Chapter One Introduction As the ongoing and past greenhouse.pdf
1. Answer: Chapter One Introduction As the ongoing and past greenhouse
Answer:
Chapter One
Introduction
As the ongoing and past greenhouse gas emissions take their toll inevitably on the climate
change, adaptation which is equivalent to implementing and finding of ways sound in
adjusting to the adverse impacts of changes in climate is becoming an issue of urgency along
with climatic change mitigations. While there are already implementations of actions
focusing on climate change mitigation, the adaptation work is interested on the
establishment of the needed crucial principles. Majority of the adaptation methods involves
utilization of some technology forms which in wider perspective includes not just
equipments or materials but also diverse knowledge forms. In fact several technologies
have been tested and tried as part of the innovations targeting the impacts of climate
change ranging from the remote satellite sensing to advanced material science.
This particular dissertation mainly pay attention to the relationship between technological
novelty and change in climatic condition across the entire world – which is currently
considered to be the most common and intimidating environmental problem affecting the
world. The research work begins with a presentation of an overview of the problem
resulting from climate change and the invention necessities that facilitate the study (Fuhr,
Hickmann, and Kern 2018). The paper then presents a detailed examination of the available
options to facilitate invention necessity to solve the problem of climate change. Despite the
fact that most of the examples used within this paper are obtained from the past
experiences and studies for the United States, the discussed concepts together with
techniques can generally be applied to all countries affected by problems of climate change
mitigation.
The influence posed by change in climatic conditions to the economic development still
remains to be a topic of great discussion. Based on the perception of different individuals,
change in climatic conditions is considered to be a means that favors economic
development, while other group of individuals base their arguments that it will possibly
reduce the rate of economic development or even complete termination in the Economic
Growth The argument should however consider the disparities within regional places, in
2. that, Northern Hemisphere is usually considered to be colder regions and thus change in
climatic conditions would positively contribute to the production, and the case is different
for the tropical regions where a change in climatic condition is associated with negative
influence to production thus reduced economic growth (Mensah et al.2018).
The effect of climatic change tends to be enormous following the increase in the emission of
greenhouse gases. Nonetheless, adaptation techniques are of necessity in all the occasions.
Choice made on the adaptations should consider the persistently varying climate due to a
pair of reasons; first, future uncalled for problems may influence the use of technologies in
place since the technique is developed to address challenges at the present. Also, the rate at
which climatic condition changes necessitates a flexible adaptation under the newly
implemented infrastructural development, economic organizations as well as technical
systems. More particularly, the influence posed by changes in climatic conditions to
agriculture changes based on the adopted systems of farming, which alter in sensitivity
alongside exposure to the variations (Chen, Yin and Mei 2018).
The adaptation rate to changes in climatic conditions is determined by a number of factors
including changes in market demands, public and private investment within the R&D, policy
and institutions and cultural factors as well. The most essential factor is the level of
coordination among the involved parties. For instance, reports have been given by scientists
stating that change in climatic condition systematically influence both wine value chains
and regional vineyards, thus demanding for a combined solution derived by the involved
parties at the two levels. Therefore, the level of adaptation is determined by the type of
sector alongside coordination and interaction among the actors, more specifically within the
agricultural sector. In production processes facilitated by rain water, adaptation involves
activities like use of varieties which are resistant to drought or by means of intercropping,
and on the other hand, construction of insulation or alternative means of feeding are
encouraged for livestock production (Hughes, Chu, and Mason 2020).
Up to the present, various innovation works have mainly focused on the attempts of
innovation in generating both social and economic alterations, more particularly in every
sector, in which technology and technical knowhow, the composure of demand, institutions
and features of different firms are distinct from one another. The idea of Sectoral System of
Innovation (SSI) is therefore suggested with the aim of analyzing the various outlined
factors, which can effectively predict some actual trends in innovation within every sector,
with various influences on economic development as well as adaptation to global problems
including change in climatic conditions. Empirical research works however do not fully take
into consideration the sectoral disparities in the novelty for adaptation to changes in
climatic conditions and the responsibility assigned to SSI.
The approach of SSI is therefore proposed to assist in the exploration of adaptation statuses
to changes in climatic conditions within crop production and livestock production
organizations, which are observed to be the same as per the views of farmers as well as
3. shifting historical affluences, and rules. The paper therefore contributes much to i)
literature of SSI under the field of agriculture, that has been studied with little attention, and
ii) conduct studies on adaptation to changes in climatic conditions through paying attention
to the responsibility assigned to SSI. Discussion in other sections of the paper is about
application of the concept of SSI (Lee, and Jung, 2018). This particular study identifies
domestic and international policies including but not limited to COP26 that could alter the
energy system through technological innovations to achieve stabilization targets of
greenhouse gas while at the same time meeting the societal goals. Considered in the paper is
the empirical evidence and conceptual basis on the efficiency and effectiveness of the
policies on climate change. The paper has reviewed the literature on the prospects and
trends for innovation in climate mitigation.
The United Nations (UN) Climate Change Conference (COP26) which was held in the year
2021 in the UK Glasgow brought together several leaders to address the aspect of global
warming critically. The conference focuses on gaining commitment for sustained progress
towards UN framework convention and Paris Agreement on climate change through
reduction of the increased global temperature to 1.50C. In the present years, it can be stated
with a lot of confidence that change in climatic conditions is among the major problems
affecting development worldwide (Krogstrup, and Oman 2019). For the past one and a half
century, GHG concentration within the atmosphere has significantly increased, especially
contributed by nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide. It is a common knowledge that
such gaseous components significantly contribute to climate change since they trap heat in
the atmosphere therefore resulting into an increased average temperature of the surface. It
is outlined within this dissertation that challenges related to environment mainly call for
joint action to allocate the most effective resolution measures. at the same time, highly
restricted regulatory policies are as well necessary for minimizing the emissions and facility
technological inventions (Wang et al.2019).
To a greater scope, the research on the innovation and technological change has been
supported by the attempt to understand and alter major factors contributing to economic
development alongside competitiveness within the market economy. Various literatures
have therefore been established by scholars with the aim of analyzing some of the major
components of innovation and some of its related factors – right from the organizational
and individual behavioral conducts, to the duties and performance efficiency of policies set
by the government to mainly facilitate innovation within given fields of economy or specific
technological areas of target like agriculture, aircraft or computers (Dechezleprêtre et
al.2020).
The duty assigned to technological innovation as far as provision of solution to
environmental challenges such as water pollution and air pollution is concerned is the most
current technological innovation. Different from other innovations within factories like
electronics or pharmaceuticals – in which the outcome is new products desired by
consumers (for example, highly effective or reduced-cost medicines, internet services or cell
4. phones) – there is reduced or completely no “natural” market for wide range of
environmental technologies which mainly operate to minimize or completely do away with
emission of pollutants to the surrounding. According to the conducted research, greater
percentage of individuals are not willing to contribute to the changes implemented to drive
away from pollution effects resulting from emission of greenhouse gases alongside other
pollutants (Partey et al.2018).
In such particular conditions, the duty of set policies and regulations by the government
turn out to be critical, because greater percentage of challenges affecting the surrounding
calls for joint action to ensure provision of effective solutions to the challenges. In the same
manner, the context and scope of novelties that enhance the effectiveness of environmental
controls or reduces on cost highly relies upon the actions implemented by government
policies at all levels.
Aim And Objectives
The main aim the study was to discuss the perception of farmers in regard to contribution
of innovation to climate change targets that have been set in place by the concerned global
parties. These include analysis of the challenges observed following the introduction and
enhancement of the newly designed approaches or techniques in both agriculture and other
various systems based on the change in climatic conditions.
Research Questions
This proposal attempts to analyze various responsibilities assigned to SSI in the adaptation
of sectors to change in climatic conditions, paying attention to various production sectors in
UK. The paper tries to provide an answer to a pair of questions:
What is the perception of farmers about climate change?
What are some of the sustainable methods or innovations being adopted by the farmers to
meet the demands of the changes in climate?
Chapter Two
Introduction
In this particular chapter, there is presentation of the literature review related to the
adoption of various innovative mechanisms to mitigate changes in the climate and control
of the pollution in general. Fundamental history of climate change control measures and
techniques are highlighted while pointing out the research gap to be addressed.
The Influence Of Climate Change To Farming And Possible Implications
Most of the currently conducted research on climate outlines some future significant
influence contributed by change in climatic conditions to the sector of agriculture. Some of
5. the likely expected effects discussed within the research paper include temperature
increase across the globe resulting into climatic migration to the regions surrounding the
poles from regions surrounding the tropics, rise in sea levels, advanced rate of snowmelt
and variation in timing and volume of water required for irrigation, and increased
possibilities of risk occurrences (Abbas, and Sa?san 2019.). The aforementioned
implications are analyzed and how they contribute to development systems of agriculture
based on the innovations considered to be very essential approach for reliance to changes
in climatic conditions.
Based on the considered migration effects in the following years, expectations are laid down
that change in climate patterns will result into temperature rise across the entire globe
within the range 1 to 3 0C, which is considered similar to change in weather patterns in the
order of 300 to 500 km towards the poles from the equatorial regions. In addition, change in
temperature along the higher altitude regions will show an increase in temperature. Change
in climatic condition is anticipated to the negative general influence in the production under
agriculture, the distributional influences have greater weight compared to aggregate
influence. Therefore, for example, some warm regions for agricultural production unfeasible
for farming, while change in climate will deem other regions fit for crop production.
