally
With small amount
of concentrate
Experiment on goat in LRC,NDRI for transport
stress
 Vitamin C and Electrolyte are more effective then separate use
of Vit C and jaggery
(Gupta,2016)
Shrinkage %
3.87 LSD/ 5.79 HSD
Shrinkage %
2.82 LSD/ 3.41 HSD
Shrinkage %
4.12 LSD/ 6 HSD
(Gupta,2016)

32. 5
Hunger,
thirst, mal-
nutrition
Fear &
distress
Physical &
thermal
discomfort
Pain,
injury &
disease
To
express
normal
patterns of
behaviour
Animal Welfare
Freedom

33.  Stress factors acting on transported animals constitute crucial welfare and economic problem to
animals and farmers.
 Total elimination of transportation stress factors on livestock production is impossible.
 Management strategies toward amelioration of road transport stress should aimed at selected
stages of stress development, provided such ameliorating agents did not contravene the
legislative requirement for wholesome meat & Milk.
 New technological approaches must include measures to improve livestock genetic composition
with the aim of improving not only production, but also the adaptational capability of the animal
to transport stress factors.

34. GENETIC
ADOPTATION
!!!???
“Faster is fatal, slower is safe.”