Innovations to act in response to variations in temperature will consist of implementation
of new crops as well as varieties in some regions, to shift away from unsupportive areas of
crop production, or infrastructural investment alongside alternatives within new regions.
The influence posed by migration of weather does not only cater for the plants but to
various species across the affected region. For instance, temperature may act as an essential
boundary for infestations of pests since pests and other insects migrate depending on
change in conditions, trees and stationery. Migration of pests may pose significant dangers
to viable tree-based economies, and thus will call for effective interventions and monitoring.
The displaced individuals following the occurring trends may not prove to be the right
persons to assume the presented new opportunities by the change in climate. Establishment
of new techniques among other economic operations to hasten adaptation to changes in
climatic conditions together with amelioration of uncalled for migration will be considered
to be of great value. Inventions for the adaptation to weather migration will differ
depending on the location showing spatial heterogeneity (Picatoste et al.2018).
Within some zones, new resolutions will be recommended to solve the challenge of pest
migration and at the same time develop crop varieties to comply with the persistently
changing conditions of the atmosphere. Some regions will force for introduction of
completely new varieties of crops which adhere to the surrounding climatic conditions.
Lastly, in other areas, there will be need for introduction of techniques to hasten migration
of individuals out of the affected areas. Designing as well as putting into practice the
proposed solutions will still remain to be a big challenge following the uncertainty
concerning the intensity and timing of the climate change
6. COP26: Key Findings From The Climate Talks In Glasgow
The UN Climate Change Conference which took place in Glasgow commonly referred to as
COP26 brought together over 40, 000 participants who are registered and 12o world
leaders. These included 14, 124 observers, 22 274 delegates of the party as well as 3886
representatives of media. During this period of two weeks, the world attention was for once
directed to the topic of climate change- the solutions, science, the clear indication to act as
well as the political will of the same action. The COP26 outcome which would later be
termed as the Glasgow Climate Pact-was the intense negotiations fruits among the involved
200 countries over the last two weeks, strenuous informal and formal work over several
months as well as engagement constantly both virtually and in person for the period of two
years.
What Was Agreed?
Emergency Recognition
The countries which were present basically reaffirmed their commitments to the goals of
Paris Agreement goals which potentially limited the increase in the average temperature of
the globe to be at least below 20C above the levels of pre-industry while at the same time
pursuing the efforts of reducing the same limit to 1.50C. Also they further expressed utmost
concerns and alarms that the activities of human have resulted to the warming of the globe
by about 1.10C to the present data. And that the impacts of this rise in temperature in being
felt in most of the countries. The concerns raised here included the rapid depletion of the
carbon budgets and this is not in consistence with Paris Agreement. Recognized was that
the impacts of change in climate will extremely lower at the increase of temperature at
1.50C as opposed to the value of 20C.
Action Acceleration
The present member states stressed on the urgency of the measures to be put in
place while describing the period of climate change as “critical decade” in which the
emission of carbon dioxide needs to be reduced by nearly 45% so that the target of net
zero can be realized in the mid-century.
The advantages and disadvantages of various policies for mitigation to change in climatic
conditions is a common topic of discussion in various literatures and a point of argument in
most of the policy meetings. Certainly, the decision made by any country on the adoption of
any given policy, whichever unilaterally or as a means of an international solidarity, will be
determined by a number of circumstances and factors as discussed in other relevant
documentations. Relatively, the antecedent discussion was held with the aim of illustrating
major ways through which decision made on a given policy may influence innovation in
technology as far as mitigation of GHG emission is concerned. In the same case, it has been
identified that other forms of policies like anti-trust enforcement and patenting, can as well
7. pose indirect impact on innovation, as pointed out by other scholars.
In a number of occasions, the recommended pathway for mitigation of change in climatic
conditions alongside technology innovation will involve a unification of policies that ensure
provision of “carrots” as well as “sticks”. The modest, though essential content of this paper
section is that stabilization of GHG levels cannot be singly handed by voluntary technology
policy measures. Enough strict regulatory policies are as well required to lower emissions
of greenhouse gas, and to promote innovation in technology.
Moving Away From The Fossil Fuels
The members showed commitments to rely on other forms or sources of energy other than
the fossil fuels which are characterized by the emissions of heavy carbon.
The climate change summit of COP26 has come to close associating itself with significant
progress in various areas although this is not sufficient. Most of the regions have remained
to be off track in beating crisis of the climate change.
Having recognized the climate change urgency, the ministers drawn from various part of the
world came to a consensus that when coming back, they should carry with them stronger
targets on emission reduction by 2030. This would be in line with the aim of ensuring that
the gap is closed to the limitation of the global warming to a value of 1.5 C. There was also
agreement by the ministers that for those countries which are developed, there would be
need for delivering resources more so for those other countries which are vulnerable to
changes of climate to avert the costly and dangerous climate change consequences which
they may be now feeling (Anser, Zhang and Kanwal 2018.).
Agricultural Technologies For Adaptation And Mitigation For Climate Change
The use of the strategy of ISMP will need practices including minimal fertilizer application,
zero conservation tillage, crop residue incorporation, nutrient management, mulch, manure,
cover crops, compost as well as appropriate supplementary irrigation. The interventions of
ISMP needs integrated utilization of organic and mineral fertilizer and it is made up of their
manipulations wisely to gain productive and sustainable agricultural systems. The primary
claim of the paradigm of ISMP is that there is no single determinant of the management of
soil sustainably which can be relied upon solely. There is evidence which is considerably
demonstrating the significance of ISMP contribution in the reduction of emission of carbon
through practices of agriculture. The ISMP adoption through zero tillage as well
as conservation can potentially reduce the consumptions of energy as well as increasing
storage of carbon in the soils. For instance, there has been wider approval of zero tillage by
farmers from various parts of the world including Latin America, Asia, South and North
America.
8. The adoption of the conservation agriculture however including the recently practiced zero
tillage in Africa has been criticized widely as access to the required input, labour and
training constraints have been pointed out to be serious challenges. In addition, the crucial
role of the concepts of ISMP in the sustainable land use have been proved by those
individuals who practice and evaluate land use changes induced in the properties of the soil
like in the case of Western Ethiopia considering adjacent uses of land namely grazing,
forestry and farming/cultivation. It was discovered that the influence on the majority of
these parameters were actually negative on the cultivated soils hence calling for the need to
employ or use the integrated management of soil facility sustainably to maintain and
optimize the physiochemical properties of the soil favorably.
Renewable Energy Technologies
Renewable energy is referring to that type of energy which is obtained from the sources
that have the ability of replenishing themselves within the shortest period of time possible.
The renewable sources of energy in most of the cases are responsible for the provision of
clean energy or one which is characterized by very little carbon emission. Electricity is
never available freely in nature. This implies that it must be produced and the production
process involves transformation of various forms of energy into electricity. Electricity
production is performed in the various power stations commonly referred to as the power
plants. At the power plant, the generation of electricity is through the electrochemical
generators which are driven primarily by the heat engines that are fueled by the nuclear
fission or combustion. For the renewable sources, there has been focuses on the kinetic
energy of the flowing wind and water. Other sources of energy include geothermal and
photovoltaics.
In order to effectively handle the issue of reliance on burning wood, fossil fuel
consumptions as well as operating coal fired plants which are the primary sources of Green
House Gases emissions, there is an encouragement of a wide variety of renewable sources
as part of the measures in addressing the challenge of the world’s anthropogenic GHG
effects particularly in the developing countries. The renewable sources which are important
include wind, solar, biomass, hydropower as well as geothermal are likely to play a major
role increasingly in the mix of energy in the near future hence the issue of climate change
will be effectively addressed in the developing countries. There are cheaper and larger
opportunities available in most of the developing countries to reduce the emission of GHG
through the adoption of RETs. In addition, rivers, arable land which are rain-fed are
additional benefits in most of the tropical countries in the enhancement of the renewable
energy sectors proliferation. The energy demand will increase in the countries which are
developing.
The RETs particularly in the case of electricity generation has been increasing in terms of its
capacity around the world. In fact it is accounting for say 53% in the countries that are
developing with the exception only being in the case of biomass. Biomass is used commonly
9. in the rural areas as energy back up or for the improvement of energy security. Increased
access to the sources of energy to be used domestically through the concept or under the
umbrella of RETs is by extension characterized by benefits such as improved access to
better health care, rural women economic empowerment and education. This reduces in
turn vulnerability, increase resilience and adaptive capacity to the impacts of changes on
climate.
The table shared below gives a summary of the challenges as well as benefits which are
associated with the RETs.
Table 1: The summary of the challenges as well as benefits which are associated with the
RETs.
Renewable Energy Technology
Characteristics which are beneficial
Barriers / Challenges
Biomass
v Besides being available readily and abundantly, it can be converted very easily to
portable fuels of high energy like in the case of gas and alcohol
v Compared with other renewable energy sources, this kind of energy is relatively cheap
v One of the most commonly advantage associated with biomass is the wasteland
restoration
v Essential nutrients are extracted from the biomass ash alongside other elements like
potassium, calcium as well as oxygen.
10. Ø Compared to other sources of energy, biomass has lower density of energy
Ø The sufficient use is characterized by the challenges such as collection, harvesting, and
storage as well as transportation costs.
Ø There is loss of nutrients through indirect use like combustion, soil erosion, and loss of
biodiversity as well as pollution which potentially contributes to the changes in the climatic
patterns.
Ø The use of energy of biomass is usually limited and this is attributed to the shortage in
the right amounts
Biofuel
Ø It has high ratio of energy to land area. This implies that it is possible to avoid
deforestation effects as well as conflicts related to the land tenure.
Ø Meets needs of energy in the rural areas hence acting as stimulants in the growth of the
rural economy.
Ø Algae though have been subject to various debate, the fuel has the ability of producing
both food and fuel.
The policies guiding the development and use of biofuel are still lacking hence the
technology is facing a lot of set back
It is facing direct completion with food
It is very controversial as a result of uncertainty of the benefits of GHG advantages and
potential biodiversity impacts
It is characterized by land issues since there are fears of losing land to the companies in
the foreign land at the expense of developing countries.
Techniques Of Electricity Generation
11. There are various fundamental techniques which are useful in the conversion of other
energy forms into electricity. The achievement of the utility scale generation is through
rotating electric generators. In some cases, it is realized by the means of photovoltaic
systems. Batteries are used in the utilities concepts distribution of the electric power
although this is usually in small proportions.
Technique Of Generators
Electric Generators are responsible for the transformation of kinetic energy into the
electricity. It has since been regarded as one of the most known techniques known for the
electricity generation and based on the Faraday’s law. This technique has been
experimentally demonstrated through the use of rotating magnetic rotation within a closed
loop of the conductors or conducting materials like in the case of the copper wire. In fact all
the known electricity generation that are commercially done is achieved through the
concept of electromagnetic induction whereby the mechanical energy is used in forcing the
generator to undergo rotation.
Electrochemistry
It is referring to the direct chemical energy transformation into electricity like in the case of
the battery. Research work has revealed the importance electrochemical electricity
generation in the case of the mobile and portable applications. Most of the electrochemical
power is currently coming from the batteries. The primary cells like the known Zinc-carbon
batteries act as the sources of power directly although the secondary cells which are
rechargeable are most effective for the storage unlike the case of the primary systems of
generations. The fuel cells which are commonly referred to as open electrochemical systems
may be useful in the power extraction either from the natural fuels or from the fuels which
have been synthesized.
Agricultural production is affected directly by the changes in the climatic conditions. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which is commonly referred to as IPCC has
recorded on the assessment report that the production in agriculture in most of the
countries in Africa would be influenced considerably by the changes in the climate (Durán-
Romero et al.2020). Similarly, there have been concerns on the possible impacts of the
changes in the climatic conditions on the agriculture and this has necessitated the changes
in the research tests that are being carried out in the last few decades (Lin and Zhu 2019).
Concerns about adapting and mitigating to changes in climate have resulted in the renewal
of the incentives for investments in agriculture and developing priorities in innovation
further. The development of the new measures of agriculture in the near future as well as
new technologies diffusion will greatly from the farmer’s ability to participate in the
mitigation and adaption to the climate change. The mitigation and adaptation is obvious
more in the countries that are developing and have very low level of the productivity in
agriculture. In such kind of the countries, there is prevalence vulnerability, poverty as well
12. as food insecurity. This implies that severe impacts of climate change would be very severe
(Zhang, and Fujimori 2020).
The improved technology adoption best on the best practices of agricultural management as
well as innovations in technology will reduce the emission of GHG while at the same time
resulting into the increase in the production of agricultural products. New innovations in
terms of technology which adapt or suit to the climate that has been warming has presented
a perfect opportunity in building resilience to the climate change impacts in the future
particularly as a result of the substantial changes in the variability of the climate being
imposed in the production of agricultural products in the developing countries. While most
of the technologies in the field of agriculture have demonstrated their direct connection
with the changes in climate, there are technologies emerging which are relevant to the
practices of agriculture in the countries developing and also have the greater potential of
offering adaptation and mitigation benefits. In addition, construction of the agricultural
technologies essentially as well as ensuring that they are supplied to the countries which
are developing so as to allow for the adjustment of their systems of agriculture to the
changes in climate will need further policy innovations and institutional research approach
(Landauer, Juhola and Klein 2019).
The shape of agricultural revolution in the coming periods will be determined by how it
reacts to the subjected changes in climatic conditions. Based on that fact, agriculturists
should vary their operations to cater for changes in climatic conditions and there will be
need for modification within the agricultural operations to help lower the effects of
greenhouse gas emissions. Change in climatic condition is however regarded to be among
the major factors influencing variation and patterns of agriculture. Other than change in
climatic conditions, agricultural activities including growth in population, income increment
and alterations in human capital, infrastructure and knowledge. Greater percentage of the
observed variations under agriculture will be as a result of the newly invented techniques
under various institutions and firms (Behnam, Cagliano, and Grijalvo 2018).
According to the definition fronted by IPCC, Climate Change refers to any change in the
conditions of climate whether it is as a result of human activity or as a result of natural
variability. Anser, Zhang and Kanwal 2018 observed that changes in climate has emerged
as an integral component on dialogue touching on development as well as conversation
globally since it affects all the countries both developing and developed. Climate has been
identified as one of the primary determinants in the productivity of agriculture. Majority of
the governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations are worried that the
sector of food security is likely to be under string influence should the trend in the changes
of the climate continues to heat the world. Studies have indicated that countries are
becoming more and more vulnerable to changes in the climatic conditions and the United
Kingdom is never an exception. The country is likely to suffer the adverse effects of changes
in climate as well as its consequences. In addition, the livelihoods of the individuals living in
the rural areas and are heavily dependent on the agricultural produce, the changes in
13. climate would have a serious threat to them.
It is not only that perception shapes knowledge but vice versa is equally true. The
perception of farmers about changes in the conditions of climate therefore effects very
strongly the manner in which they respond to those uncertainties as well as risks that have
been induced by the changes in the climatic conditions. Lin and Zhu 2019 confirmed that
the perception of farmers is very crucial as far as mitigation of the adverse effects of climate
change to agriculture is concerned. They further recommend that there is need to take
certain interventions that targets community of farmers as well as other stakeholders
undertaken specifically to improve their preparation levels while handling the said impacts.
It is along this line that the undertaken study sought to comprehend the perception of
farmers about changes in climate.
Chapter Three
Introduction
The empirical research work that has been presented here forms part of the wider projects
under the UK government within the context of Climate Resilience Programme, Crop
Monitoring and Modelling Network for Improved Predictions of Climate Impacts:
CROPNET-an interdisciplinary project carried out by partners from the Centre for Ecology
and Hydrology, the Centre for Rural Policy Research (University of Exeter), Rothamsted
Research and Lancaster University. The primary aim of CROPNET has been to engage users
in the interactive prototype tool development for prediction and monitoring of the impacts
of extreme climate change and weather on the crop yield within the UK. From the onset, the
essential part of this process included understanding of the climate risks, attitude towards
and experience of the farm advisors, farmers and industry specialists.
Generally farming in the UK is diverse with the geographic nature being very distinctive to
the pattern of the system of farming. In the recent decades, there has been polarization
broadly between more intensive arable farming in the pasture-based livestock system
which is primarily in northern regions of England and arable farming in the southeast and
east of England. The gradual consolidation process has resulted into farm size growth
although there is still existence of small family farming. This particular research work has
focused on case study of the Wheat-Dairy farmers in Northern Scotland. In this chapter, the
followed methods while conducting this particular study have been presented. The use of
survey as well as triangulation of data has been highlighted.
Primary Data Collection: Survey
In this particular study, there was use of primary data sources obtained from survey. Survey
research can be defined as the process of carrying out research through the use of surveys
that are sent to the respondents. The collected data from the survey would then be
analyzed statistically to draw a meaningful conclusion on the research topic. The study
14. adopted quantitative survey methods in which there was scaling up of the responses
received from the respondents. Actually there was use of three types of data: Household
and village data collection done during nine Focus Group Discussion, semi-directive surveys
with the key stakeholders and 240 household farmers. The Focus Group Discussions were
carried out with 12 farmers for every group. The members of FGD were selected through
local leadership after development of various criteria like the extent of village knowledge,
experience in farming, perception of the climate change and finally farming practices
diversity. The samples were stratified proportionally to the systems of production. Three
groups were considered in the selection including:
Dairy Specialized systems: In this group, at least 80% of the income for farmers comes from
the dairy activities
Wheat-Dairy Diversification: The income for the household is equally coming from dairy
and wheat.
Wheat-specialized systems: The production of wheat within the household is at a high
intensification rate
The survey of the household was carried out via face to face interview during the period of
May –October 2021. This was done with the heads of the households. The farmers were
asked about the characteristics of the households, general farms features, income types,
means of livelihood, perception of climate change, where they had acquired necessary
assistance , information, finance, materials, the kinds of the innovations they have
introduced and the role of these actors to the activities of farming. This helped in the
characterization of dairy and wheat farmers under how innovation systems in dairy and
wheat actors are organized.
The collection of data about other stakeholders was achieved through the use of individual
semi-structured interviews with innovation networks. These are the class of people who
shared their own experience. About 23 interviews of similar kind were carried out with
technicians, senior experts and managers.
The analysis of trends in climate change basically considered the perception of farmers as
well as historical data on climate. The trend analysis statistical significance was performed
through the use of Mann-Kendall test. In order to effectively analyze different actors
contribution o the sectors of development, there was use of a six-scale measure(0=No
contribution and 5=Very high contribution).
Perception Of The Farmers On Changes In Climate
Figure 1: Perception of the farmers on changes in climate ;Source: Survey Data of the
Author(2022)
15. Data Triangulation
In this particular study there was use of triangulation as well as patent –based data relating
to the use of the identified technologies in the indication of the degree to which there is
existence of capacity in the developing countries. There have been employment of the
bibliometric approaches widely in the assessment of impacts of public policies and R&D in
the innovation studies particularly for both emerging and existing technologies. In this
regard, the paper starts with the discussion on various technologies which may be
potentially useful in the mitigation and adaptation to the climate change particularly in the
developing countries.
After identification of the same technologies, the focus would then be laid on the primary
obstacles or constraints to the development or success of the technology identified, use and
transfer which creates a platform for the discussion of policy implementation to facilitate
adaptation and mitigation of climate change in the developing world. Finally, policy
implementation in the increase of Research and Development (R&D) investment for the
technologies of agriculture towards the management of the climate changes.
Multiple interviewees contributed with same phenomena information each giving or
responding from their own perspective. In this case, actors belonging to industry, academia,
civil society and government were interviewed. This particular approach was meant to
combat or eliminate bias while acquiring a clearer picture of challenges which affect each
and every sector in various ways. Besides, central to this thesis was the triplet academia-
government-industry as a result of their roles in the emergence of technology, its diffusion
as well as implementation and in particular transition sustainability.
The Progress Of Change In Technology
By making reference to the discussions presented in other research works, the process of
change in technology is generally observed to involve series of stages or steps. The
literature uses various terms to provide description to the steps, but the most commonly
applied descriptions include:
Invention: Discovery: - designing of new prototypes or new understanding;
Innovation; designing of new or enhanced commercial process or product;
Adoption; initial operation and implementation of the improvised technology;
Diffusion: adoption and implementation of the new technology in wide ranges.
Figure 2:Steps in the change of technology and related relationships
(Dechezleprêtre, Martin and Bassi 2019)
In the initial step, the invention stage – is jointly driven in large section by research and
16. development (R&D), consisting of applied as well as basic research. The following step,
innovation stage – is a notion applied conversationally to discuss the process of change in
technology as a whole. Nonetheless, as applied within this context, innovation is only used
to refer to product or process establishment offered in a commercial manner; though it
doesn’t imply that there will be adoption of the product or that it will serve a wide purpose.
The adoption and wide range application of the product or process is only achieved in case
the product meets the requirements of the last two steps - adoption and diffusion, outlining
the commercial success of technological innovation. the last pair of steps are considered to
be the most essential stages as far as reduction of GHG emissions is concerned through
change in technology.
Research operations as well outlines that apart from being a simple linear procedure
whereby a single step succeeds the other, all the technological change steps highly interact
with one another as outlined in the figure below. Stimulation of innovation is therefore
contributed to by both knowledge of ancient users and by R&D, and also the acquired
knowledge following the diffusion of technology across the entire market. Therefore,
“practical learning” (product manufacture economies) and “learning through use” (product
operation economies) are usually (although not regularly) essential factors contributing to
adoption and spread of the improvised techniques. Together with sustained R&D
(occasionally referred to as “learning through search”) the steps usually assist in enhancing
the operability and at the same time lower the cost of improvised technique – the commonly
featured and modified tendencies as a “experience curve” or “learning curve”.
Every step of the process equally demands for distinct forms of incentives to support the
general objective of change technology. An incentive that deems fit for a given step may be
counterproductive or ineffective for the other stage. Change in large scopes must as well be
taken into consideration as per the view of the system because effective operation of any
introduced mechanism is determined by other non-technological as well as technological
contributors. For instance, the wide range application of energy-saving mechanisms capable
of automatically regulating domestic appliances such as water heaters and air conditioners
may rely upon creation and diffusion of “smart grids” technique within the electrical
networks.
In the same manner, the distribution of energy-efficient gadgets may be limited by
arrangement of the organization, as for the case of landlord-tenant correlation in which all
the parties are tied to an incentive to buy an appliance which is costly though saves on
energy. Therefore, apart from technical contemplations, the assimilation and spread of
improvised techniques under wider ranges may necessitate measures to take into
consideration both institutional and social limitation factors influencing pace and nature of
change in technology development
The inferences as well as technological challenges of meeting the set objectives are quite
complex. This is as given in the figure below, outlining the present modeling research
17. findings for the United States. According to the study results, there are no possible
measures or means to achieve reduction in emission of GHGs be greater values – different
models provide various measures depending on distinct assumptions regarding future cost
of alternative approaches and their availability among other factors. However, what is
insistently demonstrated by the models is that instant changes in energy frameworks will
be necessary, considering that it is the major factors contributing to climate change.
In the current periods, more than 80% of the global energy is obtained from fossil fuels.
Around 50% of the total energy from fossil fuels assumes the form of oil mainly used for
transportation, and somehow same volume of coal mainly used in the generation of electric
power, and natural gas applied for most of the industrial as well as domestic operations.
The emitted gas, CO2, from burning processes of fossil fuels, especially from automobiles
and power plants, is the major source of greenhouse gas emission. In order to reach at the
change to sustainable zero-carbon, the system of energy remains to be the greater challenge
encountered to eliminate the impacts contributed by change in climatic conditions.
Every efficacious approach to intensively lower the emissions of greenhouse gas will call for
operations not only to implement reduced-emission mechanisms that are currently in place,
but also to nurture innovation of improvised techniques desired in the current plan.
Consequently, there has been an observed developing trend in the present years on the
appropriate means to nurture this innovation, more particularly, the responsibility rested
on the governments within the process of technological change.
Despite the fact that research alongside development is a greater component to the process
of innovation, there is a developing fame that innovation in technology is a highly
complicated procedure that usually consists of interactions with other steps of change in
technology as demonstrated by this research work. Therefore, the benefits related to the
new technology are only reached at through adoption in wide ranges – a process that
requires a lot of time and basically constitutes a series of incremental enhancements to
reduce cost and improve operability.
Chapter Summary
In this particular research framework, the most common question to be asked is that, what
are some of the policies and approaches capable of ensuring effective nurturing of
technological innovations to assist in reducing emissions of GHG? Based on discussions
presented in previous sections of the paper, the emission of GHG mainly relies upon various
forms of energy sources and the approaches implemented to ensure satisfaction of society
demands through provision of efficient goods and services. Therefore, there are a number of
ways through which technological innovations can assist in minimizing emissions of GHG.
These include:
Advanced or completely new technologies can facilitate efficient use of energy within
18. devices such as appliances, machinery and vehicles, thus minimizing total energy
consumption as well as emission of GHG for every unit of essential service or product.
The invented techniques can establish or adopt the use of other chemicals and carriers of
energy associated with emission of less GHG for every unit of essential service or product
like renewable sources of energy.
The invented techniques can as well establish various means to provision of goods and
services with reduced emissions of GHG (for example, through use of alternative materials
or products with reduced emission levels of GHG, or through accelerating larger system-
wide changes like the use of teleconferencing and telecommuting in place of automotive and
air travel).
Innovations under technology has all the ability to accelerate this complete spectrum of
opportunities. A much wider range of innovation would incorporate both institutional and
social designs and systems. For instance, innovation in urban planning and development
could assists in minimizing demands o energy in the coming years (and possibly minimize
the related emissions of GHG) for transport operations and also for commercial and
residential buildings. Institutional innovations could ensure provision of motives for the
electric utility companies among other factories to major on factors that lower energy
demands, rather than policies supporting increase in sales of energy.
Chapter Four
Introduction
In this chapter, there is presentation of the study’s results and its subsequent
interpretations. In order to ensure easier and effective result presentations, the content of
this chapter has been sub-divided into sections including recommendations on the activities
of curbing GHG emissions, necessity in the changes of the technologies, the progress of
technology changes, advantages associated with the technological innovations on climate
change innovations, effectiveness of policy implementation, processes of decision
making and the required resources for the implementation of the innovative ideas. Finally
the constraints to the innovation process implementations have been presented.
Respondents’ Socio-Demographic Profiles
There was selection of various profile features as independent variables in the
establishment of the farmer’s profiles of the area of the area of the study. The obtained
results were as summarized in the table given. From the table, it is evident that most of the
respondents about 62.50% in the sample of the study were in the category of young age.
This was followed by the category of middle age of about 35% respondents and eventually
the illiterate class of 30.83% as the respondents. The study sample gender-wise
composition indicated males numbers as 98.33%. Also 78% of the individuals had medium
family sizes. Of this family, the primary occupation of farming constituted 88.33% with only
12% possessing high experience in farming. Those with the low experience were the
19. majority constituting 85%.
In the case of land holding, the marginal farmers were only 20%, the medium farmers
constituted 47.5% and finally 29% as the small scale holders. Low annual income was
recorded by the majority of the farmers say 56%. The low class constituted 19% and
medium category made up of 24%. In addition, most of the respondents representing 44%
confirmed having medium ability of decision making. For those of the farmers who had
“high” ability in making decision represented the composition of 33%. Those who reported
low decision making ability were only 22%. In terms of motivation economically, the “high”
motivation class represented 35%. It is important to note that About 71% of the
respondents. Demonstrated medium orientation scientifically.
Interesting sector was the mass media ownership in which about 93% of the respondents
confirmed having mobile phones, Television ownership constituted 57%, 51%
constituting those individuals with Radio while Newspaper ownership only constituted
25%. However, in terms of exposure to media, most of the respondents reported
significantly low exposure to media with the medium class only making up 23%. The least
representation was 16%. The behaviour of information seeking was well demonstrated
with its percentage rating being 91%.
SI NO.
Variables
Frequency
Percentage
1
Age
32. Farmer’s Perception About Changes In The Climatic Conditions
In this particular study, it has been regarded as the farmer’s opinion towards changes in
climate as well as its subsequent effects on agriculture. The perception of farmers in regard
to the changes in climate is as summarized in the table given above. From the presented
findings, it is evident that most of the framers about 54.17% demonstrated very high
perception towards changes in the conditions of the climate . The lowest category was
equivalent to 20.83% and the medium results were 25%. The study’s finding were the same
as those established by the previous scholars in which most of the farmers had very high
perception about the parameters of climate change like rainfall, temperature as well
as drought.
Figure 3a: Farmer’s distribution on the basis of their perception about changes in the
climatic conditions
In addition, the perception of famers about various dimensions on the changes of climate
was equally analyzed and the below results were obtained. The results have been
summarized in the table shown below:
Majority of the respondents say 83% as clearly summarized in the table shown below were
in agreement that there has been temperature increase and even the number of sunny days
too have increased. The quantity of rainfall has too increased as confirmed by 68% of the
respondents and they attributed these incidences to changes in the conditions of climate.
According to the respondents, the frequency of rainfall has increased and its occurrence is
either earlier or later than it used to be previously. This particular perception attracted the
attention of about 80% of the respondents. There has been an increase in the total number
of rainy days as confirmed by 75% of the respondents. Also the dry spell duration during
the seasons of rainfall too have increased as conformed by 85% of the respondents.
According to 75.8% of the respondents, the summer’s heat intensity has increased with the
winter cold “bitterness” increasing annually as confirmed by 65% of the respondents.
Decrease in the level of water table was confirmed by 75.8% of the respondents and the
same impacts were attributed to changes in climate. On this observation basis in relation to
Dimensions of Climate Change, it can be confirmed that most if the respondents had a
feeling that a lot has changed in terms of parameters of the elements of climate. As a result,
farmers would be expected to be able to identify these changes before coming up with the
strategies of adaption so that they can remain in market.
Effectiveness Of Survey Results
The results obtained from the survey indicated that in most of the energy-intensive
industries, the new technology implementation is characterized by a cost-saving effect
which outweighs the research and development cost devoted to the innovation. For the past
33. one and a half century, there has been an observed intense increase in the amount of
pollutants in the atmosphere including emissions from greenhouse gas effects mainly
comprising od carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide together with emissions from
industries comprising of components such as perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride and
hydrofluorocarbons. Gases emitted from greenhouse effects contribute to change in climatic
conditions by trapping heat within the layers of the earth, thus increasing the average
temperature of the surface. This will finally change the trends and amount of precipitation
alongside ocean and air currents flow around the world – all these contribute to change in
climatic conditions either directly or indirectly and is termed as the average weather within
an area for a specific period of time, usually decades.
Table 2: The levels of greenhouse gas emissions (Dechezleprêtre et al.2020)
The present high levels of greenhouse gas emissions are attributed to most of the
operations carried out by human beings. The figure below outlines the present growth in
the trend of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, given in the form of tonnages of “carbon
dioxide equivalent”, which contributes to the variations in trapping ability of heat of various
gases relative to CO2. The effect is observed to be mainly contributed by carbon dioxide
emissions from combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, mostly
built of hydrogen and carbon. Considering the fact that usage of energy as well emits non-
CO2 greenhouse gases, mainly N2O and CH4, consumption of energy contributes to around
80% of the total emissions from greenhouse effects.
Figure 3b: Ancient trend in the concentration of major greenhouse gases within the
atmosphere (Durán-Romero et al.2020)
Figure 4: Current trend in the emission of greenhouse gases across the world
(Dechezleprêtre et al.2020)
The core principle of the challenges associated with climate change is that persistent in the
present trends would lead to significant increase in emission of greenhouse gases in the
coming years relative to world population growth, economic development alongside other
components increasing emission of greenhouse gases. This in turn resulted into an increase
in average temperature of the world by around 1.1 0C as projected by scientists.
Considering that there are major limitations associated with the projections as given in the
figure below, the most significant effects of global warming would result into adverse effects
to the health of individuals, agriculture, water supplies and human settlements especially
along the coastal regions which are prone to rise in sea levels and storms.
Figure 5: The ancient trends and prominent setups of global warming with the rages given
for the scenarios on the right hand (Gössling and Scott 2018)
Basing arguments on such numerous uncertainties, should individuals wait for the featuring
34. of more intensive empirical evidence on the intensity and influences of change in climatic
conditions? Conventional air pollutants such as particulate matter and sulfur dioxide differ
from greenhouse gases in that, after emission, the greenhouse gas exists within the
atmosphere for an extended time period – mostly for hundreds of years. For instance,
approximately 50% emission of CO2 into the atmosphere will remain within the layers for
more than 100 years causing global warming. On the other hand, conventional pollutants
can only exist within the atmosphere for a short period of time – usually days or weeks
before being washed away by various chemical or physical processes. Therefore, immediate
reduction in conventional pollutants emissions alongside their related effects would result
into immediate decrease in concentration within the atmosphere. For the case of GHGs,
concentrations within the atmosphere would continue to rise due to their permanent
nature, only if their emissions are instantly reduced. Therefore, in case the effects of change
in climatic conditions will turn out to be intensive as reflected, minimizing the emission of
greenhouse gas in the forthcoming years will not significantly contribute to the instant
decrease in concentration of harmful gases within the atmosphere to eliminate such
harmful gases.
Recommended Actions To Curb Excessive Emissions Of GHGs
The establishment of international policy objectives for worldwide climate change took
place in the year 1992 led by United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). This approach has currently been adopted by various nations as a stabilization
tool for the concentration of GHG within the earth layers to the levels capable of reducing
harmful anthropogenic disturbance with the climate system. Most of the research works
have tried to develop better understanding and quantification of the existing relationship
between human operations, emissions of greenhouse gas, the current trend of increase in
concentration within the earth layers, the persistent variation in world temperature, and
the influences posed by such factors. The most common hesitations are in the relationship
between persistent increase in global temperature and the final influences. Nonetheless, by
making reference to the present studies, most of the policymakers across the world propose
for a maximum rise of 2 -0C in long-term global temperature since the main aim of the
policy is to minimize effects associated with GHG emissions. In order for the objective to be
met, various operations are required to stabilize the concentrations of GHG within the earth
layers at levels a bit higher than the present levels. This would basically call for decrease in
emissions of GHG per year across the world by around 30% in the coming years as
anticipated by the current research works.
Technological Change Necessity
; (iii) support the use of lower- or zero-carbon alternatives like nuclear, natural gas and
renewable sources of energy like solar, biomass and wind in place of high-carbon fossil fuels
such as oil and coal; (iv) absorb and confiscate Carbon Emissions of fossil fuel combustion
to ensure it is not released to the earth layers.
35. As clearly presented in the above figure, in order to achieve the 80% reduction in CO2
emission, the techniques are all required to minimize emission at the least cost possible.
Decrease in the demand of energy, comprising of the impacts of advanced efficiency,
significantly contribute to all the five models indicated apart from one model. The
unrestrained burning of coal is eradicated and suddenly limited in all the cases, and the
direct consumption of natural gas together with oil is minimized as per the reference case of
the year 2000. On the other hand, consumption of biomass, nuclear energy and renewable
energy sources, especially wind energy intensively advances in these research works. This
trend is as well observed for the case of carbon capture and storage (CCS). The approach is
believed to facilitate the absorption of carbon gas from power plants as well as other large
industries and confiscate the captured gas under deep geologic formations or depleted
reservoirs of gas or oil. The approach has attracted the attention of most companies in the
present periods, with attempts currently under process to establish and implement the
possible operation of carbon capture technique for the mitigation of climate change.
Figure 6: The obtained study results for the models depicting the least cost energy mix for
US for the policy scenario targeting at 8% decrease in emission of GHG below 1990. the
given energy consumption of 2000 acts as reference (Ojo, and Baiyegunhi, 2020).
The same transformation modes of energy framework outlined by the above figure for US
nation are observed bin other modeling studies at the international level. Considering that
the consumption of energy is the major source of greenhouse emissions, change in
technological approaches will be necessary within other fields to effectively address the
concept of climate change. For instance, alteration in the operations of land use, most
particularly cutting down of trees, are required to eliminate emission of carbon gas from
natural “sinks” like soils and forests. This alteration in technology can as well reduce or
eliminate the emissions of non-carbon gases like PFCs within Semiconductor Company or
emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural practices. Of greater concern, preferably, there
will be need for adaptation to climate change, and such compliances will as well call for
some scopes of change in technology.
In summary, the establishment and implementation of newly designed technology is a very
crucial component of any comprehensive response to change in climatic condition across
the world. However, the change in technology on the desired intensity cannot be a short-
term process. In order to attain significant decrease in the emissions of carbon dioxide gas,
in the above figure for instance, the United States alone would need to shift from or
substitute various electric power plants, a large number of vehicles together with consumer
appliances, building frameworks (for lighting, cooling and heating), alongside industrial
processes and gadgets. Alterations to this scope will be attained after several years.
Most of the required techniques are either too costly or do not commercially exist like the
alternatives to automobiles driven by gasoline. Other measures like sequestration
36. mechanisms for power plants and carbon capture are about to attain high popularity both
at political and social levels. Considering the fact that the establishment and assimilation
rates for the arising technologies are in line with the policies set by the government and also
forces within the market like prices of energy, the process of change in technology and
innovation alongside their influential factors look vigilant.
Figure 7: The progress of generation of electric power from wind in US (Matschoss and
Repo 2018).
The figure below outlines a single estimate of how the future cost of minimizing emissions
of GHG can be reduced by technological innovations. In this particular research paper, the
approach “business as usual” – comprising of ancient rates of technological advancements –
is compared to another approach characterized with rapid change in technology. The cost
required to facilitate intense decrease in emission of GHG is dramatically lowered on
implementation of new technologies. Such decrease in the unit cost of reduction turns out to
a significant savings on cost at both national and international levels, more particularly as
the demands of reducing GHG emissions become severe over time.
The Effective Duty Of Policy Implemented By The Government
The common challenge associated with emission-reduction of GHG is that few markets are
available to cope up with the low and more efficient techniques of emission. For instance,
why would it be necessary for the electric utility company to spend more money on the
technique of carbon capture and storage (CCS) if totally there is no need to lower emissions
of CO2 to greater extents? What is the total number of people who at will, would purchase
improvised electric vehicle associated with higher costs compared to conventional
automobile mainly for the reasons of reducing footprint of carbon? Quite expensive
operations adopted by firms or persons to lower the emission of GHG offer reduced or
completely no reasonable value to the person or company. It is only through the policies
implemented by the government that can contribute to some reasonable amounts the rate
or quantity of GHG emission reduction through provision of finance and creation of markets
for the produced goods and services. The actions of the government to establish or improve
existing markets for the techniques responsible for reducing GHG emissions are considered
to be effective tool of technological innovation process (Adamson, G.C., Hannaford, and
Rohland, 2018.).
Technological innovation is affected by different policy measures in a number of ways.
Generally, there are two major categories of policy options, that is, mandatory requirements
and voluntary measures (“sticks” and “carrots”). The initial category – usually referred to as
“technology-policy” options – issues motivations of different forms to facilitate
establishment of some actions or techniques. The other category comprises of actions taken
by the government to enforce limitations or requirements on some given technologies,
facilities or activities, mainly through setting of standards and regulations. The table below
37. provides a list of measures in place, categorized into three groups. The first category
represents direct support of the government for the generation of new technology by R&D
(comprising of improvised technologies and concepts). This is regarded to be the most
common way through which government offer support for innovation, and basically
includes various private as well as public organizations. The other category outlines a series
of policy actions deployed by the government, which facilitate commercialization,
deployment and creation of new technologies either directly or indirectly. The measures
have been observed to significantly contribute to the development of technology in the past
periods. For instance, US government procurement of computers as well as jet aircraft at
the early phases of commercialization following 2nd World War significantly contributed to
their progressive development as well as diffused implementation within the marketplace.
In the recent periods, support offered by the government in terms of investment tax credits
alongside production tax credits (also referred to as feed-in tariffs) have greatly facilitated
faster development in wind-energy systems, as outlined in the figure below. Other factors
like loan guarantees and demonstration projects support are recently implemented to
facilitate investments in “clean coal” techniques like CCS and coal gasification systems.
The final category of technological policy actions in the below table outlines ways to
facilitate learning and spread of knowledge. Such comprises of training programs and
educational supports, alongside actions like establishment of standards and behaviors that
propose the spread of improvised technologies.
Table 3: Policy options set by the government of US, capable of nurturing innovations in
technology to lower emissions from GHG (Gössling and Scott 2018).
Regulatory Policy Measures
The set regulatory measures for energy and environment adhere to “market failures”
whereby persons as well as organizations bear little or completely no economic motivations
to restrict operations that significantly affect the community as general (like pollutant
emission to the surrounding), alongside lack of intervention by the government. Various
studies have pointed out that the regulatory policies for energy and environment are
capable of influencing the creation and implementation of major technologies related to
energy, and as well promote innovations that lower emissions from GHG and other air
contaminants. Most of the commonly cited examples comprise of energy efficiency
standards for most of the appliances like refrigerators, improvised source performance
standards for power-plants air contaminants, fuel economy and pollutant emission
standards for automobiles and market inducements like cap-and-trade for power plant
emissions of SO-2.
During the year 1975 for instance, the government of US enforced Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE) standards for each and every vehicle sold within the state mainly with the
aim of reducing consumption of oil following the rise of Arab oil embargo in 1973. This
38. resulted into an abrupt rise in the consumption rate in oil by passenger cars. As a result,
various technological innovations were implemented within the country that affected
almost the entire automobile company. The set standards were observed to lower the
consumption rate among users, and through this there was a recorded significant decrease
in the release of pollutants, especially CO2 from greenhouse gas effect as a result of fuel
combustion. Regardless of the strict policies on prices and taxes within the country to
promote energy efficiency, observations made from other states show that high taxes on
gasoline would as well facilitate the process of innovation within the automobile companies.
Figure 8: Tendencies in the consumption of energy, value and size of new refrigerators in
US(Gössling and Scott 2018).
The efficiency standards of energy have as well lowered the average consumption of energy
by most of the domestic gadgets like air conditioners, dishwashers and refrigerators. The
figure below, for instance outlines a drastic fall in the average consumption of energy within
new refrigerators – then the highest energy-intensive domestic gadget in US – as a result of
implementation of adopted standards as from 1970s, and the implementation of national
standards from the year 1990. Following the numerous innovations in technology, the
average consumption of energy by refrigerators per year was minimized to almost one third
of the original value. Also, there was an observed decline in retail price of new refrigerator
by a factor of two, despite of the increase in the average size of the new units. The general
savings in the demand for electric power eliminated the need for various new power plants
alongside related GHG discharges and air contaminants.
The aspect of SO2 discharges from electric power plants outlines further the significant
contribution of performance standards on innovation for designed mechanisms to regulate
safety of the surrounding. Strict national policies were implemented for discharge of sulfur
gas for new coal-fired plants to control pollutions in the environment. There was an
observed drastic increase in “incentive operation” as estimated by the total count of US
patent field, within the region of SO2 control, as illustrated by the figure below. Following
the high demand and implementation of post-combustion capture technique, there was an
observed decrease in the capital cost of these systems by almost 55% for the past few years,
and at the same time the cost of operation also dropped instantly. At this particular
moment, there was an observed considerable increase in system efficiency. The trend has
continued and the currently designed SO2 capturing systems are more than 90% efficient.
In case the CCS techniques of CO2 turns out to be a cost-effective approach for minimizing
GHG emissions, there will be possible need for sustained cost and efficiency advancements
within such systems. The outlined discussion of post-combustion capture of sulfur dioxide
gas supports the fact that effectively established regulatory policies are very necessary for
meeting the objective of emission reduction.
The above outlined regulatory policies are reflections of what are commonly termed to be
“command-and-control” regulations that drive the manufacturers or contaminators to
39. comply with some set standards of technology performance for domestic appliances. The
most currently assimilation of “market-based” policies, like the cap-and-trade frameworks
assumed for adherence to acid rain legislation and control of summer zone, provides a
highly flexible opportunity to the contaminators to adhere to the regional or national
demands for the general standards of decrease in discharges. Flexibility of such types
intensively reduces the compliance cost.
Figure 9: US patenting operation in the capture techniques of SO2 (Makondo, and
Thomas, 2018)
Resource Requirements For Innovations In Technology
In order to achieve the set goals of climate change, there is need for various policy drivers
as well as inclusion of human together with financial resources to promote every step
involved in the process of change in technology as outlined in the figure above. These
resources are regarded to be essential for the innovation phase of technology. Particularly,
there are major requirements for improved financial aid for R&D and for individuals with
indispensable creativity, training and skills to invent, both with respect to energy demand
and supply technologies and in other fields characterized by emission of GHGs such as
manufacturing factories, forestry, and agricultural sectors.
The current appearance for the most common infusion of these resources is definitely
intermingled. In the current periods, some countries prone to large emissions of
greenhouse gases worldwide – has seriously shifted to invest in “green” energy technologies
and has driven such countries to become the leading manufacturer of photovoltaic cells, and
also rampant force in wind energy systems. Countries like China are currently investing
intensively in the production of nuclear power, and is generating greater percentages of
clean coal technologies, comprising of CCS systems.
On the other hand, the US national government funding for power R&D, has abruptly
decreased in the past few years. The fundings were discovered to be less that 20% in the
year 2008 compared to the funding value in the year 1980. There is however an increased
funding for the federal energy R&D within the country for the past few years – and also an
abrupt rise in the year 2009 as a factor to facilitate economic development. The level of
expenditure given by the US government for energy R&D is much lower compared to that
directed to other key science and technology regions like health and space. Different from
other industrialized nations like France, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Canada,
the amount of expenditure delivered by US on energy R&D is lower and is in the form of
gross domestic product fraction. This is shown in the below figure that makes a comparison
of the expenditure contributed by the government on energy R&D between Japan and US in
the form of GDP percentages. From the figure, it is observed that the percentage of GDP for
Japan has been above that of US for the past 30 years. Whereas in extreme conditions
spending by US is seen to be above that of other third world countries, the controlled
40. research indicates that energy R&D is not given enough priority in the United States as
compared to other industrialized nations.
Figure 10: Government expenditure on energy R&D in Japan and US(Janssens et al.2020)
Eventually, in order to ensure that the challenge attributed to change in climatic conditions
is completely addressed, the private sector must equally contribute to the process of
technological innovation. There is however no consistent information on funding of energy-
based R&D by private sectors. International Energy Agency (IEA) together with other
bodies have estimated that the present R&D spending rate by power sectors is wayward
below the spending rate of industries like biotechnology, software and computer services
and pharmaceuticals – industries whose worth is highly determined by the ability to
generate new or advanced products. Under the energy production sector, the spending rate
on R&D by the electric-power industry tends to be lower and is expressed as a percentage
of sales. This therefore advocates that there is need for intense investment made by private
sectors in R&D in order to develop new technologies that contribute to reduction in the
emission of greenhouse gas for mitigation of climate change. Consequently, policies
enforced by the government must allocate various potentials as well as markets required to
facilitate investment in R&D among the private sectors mainly to lower emissions of
greenhouse gas. Innovations under technology to lower the secretions of GHG will as well
demand for advanced skilled employees, more particularly scientists together with
engineers in a wide rage of specialties. The little available information indicates that the
number of skilled employees within the energy industry is quite low compared to the total
workflow required within industries in US. For the past few years, there has been an
observed intense decrease in the percentage of college graduates in US within engineering
sectors. Whereas some nations present highly desirable trends, advanced attempts will be
required to control human resources and skills to pay attention to the inventions that help
achieve the right mitigation for change in climatic conditions.
Summary
Changes in the climatic conditions have emerged as one of the primary factors which affects
the UK’s agricultural productivity. In fact more than two thirds of the activities of
agriculture in the UK are rainfed. This implies that the seasonal success of the group or crop
yield performance will always be at the mercy of climate vagaries. Therefore, it would be at
most concern for the makers of policy as well ad other scholars to identify and isolate those
factors which affect the productivity of agriculture as well as the efficiency of the same
production. Hence, understanding the perception of farmers towards changes in the
climatic conditions, factors responsible for the perception of farmers towards changes in
climatic conditions as well as their impacts negatively to the productivity of agriculture will
go all the way to ensure there is specific adoption of the appropriate strategies of adoption.
In other words, it will help in the growth of agriculture sustainably hence food security
realization.
41. In this particular study, there has been a highlight on the perception of farmers about
changes in the climatic conditions which has been established to be fairly high. Also the
study has confirmed that farmers display proper comprehension of the diverse dimensions
which contribute to the changes in the conditions of climate like sporadic rainfall, higher
temperatures, and increase in the heat stress duration, reduction in the level of the water
table among others. However, it has been also established that majority of the farmers are
still characterized by low perceptions and are not equipped adequately with the adaption
knowledge, resilience and mitigation strategies so that they can foster the climate change
adverse impacts on agriculture.
Chapter Five
Introduction
In this particular chapter, there is presentation of recommendations and conclusion of this
particular study. It gives a precise summary of conclusions and findings of the study in
regard to the objectives of the study as well as finding-based recommendations.
Research Problem Validation, Findings, Conclusion And Recommendations
Whereas the study of historical technological innovation has been supported through
paying attention to economic development alongside market economy competitiveness, the
relationship between technological inventions and achievement of environmental quality
objectives still remains to be a subject of major concern. This particular documentation has
presented a discussion on the crucial role of technological invention in handling the
challenge of change in climatic conditions globally – mainly considered to be the most
commonly observed environmental problem.
As discussed in the research work, change in technology over a wider scale will prove
necessary in the future periods to attain the international objective of making stable the
atmospheric levels of GHGs to levels that prevent hazardous effects. This will automatically
call for the replacement of the present GHG-based technologies – more particularly fossil
fuel-based techniques with improvised mechanisms associated with reduced or no
emissions of GHGs. In most of the occasions, this will call for the use of improvised
technologies which are currently not in place for a large commercial scale, or technologies
which does not completely exist.
Studies on change in technology outline the complex nature of the process to compost of
interdependence within the involved steps of the entire technological change process
including invention, innovation, adoption and diffusion. Generally, the benefits of
improvised technologies are reached at after a wide range adoption of the process, and this
is a long-term process which is realized after a couple of years.
42. In relation to the practices of technology particularly biotechnology, although it has great
capacity of contributing to the outcomes of crop productivity as well as enhancement of
crop for the farmers in smallholder capacity particularly in the countries which are
developing while responding to the changes in climate (Owen 2020). There are various
factors that are known to influence transfer and deployment of biotechnology for the
smallholders by both private and public sectors. The first case has a relation to the quantity
of investment and funding which influence the capacity of the research as well as the
capacity of research as well as the ability of developing the traits enhanced as well as
varieties of genetics.
The next obstacle is the intellectual property. However, through the extensive research
work in most of the countries that are developing especially in the case of SSA, it can be
seen that the intellectual property is not necessarily an impediment which may not need a
lot of attention. The third class of the factors which are restricting are observed in most of
the countries which are developing particularly in SSA comes up effective system of seed as
well as market seeds without services of agricultural support for the farmers to access
enhanced genetics promptly.
Besides the above mentioned challenges, the ICT development has also faced several
obstacles in the nations that are developing. Lack of the policies of ICT, lack of participation
of stakeholders that are relevant, cost of operation, ICT projects which are donor-based
with limited funding and duration, lack of proper coordination and corruption and
government abandoned projects. All the above outlined characteristics points out majority
of the obstacles in the developing countries. These challenges taken together could hinder
the development of ICT as well as limit their ability in the implementation of actions which
are ICT-enabled with regard to the changes in climate in the developing countries. In
addition, the adoption or introduction of RETs may be affected or hindered by various
factors including limited expertise and scientific capacity, poor infrastructure, weak
institutional capacity, lack of political will, lack of financial resources and environmental
and socio-cultural challenges.
Although there may be access to the above technologies, it has never translated to the
effective performance and widespread adoption mainly as a result of the factors which
worked against utilization of innovations in agriculture including policy alignment,
inappropriate incentives, institutional and political support, the development of the
technological capability locally, there is a wider variety of technologies agriculturally which
have the potential significantly in management of the climate changes. The technologies’
survey in the previous sections has indicated that this diverse and large range but there is a
clear missing of various technologies which will be important critically to the adaptation as
well as mitigation in the sector of agriculture. The deployment and creating of the above
technologies considerably connected to the institutions and policies.
Policies enforced by the government influences output at every step of the technological
43. change process. The innovation phase of technology – that results into the creation of new
technologies and processes – is basically undefined since the development routes as well as
success probability cannot be anticipated with a lot of surety. Neither does the creation of a
new technology gives assurance that it is commercially viable.
The role played by policies enforced by the government is considered effective in the
nurturing of innovations and providing solutions to the great challenge of change in climate.
In case the incentives or regulatory of the government are not set in place to help curb the
problem, the available new technologies within the market are very few mainly improvised
to lower the level of emissions of harmful pollutants to the surrounding. Therefore, in order
to ensure significant decrease in the emission of greenhouse gases solely to lower the
danger of climate change, a range of policies are deployed – mainly to support technological
innovation and as well the persistent diffusion of newly improvised technologies under a
wider consent of parties such as firms, governments and individuals.
The wide range of policies to facilitate innovation should involve a conjunction of “sticks”
assuming the regulatory policy forms wit ether direct or indirect regulations for GHG
release (for example, through technology performance standards, market-related
approaches or series of combined incentives), and also “carrots” assuming the form of
technology policies that offer voluntary measures to support innovation in technology and
implementation (e.g. By means of tax credits, government procurement schedules, loan
guarantees and proposal for R&D). in order to completely determine the related advantages
to technological invention, the range of policies should encourage widespread of skills by
means of financial support for training and education, together with other incentives.
Despite the fact that R&D approach is not enough to singly attain the most effective spread
in technological change, it is however the most essential tool for the range of policies
required to nurture innovations that lower the emissions of GHG. As discussed in the early
sections of the research document, significant increase in support offered by the
government on energy-based R&D is very essential is addressing the challenge of change in
climatic conditions. This significant increase is as well required within private sectors to aid
support for R&D, more particularly within the energy-based firms. Policies enforced by the
government as well contribute significantly to the creation of needs alongside market
signals required by the private firms to validate investments in R&D.
In addition, decreasing the emissions of GHG by means of technological innovations will call
for an improved percentage of competent employees, mostly scientists and engineers in
different fields, with social sciences included. In the long run, the innovation process is
carried out by individuals. The government as well as private firms both has crucial
responsibility to attract and retain best individuals with high levels of expertise across the
entire globe to provide solution to problems and come up with new ideas for extenuation of
change in climate worldwide.
44. References
Abbas, J. and Sa?san, M., 2019. Impact of knowledge management practices on green
innovation and corporate Sustainable Development A structural analysis. Journal of
cleaner production, 229, pp.611-620.
Adamson, G.C., Hannaford, M.J. and Rohland, E.J., 2018. Re-thinking the present: the role of a
historical focus in climate change adaptation research. Global Environmental Change, 48,
pp.195-205.
Adger, W.N., Brown, I. and Surminski, S., 2018. Advances in risk assessment for climate
change adaptation policy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical,
Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2121), p.20180106.
Agovino, M., Casaccia, M., Ciommi, M., Ferrara, M. and Marchesano, K., 2019. Agriculture,
climate change and sustainability: The case of EU-28. Ecological Indicators, 105, pp.525-
543.
Anser, M.K., Zhang, Z. and Kanwal, L., 2018. Moderating effect of innovation on corporate
social responsibility and firm performance in realm of sustainable development. Corporate
Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 25(5), pp.799-806.
Behnam, S., Cagliano, R. and Grijalvo, M., 2018. How should firms reconcile their open
innovation capabilities for incorporating external actors in innovations aimed at sustainable
development?. Journal of Cleaner Production, 170, pp.950-965.
Bellinson, R. and Chu, E., 2019. Learning pathways and the governance of innovations in
urban climate change resilience and adaptation. Journal of environmental policy &
planning, 21(1), pp.76-89.
Berrang-Ford, L., Siders, A.R., Lesnikowski, A., Fischer, A.P., Callaghan, M.W., Haddaway, N.R.,
Mach, K.J., Araos, M., Shah, M.A.R., Wannewitz, M. and Doshi, D., 2021. A systematic global
stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate change. Nature climate
change, 11(11), pp.989-1000.
Chen, J., Yin, X. and Mei, L., 2018. Holistic innovation: an emerging innovation
paradigm. International Journal of Innovation Studies, 2(1), pp.1-13.
Dechezleprêtre, A., Glachant, M., Haš?i?, I., Johnstone, N. and Ménière, Y., 2020. Invention
and transfer of climate change–mitigation technologies: a global analysis. Review of
environmental economics and policy.
Dechezleprêtre, A., Glachant, M., Haš?i?, I., Johnstone, N. and Ménière, Y., 2020. Invention
45. and transfer of climate change–mitigation technologies: a global analysis. Review of
environmental economics and policy.
Dechezleprêtre, A., Martin, R. and Bassi, S., 2019. Climate change policy, innovation and
growth. In Handbook on Green Growth. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Durán-Romero, G., López, A.M., Beliaeva, T., Ferasso, M., Garonne, C. and Jones, P., 2020.
Bridging the gap between circular economy and climate change mitigation policies through
eco-innovations and Quintuple Helix Model. Technological Forecasting and Social
Change, 160, p.120246.
Durán-Romero, G., López, A.M., Beliaeva, T., Ferasso, M., Garonne, C. and Jones, P., 2020.
Bridging the gap between circular economy and climate change mitigation policies through
eco-innovations and Quintuple Helix Model. Technological Forecasting and Social
Change, 160, p.120246.
Fuhr, H., Hickmann, T. and Kern, K., 2018. The role of cities in multi-level climate
governance: local climate policies and the 1.5 C target. Current opinion in environmental
sustainability, 30, pp.1-6.
Goralski, M.A. and Tan, T.K., 2020. Artificial intelligence and sustainable development. The
International Journal of Management Education, 18(1), p.100330.
Gössling, S. and Scott, D., 2018. The decarbonisation impasse: Global tourism leaders’ views
on climate change mitigation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(12), pp.2071-2086.
Hughes, S., Chu, E.K. and Mason, S.G., 2020. Climate Change and Cities. Oxford University
Press.
Izzo, M.F., Ciaburri, M. and Tiscini, R., 2020. The challenge of sustainable development goal
reporting: The first evidence from italian listed companies. Sustainability, 12(8), p.3494.
Janssens, C., Havlík, P., Krisztin, T., Baker, J., Frank, S., Hasegawa, T., Leclère, D., Ohrel, S.,
Ragnauth, S., Schmid, E. and Valin, H., 2020. Global hunger and climate change adaptation
through international trade. Nature Climate Change, 10(9), pp.829-835.
Kang, J.N., Wei, Y.M., Liu, L.C., Han, R., Yu, B.Y. and Wang, J.W., 2020. Energy systems for
climate change mitigation: A systematic review. Applied Energy, 263, p.114602.
Khan, H., Weili, L. and Khan, I., 2022. Environmental innovation, trade openness and quality
institutions: an integrated investigation about environmental sustainability. Environment,
Development and Sustainability, 24(3), pp.3832-3862.
46. Khattak, S.I., Ahmad, M., Khan, Z.U. and Khan, A., 2020. Exploring the impact of innovation,
renewable energy consumption, and income on CO2 emissions: new evidence from the
BRICS economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(12), pp.13866-13881.
Krogstrup, S. and Oman, W., 2019. Macroeconomic and financial policies for climate change
mitigation: A review of the literature.
Landauer, M., Juhola, S. and Klein, J., 2019. The role of scale in integrating climate change
adaptation and mitigation in cities. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management, 62(5), pp.741-765.
Leal Filho, W., Balogun, A.L., Olayide, O.E., Azeiteiro, U.M., Ayal, D.Y., Muñoz, P.D.C., Nagy, G.J.,
Bynoe, P., Oguge, O., Toamukum, N.Y. and Saroar, M., 2019. Assessing the impacts of climate
change in cities and their adaptive capacity: Towards transformative approaches to climate
change adaptation and poverty reduction in urban areas in a set of developing
countries. Science of The Total Environment, 692, pp.1175-1190.
Lee, T. and Jung, H.Y., 2018. Mapping city-to-city networks for climate change action:
Geographic bases, link modalities, functions, and activity. Journal of cleaner
production, 182, pp.96-104.
Lin, B. and Zhu, J., 2019. The role of renewable energy technological innovation on climate
change: Empirical evidence from China. Science of the Total Environment, 659, pp.1505-
1512.
Makondo, C.C. and Thomas, D.S., 2018. Climate change adaptation: Linking indigenous
knowledge with western science for effective adaptation. Environmental science &
policy, 88, pp.83-91.
Malik, R.S., 2018. Educational challenges in 21st century and sustainable
development. Journal of Sustainable Development Education and Research, 2(1), pp.9-20.
Matschoss, K. and Repo, P., 2018. Governance experiments in climate action: empirical
findings from the 28 European Union countries. Environmental Politics, 27(4), pp.598-620.
Mensah, C.N., Long, X., Boamah, K.B., Bediako, I.A., Dauda, L. and Salman, M., 2018. The effect
of innovation on CO2 emissions of OCED countries from 1990 to 2014. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research, 25(29), pp.29678-29698.
Noll, B., Filatova, T., Need, A. and Taberna, A., 2022. Contextualizing cross-national patterns
in household climate change adaptation. Nature climate change, 12(1), pp.30-35.
Ojo, T.O. and Baiyegunhi, L.J.S., 2020. Determinants of climate change adaptation strategies
47. and its impact on the net farm income of rice farmers in south-west Nigeria. Land Use
Policy, 95, p.103946.
Olazabal, M., Chiabai, A., Foudi, S. and Neumann, M.B., 2018. Emergence of new knowledge
for climate change adaptation. Environmental science & policy, 83, pp.46-53.
Owen, G., 2020. What makes climate change adaptation effective? A systematic review of the
literature. Global Environmental Change, 62, p.102071.
Partey, S.T., Zougmoré, R.B., Ouédraogo, M. and Campbell, B.M., 2018. Developing climate-
smart agriculture to face climate variability in West Africa: Challenges and lessons
learnt. Journal of cleaner Production, 187, pp.285-295.
Picatoste, J., Pérez-Ortiz, L. and Ruesga-Benito, S.M., 2018. A new educational pattern in
response to new technologies and sustainable development. Enlightening ICT skills for
youth employability in the European Union. Telematics and Informatics, 35(4), pp.1031-
1038.
Scherer, A.G. and Voegtlin, C., 2020. Corporate governance for responsible innovation:
Approaches to corporate governance and their implications for sustainable
development. Academy of Management Perspectives, 34(2), pp.182-208.
Scoville-Simonds, M., Jamali, H. and Hufty, M., 2020. The hazards of mainstreaming: Climate
change adaptation politics in three dimensions. World Development, 125, p.104683.
Silvestre, B.S. and ?îrc?, D.M., 2019. Innovations for sustainable development: Moving
toward a sustainable future. Journal of Cleaner Production, 208, pp.325-332.
Singh, C., Madhavan, M., Arvind, J. and Bazaz, A., 2021. Climate change adaptation in Indian
cities: A review of existing actions and spaces for triple wins. Urban Climate, 36, p.100783.
Wang, Q., Qu, J., Wang, B., Wang, P. and Yang, T., 2019. Green technology innovation
development in China in 1990–2015. Science of the Total Environment, 696, p.134008.
Zhang, R. and Fujimori, S., 2020. The role of transport electrification in global climate
change mitigation scenarios. Environmental Research Letters, 15(3), p.034019.
